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THE 



NEW CEA-TYLUS; 



OR 



CONTRIBUTIONS TOWARDS A MORE ACCURATE 
KNOWLEDGE 

OF THE 

GREEK LANGUAGE. 



BY 



JOHN WILLIAM DONALDSON, D.D., 

HEAD MASTER OF KING EDWAED's SCHOOL, BURY ST EDMUNDS, 

AND FORMERLY FELLOW AND CLASSICAL LECTURER OF TRINITY COLLEGE, 

CAMBRIDGE. 



SECOND EDITION, 

REVISED AND CONSIDERABLY ENLARGED. 




LONDON: 
JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND. 



M.DCCC.L. 



-?h 



s> 



o 



TO 



TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, 



AS A RECORD OF 



THE AUTHOR'S GRATEFUL ATTACHMENT 



TO THAT 



ILLUSTRIOUS FOUNDATION. 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 



THE delay which has occurred in the republication of 
this Volume, has been occasioned by my anxious 
desire to avail myself as fully as possible of the oppor- 
tunity of revision which has been afforded to me. When 
I first conceived the idea of combining the older Classical 
Philology, in all its applications, with the new science of 
comparative grammar, I felt that the novelty and import- 
ance of the design would excuse many faults in the execu- 
tion ; and though I might have known that, in entering upon 
investigations of a more extensive character than had 
been previously attempted by any Scholar, I had engaged 
in an undertaking, in which no one writer could hope to 
accomplish every thing by a single effort, I had yet reason 
to feel all confidence in the soundness of the linguistic 
principles maintained in this book, and was convinced 
that I had succeeded in explaining many phenomena 
of inflected language in general, and had contributed 
some important additions to the various departments of 
Greek scholarship in particular. But while these con- 
siderations encouraged the first publication of this book, 
as the original work of a young author, they do not 
diminish the responsibilities connected with its revision 
at a more mature age : and as I no longer enjoy the 
happy leisure which enabled me to compose the follow- 
ing pages in the first instance, I have thought it my 
duty to postpone the second edition until I had com- 
pleted that general review of the whole subject which its 
importance seemed to demand. 

b 



vi PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 

A careful study of recent philology has enabled me to 
see that this work has been by no means superseded by 
any or all of the treatises which have appeared since its 
first publication ; and though I have found much to add*, 
there was little to cancel, and nothing of importance to 
retract. Besides, some respect seemed to be due to those 
who had bestowed the sanction of their approval on the 
former edition ; and, under all the circumstances, no 
attempt has been made to re- write the book, or to re- 
arrange the materials. My wish has rather been to carry 
out my original plan in regard to this volume, and to 
make it as much better in all particulars, as it might 
have been, if I had possessed ten years ago all the 
additional knowledge and experience, which I have been 
endeavouring to acquire in that interval of time. 

The general design of this work was sufficiently ex- 
plained in the preface to the former edition. As it was 
never intended to serve as a merely elementary work, and 
as it seemed desirable that students should become fami- 
liar with the principles of true philology at an early age, 
I have thought it right to include among the preliminary 
labours of this republication the composition of a grammar 
for the use of learners, which contains a methodical expo- 
sition of the general results of this treatise, and may be 
considered as an introduction to itf. In this larger work, 
my object was to throw off all the trammels of a formal 
and conventional exposition, and to write a book, which 
might be read from beginning to end with no more 
tediousness than would be caused by the same informa- 
tion delivered in a series of lectures ; and though I 



* As all digressions and special details are now printed in smaller 
type, the additional matter in this impression cannot be estimated as less 
than one fourth of the whole work. 

■f A compUte Greek Grammar for the use of J Lond. 1^ 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. vii 

might have provided better for a general reception of 
nay views, if this work had appeared, at first, in German 
or Latin, I trust that the oiKeios aKpoartjs has occasionally 
been found among the younger members of the English 
Universities, on whose behalf I have written, and in 
whose cause my warmest sympathies have always been 
enlisted. 

It has been already stated that the external relations 
of this work have not been much affected by the sub- 
sequent progress of philology. At the time of its first 
appearance, the principles of comparative grammar were 
scarcely less developed than they are now. Grimm's 
solossal undertaking has made no advance since then, 
ind the two parts of Bopp's Grammar, which have sub- 
sequently been issued, have added little or nothing to 
the linguistic apparatus derivable from his previous pub- 
lications. It is true that there has been of late years 
% more general recognition of the truth of these specu- 
lations ; and their claim to rank as a branch of inductive 
science has been more fully admitted; but the method 
of study has not improved, and classical scholarship has 
as yet participated very slightly in the advantages offered 
by this wider range of criticism. Besides, an eager desire 
for novelty, and the fascination of unexplored researches, 
have occasioned, as it appears to me, some retrogressive 
proceedings in philology. Egyptian and Celtic scholars 
bave led the way in this erratic course, and the divergence 
from the path of scientific grammar has been encouraged 
by some views respecting the Chinese and other Turanian 
idioms, which I cannot but consider as fallacious. The 
sincere admiration with which I regard the Chevalier 
Bunsen must not prevent me from including in this ex- 
pression of dissent the theory which that most estimable 
Scholar recommended to the British Association in 1847:— 

b2 



vui PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 

coj^eie o du 'laws fieXnov elvai ical $e7i> eVi (Tiorrjp'ia ye 
Trj<$ aXrjOeias ical tcl o'iKela avaipeiv, aXXws T€ kcli (piXoao- 
(pous oi/ras* dfi<p6iv yap ovtolv <pi\oii>, oaiov irpoTifiav ty\v 
ahriGeiav. If there is any truth in the linguistic prin- 
ciples, which are advocated in the following pages, it 
must be a philosophical paradox to maintain {Brit. Assoc. 
Report, 1847, p. 299) that we have a " monument of ante- 
diluvian speech" in the Chinese language, which, it is 
admitted (p. 284), has lost its etymology, and retains only 
a formal and meagre syntax. It seems also inconsistent 
with our psychological experience to hold that a root 
or crude-form, with a separable appendage, is more an- 
cient or original than the complete etymological struc- 
ture, which presents the object of conception in subor- 
dination to the thought-forms of space and time. Still 
more inadmissible, in my judgment, is the supposition 
that a language, which — like the Egyptian — has a definite 
article, and other purely syntactical substitutes for an 
enfeebled etymology, is in a more primitive condition than 
those languages, which — like the oldest members of the 
Indo-Germanic family — still exhibit a perfect system of 
inflexions. We know by positive experience that termi- 
nations of all kinds may be worn out or become insig- 
nificant, and that, when this takes place, various syntac- 
tical contrivances are the inevitable results or concomi- 
tants of the change : and it is the tendency of our widest 
researches to convince us that this always occurs, when 
conquest or migration has introduced a fusion of foreign 
elements. But we have absolutely no single example of 
the converse state of things ; there is no case, in which 
an etymological condition of language has sprung up from 
a crude series of monosyllabic juxtapositions : and it 
seems to me that we cannot make such an assumption 
without ignoring the obviously scientific procedure. Above 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. ix 

all, I think that any success in an attempt to claim for 
the Turanian languages, and especially for the Chinese, 
a principal or even a representative position among the 
original developements of speech, must more or less 
weaken our belief in the spread of the human race from 
one common birth-place. The division of languages into 
two great groups — the Central and the Sporadic — and 
the recognition of the Chinese as a peculiarly affected 
member of the latter class, appear to me to indicate the 
only course, which can lead to a satisfactory solution of 
all the problems suggested by modern Ethnology. 

Continued experience and reflexion have convinced 
me of the increasing importance of the task, which was 
for the first time attempted in this work — namely, the 
prosecution of comparative philology on the safe and 
ascertained basis of the old classical scholarship. The 
ttov o-Ttjvai is as much needed in researches of this nature 
as in any branch of natural science. If we are to effect 
any lasting conquests in new domains of philological specu- 
lation, we must have some established starting-point, some 
basis and pivot for our operations. Bopp could have done 
but little with his Sanscrit, if he had not been preceded 
by Raynouard and Grimm, whose grammatical studies 
rested on a firm ground-work of literary knowledge in 
regard to the old languages of their respective countries. 
But even these great philologers did not stand on the 
same footing as the well-trained classical Scholar. The 
very spirit of criticism lives in the older department 
of learning ; the study of the Greek and Latin authors 
is connected with all those literary pursuits which have 
furnished a field for the acutest intellects of Europe 
during the last three hundred years ; and whatever laxity 
may be observed elsewhere, classical scholarship is still 
an adjunct of the exactest science in the University of 



x PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 

Cambridge, where a well-contrived system of Examina- 
tions applies the severest tests to the acquirements of 
the young, and where the amplest rewards are impartially 
adjudged to every marked display of ability and learning. 
Belonging to that School, at a time when it flourished if 
possible even more than it does now, I have felt that 
wherever I have been unable to grasp an imagined dis- 
covery in some wider field of language, I have always 
been able to fall back upon unshaken reserves of classical 
philology ; and seeing the many failures of those Sanscrit 
and Semitic Scholars, who have borrowed no weapons 
from this armoury, I cannot but rejoice in the good 
fortune which enabled me to abstain from all philological 
speculation, until I had passed from the school of Bentley 
and Porson into that of Buttmann, K. O. Miiller, and 
Niebuhr. 

My readers will find that I have abated none of the 
claims, which I originally set up on behalf of the high 
functions of philology; and I have reason to hope that 
these pretensions will receive more general recognition 
now, than was bestowed upon them ten years since, when 
a writer in an eminent periodical, chiefly, it seems, on 
this account, pronounced that this work was " rather 
eccentric*." Such epithets neither surprise nor annoy an 
author of any experience. We all know how apt we are to 
bestow sarcastic or doubtful compliments upon those who 
refuse to read through the coloured glasses, which are 
necessary to our impaired, or, it may be, originally feeble 
vision. If, however, it is on account of theology that the 
paramount importance of grammar and criticism is to be 
doubted or denied, I must be content to find myself in 
perfect agreement with those older writers, whose opinions 



* Quarterly Review, Vol. LXIII. p. 371, 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. xi 

I consider most valuable on such a subject. Luther 
thought that true theology was merely an application of 
grammar*; Melanchthon maintained that Scripture could 
not be understood theologically, unless it had been pre- 
viously understood grammatically f ; and Scaliger said with 
great truth, that ignorance of grammar was the cause of 
all religious differences J. "Without adopting the position 
of a modern writer, who thinks that philology includes all 
science except physiology, and that it is the knowledge of 
every thing that is already discovered §, I still maintain 
that Criticism is the regulative science of the present 
age, when our great business is to reconcile an increasing 
freedom of investigation with a proper respect for trans- 
mitted opinions ; for I believe that the true Scholar alone 
occupies the vantage ground, which commands a prospect 
of both the present and the past; and that he alone is 
entitled to rebuke with equal severity the superstitious 
realism of the obstinate School-man, and the iconoclastic 
violence of the impatient Utilitarian. 

At the conclusion of my renewed labours in this 
extensive field, I cannot be certain of any thing, except 
the conscientious diligence with which I have performed 



* "Lutherus — theologiam yerara et summam nihil aliud esse quam 
grammaticam h. e. Grsecarum Hebraicarumque literarum scientiam — 
putabat." Ernesti Opera Philol. p. 199. 

*f* " Melanchthonis hoc dictum est : Scripturam non posse intelligi 
theologice, nisi antea sit intellectum grammatice." Ernesti Op. Phil. 
p. 223. 

% " Non aliunde dissidia in religione pendent, quam ab ignoratione 
grammaticse." Scaligerana Prima, p. 86. 

§ " Quum igitur duo sint literarum genera, unum naturae, alterum 
Tiumani animi historia, philologi quidem id sibi sumunt, ut qusecunque 
6 Xo'yoy sive ratio humana procreaverit perspiciant . . . Itaque una viri doc- 
tissimi atque clarissimi Bockhii definitio mihi videtur recta : philologiam 
esse cogniti cognitionem." Steinthal, de pronomine relative*, Berol. 1847. 
p. 4. 



xii PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 

the duty of revision. But I will allow myself to hope 
that by the increased precision of its results and the 
greater accuracy of its details, this work may now con- 
tribute not only to extend Greek scholarship, but also to 
establish a consistent theory of linguistic philosophy, and 
to confirm that great moral and religious fact — the unity 
of the human race. 

J. y. d. 

King Edward's School, Bury St. Edmunds, 
26th February, 1850. 



PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 



IN writing this book it has been my object to combine an 
investigation of general principles with an exposition of 
particular results ; I have endeavoured, on the one hand, to 
establish a consistent and intelligible theory of inflected lan- 
guage, considered in its most perfect state, that is, as it appears 
in the oldest languages of the Indo-Germanic family ; and, on 
the other hand, I have attempted to place the Greek scholar- 
ship of this country on a somewhat higher footing, by rendering 
the resources of a more comprehensive philology available for 
the improvement of the grammar and lexicography of the Greek 
language, and for the criticism and interpretation of the authors 
who have written in it. If it is thought strange that I have 
not confined myself to one or other of these two sufficiently 
difficult tasks, I may answer, that in the present state of phi- 
lology it would be impossible to make any real contribution 
to Greek scholarship without some sound theory of the philo- 
sophy of language, and a certain acquaintance with the leading 
members of the family to which the Greek language belongs ; 
and, conversely, it would not be easy to write an instructive 
treatise on the internal mechanism and organization of inflected 
language, without taking some inflected language, by way, at 
least, of exemplification. Now of all the languages with mono- 
syllabic roots the Greek is the most fitted for this purpose. 
It is, in the first place, a dead language, and therefore fixed 
and unchangeable ; it is the most copious and expressive of all 
languages ; it stands mid-way between the oldest form of the 
Indo-Germanic idioms and the corrupted modern dialects of 
that family, in other words, it has attained to a wonderfully 
clear and copious syntax without sacrificing altogether, or in- 
deed to any considerable extent, its inflexions and power of 
composition ; it has been more studied and is better known 
than any other dead language, that is, the facts and phenomena 
are more completely collected and more systematically arranged 
than is the case with any other, so that allusions to it are 



xiv PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 

more generally intelligible, and deductions, or new combina- 
tions of laws, derived from it, are safer and more convincing ; 
above all, the value of the literature and the actual demand 
for a knowledge of the language, should induce us to turn 
upon the Greek, rather than upon the Gothic, the Latin, or the 
Sanscrit, any new light which the doctrine of words may have 
gained from investigations in the philosophy of language or in 
comparative grammar. 

Every didactic work is or ought to be adapted to the wants 
of some particular class of readers, and should presume, in 
them, a certain amount of preparatory knowledge and no more. 
I have written, then, first, for Englishmen, who are not sup- 
posed to be intimately or extensively acquainted with the phi- 
lological literature of the continent : and secondly, I have written 
for persons who possess at least some slight knowledge of the 
Greek language, and would rather increase it by investigating 
the principles of the language and endeavouring to discover 
the causes of its grammatical peculiarities, than by overloading 
the memory with a mass of crude, incoherent facts, which can 
neither be digested nor retained. I have also wished to give 
those, who come to the study of Greek with no higher aim 
than to make it the means of obtaining University distinctions, 
an opportunity of learning from it the dignity of human speech, 
of perceiving how little of the casual and capricious there is in 
language, and of convincing themselves that in this, as in other 
things, there are laws to combine, regulate, and vivify the 
seemingly disjointed, scattered, and lifeless phenomena. It is 
possible that the novelty of some of my speculations may induce 
maturer scholars to take up this book. If so, they will under- 
stand from this statement, why I have here and there entered 
upon long explanations of peculiarities, which can occasion no 
difficulty to the philologer or have been already discussed by 
German or French writers, and, on the other hand, why I have 
despatched with a hint or a reference some really difficult 
questions, in which the young student could take no interest, 
while the scholar would comprehend my meaning from a single 
word. 

Many people entertain strong prejudices against every thing 
in the shape of etymology, prejudices which would be not only 



PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. xv 

just but inevitable, if etymology or the doctrine of words were 
such a thing as they suppose it to be. They consider it as 
amounting to nothing more than the derivation of words from 
one another; and as this process is generally confined to a 
perception of some prima facie resemblance of two words, it 
seldom rises beyond the dignity of an ingenious pun, and, 
though amusing enough at times, is certainly neither an in- 
structive nor an elevated employment for a rational being. 
The only real etymology is that which attempts a resolution 
of the words of a language into their ultimate elements by a 
comparison of the greatest possible number of languages of 
the same family. Derivation is, strictly speaking, inapplicable, 
farther than as pointing out the manner in which certain con- 
stant syllables, belonging to the pronominal or formative ele- 
ment of inflected languages, may be prefixed or subjoined to 
a given form for the expression of some secondary or depen- 
dent relation. In order to arrive at the primary origin of a 
word or a form, we must get beyond the narrow limits of a single 
idiom. Indeed, in many cases the source can only be traced 
by a conjectural reproduction based on the most extended com- 
parison of all the cognate languages, for when we take some 
given variety of human speech, we find in it systems and series 
of words running almost parallel to one another, but presenting 
such resemblances in form and signification as convince us that, 
though apparently asymptotes, they must have converged in 
the form which we know would potentially contain them all. 
This reproduction of the common mother of our family of lan- 
guages, by a comparison of the features of all her children*, is 
the great general object to which the efforts of the philologer 
should be directed, and this, and not a mere derivation of 
words in the same language from one another, constitutes the 
etymology that is alone worthy of the name. 

As far as this work is a contribution to the better know- 
ledge of Greek in particular, I wish it to be understood, that 
I have by no means confined myself to etymological researches, 
but have endeavoured to avail myself of every resource of 



* I am told that some similar idea is to be found in Campbell's Ger- 
trude of Wyoming, a poem which, I am ashamed to say, I have never read. 



xvi PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 

scholarship, as well old-fashioned as new. The words, which I 
have attempted to explain, are those which have either occa- 
sioned peculiar difficulty to the young student, or the meaning 
of which has been considered doubtful by scholars. Where I 
have thought proper to make a digression for the purpose of 
interpreting or emending a particular passage, I have always had 
in view that class of students with whom my experience in 
teaching has brought me most immediately in contact, and with 
whose wants and difficulties I am best acquainted. * It will be 
seen, too, that in the selection of passages for this purpose, I 
have generally confined myself to those authors who are most 
read in the great schools and Universities of this country. In 
this part of the work, I have been guided mainly by considera- 
tions of practical utility, namely, by a wish to assist those whose 
business it is to construe Greek authors, and to write Greek 
exercises. It is for this reason that I have preserved, as far 
as possible, the old grammatical nomenclature : the young 
student regards with a sort of mysterious reverence the uncouth 
terms of his grammar ; they are little household gods to him : 
and, though, like the Lar familiaris of old, they are unseemly to 
look upon and unavailing to help, there appears to be no good 
reason why one should take them down from the niches, which 
they have so long and so harmlessly occupied. 

It is painful and humiliating to reflect, how much, after all 
one's thought and labour, the execution of a task like this must 
fall short, not merely of the exactions of a rigorous criticism, 
but even of one's own imperfect conceptions. It may be, indeed, 
that what I have attempted in this book is not yet to be 
effected by one man and at one effort, and perhaps, in reference 
to its wider scope, all that I can hope to do, is to awaken the 
dormant energies of some young student, who may be qualified 
at a future period to solve completely and finally the great 
problem of inflected language ; — a\\a «ai emxfipovvri rot rols koXoIs 
koXov Ka\ nacrxew o ti av tg> ^vfi^rj naOelv. 

J. W. D. 

Trinity College, Cambridge, 
±th February, 1S39. 



CONTENTS 



BOOK I. 
GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 

CHAPTER I. 

SECTIONS PAGES 

The utility of philological studies . . 1 — 16 ... 1 — 20 

CHAPTER II. 

The history and present state of philology . 17 — 40 ... 21 — 53 

CHAPTER HI. 

The philosophy of language . . . 41 — 62 ... 54 — 97 

CHAPTER IV. 

The ethnographic affinities of the ancient Greeks 63 — 97 ••• 98 — 143 

CHAPTER V. 

The theory of the Greek alphabet . . 98 — 122 ... 144 — 190 

APPENDIX TO CHAPTER V. § 110. 

Extracts from Bentley's MS. on the digamma 191 — 197 

CHAPTER VI. 

The parts of speech .... 123 — 128 ••• 198 — 210 

BOOK II. 
PRONOMINAL WORDS, 

CHAPTER I. 

The personal and other pronouns . . 129 — 152 ... 213 — 250 

CHAPTER II. 

The numerals . . . . . . 153 — 167 ... 251 — 281 

CHAPTER III. 

The prepositions 168 — 187 ••• 282 — 325 

CHAPTER IV. 

The negative and other particles . . 188 — 205 ••• 326 — 351 



xvm CONTENTS. 

BOOK III. 

THE NOUN. 

CHAPTER I. 

SECTION'S PAGES 

The roots of nouns and verbs . . . 206 — 226 ... 355 — 387 

CHAPTER II. 
The case-endings of the noun . . . 227 — 251 >*.. 388 — 418 

CHAPTER III. 
The pronominal terminations of the unin- 
fected forms 252 — 270 .-• 419 — 444 

CHAPTER IV. 

Nouns used as prepositions . . . 271 — 292 ••• 445 — 467 

CHAPTER V. 
The adjective 293 — 306 ••• 468 — 

CHAPTER VI. 
Compound words ..... 307 — 344 ••• 491 — 

BOOK IV. 
THE VERB. 

CHAPTER I. 
The person-endings .... 345 — 366 ... 533 — 555 

CHAPTER n. 
The tenses ...... 367 — 387 ••• 556 — 

CHAPTER III. 

The moods and participles . . . 388 — 424 ••• 578— 

CHAPTER IV. 
The conjugations 425 — 443 ••• 613 — 

CHAPTER V. 

The use of auxiliary verbs in Greek . . 444 — 4S0 ••• 630 — 






BOOK I. 



GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 



THE 

NEW CRATYLUS 



BOOK I. 



GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE UTILITY OF PHILOLOGICAL 
STUDIES. 

1 Motives for a preliminary inquiry respecting the practical usefulness of philological 
learning. 2 Education, information, and knowledge, often confused. I. Phi- 
lology necessary to education. 3 Definition of Philology. 4 Liberal and pro- 
fessional education. 5 Philology contributes to liberal education by teaching 
deductive habits. 6 Study of dead languages recommended by their fixity. 
7 Advantage of learning any foreign language. 8 Value of ancient literature. 
9 Comparative grammar leads to important acquisitions. II. Philology an im- 
portant branch of general knowledge. 1 Importance and dignity of ethno- 
graphical science. 11 Changes of population and government clearly indicated 
by language. 12 Study of language belongs to a great branch of inductive 
philosophy. III. Philology valuable as the method of interpretation. 13 His- 
torical criticism derived from Philology. 14 The philologer mediates between 
reason and tradition, and pleads for a maximum of belief. 15 Importance of 
Philology for the divine , both as the method of interpretation, and a branch of 
ethnographical science. 16 Classical education, to whatever extent it is carried, 
ought to be rational and philological. 

1 TT may be stated as a fact worthy of observation in the 
X literary history of modern Europe, that generally, when 
one of our countrymen has made the first advance in any branch 
of knowledge, we have acquiesced in what he has done, and have 
left the further improvement of the subject to our neighbours 
on the continent. The man of genius always finds an utterance, 
for he is urged on by an irresistible impulse — a conviction that 

B 



2 THE UTILITY [Book I. 

it is his duty and his vocation to speak : but we too often want 
those who should follow in his steps, clear up what he has left 
obscure, and complete his unfinished labours. Nor is it difficult 
to show why this should be the case. The English mind, vigorous 
and healthy as it generally is, appears to be constitutionally 
averse from speculation ; we have all of us a bias towards the 
practical and immediately profitable, generated by our mercantile 
pursuits, which make all of us, to a certain extent, utilitarians, 
and stifle the developement of a literary taste among us ; or, if 
the voice of interest fails to control the vanity of authorship, 
there is still another modification of self-love, a cold conventional 
reserve, induced by the fear of committing oneself, which imposes 
silence upon those who have truths to tell. 

To this general fact, however, there is one very remarkable 
exception. The regulations of our grammar-schools, and, per- 
haps, somewhat of the old custom and antiquated prejudice, of 
which we hear so much, have made classical studies not only the 
basis but nearly the whole of a liberal education in this country : 
and circumstances, which we shall point out in the following 
chapter, have created for us a thriving philological literature. 
Although the rewards and encouragements held out by our 
great Universities have been considered by many as a sufficient 
justification of such studies, it is the spirit of the age to inquire, 
what advantage a young man derives from so protracted a study 
of Latin and Greek, in addition to and independent of the L"ni- 
versity distinctions and emoluments which he may have the good 
fortune to obtain. There is much of reason in this demand, and 
it is doubtless incumbent upon those who have devoted them- 
selves to such pursuits to point out to others their importance 
and utility. Hitherto this has not been done in a satisfactory 
manner ; and therefore, although our object is rather to add 
something to philological knowledge than to justify philological 
pursuits, we deem it a necessary preliminary that we should 
endeavour by some plain arguments to recommend to our readers 
the sort of learning which we wish to increase and the studies 
which we design to facilitate — that we should make known at 
the very outset the nature and value of the subject on which 
we write. And in doing this we disclaim any wish to perplex 
ourselves with the polemics of the question, as it has been treated 
by other writers. It is not our purpose to discuss the merits 



Chap. 1.] OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDIES. 3 

or demerits of our collegiate institutions, still less to impugn or 
exculpate, as the case may be, the conduct of those who are 
intrusted with the management of them : least of all would we 
assert that there is no room for improvement in the present 
method of our classical studies ; on the contrary, we hope and 
indeed expect that they will ere long be pursued in a healthier 
and a manlier spirit, that much that is superfluous will be re- 
trenched, much that is useful added, so that even the educational 
theorist may at length admit that there is something more in 
nouns and verbs than was dreamt of in his philosophy. Our 
only aim in this place is to satisfy the practical sense of our 
countrymen with regard to the real uses of philology, properly 
pursued : how it is and has been prosecuted will appear in the 
next chapter. 

2 The cause of all the unprofitable discussions which have 
arisen respecting the utility of particular branches of study is to 
be sought in the vague and erroneous manner in which we use 
the terms education, information, and knowledge. We are in 
the habit of speaking of mere information as though it were the 
same thing as exact knowledge, and we still more frequently 
allow special or professional knowledge to assume the honours 
which are due to general education. It is surely desirable that 
these terms should be properly defined, and used only according 
to their true signification ; for there is no realism more oppressive 
than the dominion of terms which stand as the representatives 
of indefinite ideas. We believe that the following distinctions 
will be found to agree with the opinions of most reflecting men 
in this country. The term Education, which signifies " a lead- 
ing out," or " bringing up," is particularly applied to the training 
of the young : but it is equally applicable to any process which 
is calculated to discipline an undisciplined mind, whether the 
bodily growth be matured or not. The idea conveyed by the 
word might be explained in metaphorical language as a bringing 
forth from darkness into light, — it is a leading up from some 
narrow and confined valley to the summit of a lofty mountain, 
whence the elevated soul obtains a Pisgah view of truths and 
duties — it is a careful survey of the domains of intellectual and 
moral principles, which stretch before us when the sun-light of 
reason has cleared away the mists of vulgar prejudice. We fall 

B2 



4 THE UTILITY [Book I. 

into a mistake if we suppose that education is limited to mental 
culture ; it may be social and moral, as well as intellectual ; and 
we even give the name of spiritual education to that higher 
moral training which emanates from the schooling of Christianity. 
But to confine ourselves for our present purpose to its intellectual 
province, we may say that Education is properly a cultivation 
and developement of those reasoning faculties which all men 
have in common, though not all in the same degree. The term 
Information, on the contrary, although, according to the origin 
of the word, it ought to be synonymous with intellectual educa- 
tion, is generally understood to signify only an accumulation of 
particular facts. When we speak of a well-informed man, we 
generally mean some one who is able to return plausible answers 
to the catechism of ordinary conversation ; and the common 
phrase " a smattering of information on all subjects" shows that 
the term is not supposed to imply a profound or extensive ac- 
quaintance with any one branch of knowledge. In fact, so long 
as information is only information, it merely denotes an accumu- 
lation of stray particulars by means of the memory. On the 
other hand, Knowledge is information appropriated and thoroughly 
matured. It implies experience and practice, and it differs from 
information as the food which is taken into the system, and to 
which we owe our strength and growth, differs from the gar- 
ments which hang loosely about us, and which may be laid aside 
or worn out. We must not however forget that information 
may be concentrated and ripened into knowledge ; for knowledge 
begins with and presumes information ; though information does 
not presume or include knowledge. Our common phrases show 
that this is the meaning of the term. We speak of knowledge 
of the world, knowledge of our profession or business, knowledge 
of ourselves, knowledge of our duties — all of which imply a 
completeness and maturity of habit and experience. When 
knowledge extends to a methodical comprehension of general 
laws and principles, it is called science. It is the natural and 
proper tendency of information to ripen into knowledge, just as 
knowledge itself is not complete until it is systematized into 
science*; but as the difference between information and know- 



* We have a striking exemplification of this in the series of works 
published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Beginning 



Chap. 1.] OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDIES. 5 

ledge is one of kind rather than of degree, it is clear that no mere 
accumulation of useful information, not even though it equalled 
all the stores laid up in Mr Maunder's treasure-houses, would 
amount to exact knowledge or scientific acquirement. We do 
not think it worth while, therefore, to show that philology is a 
branch of useful information. If it does not contribute to valu- 
able and important knowledge, or if it is not ancillary to the 
best kind of education, we shall waste our time in pleading for 
the utility of a study which necessarily demands minute attention 
and laborious research. 

3 We maintain, then, first, that a certain amount of phi- 
lology is necessary as the basis of a liberal education; and 
secondly, that, cultivated to its fullest extent, philological scho- 
larship furnishes valuable and essential contributions to general 
science, and to some of the most important applications of human 
knowledge. 

Under the name philology we include the two great branches 
of a scientific inquiry into the principles of language; — the 
theory of the origin and formation of words, which is generally 
called the philosophy of language ; and — the method of lan- 
guage, or, as it is more usually termed, logic or dialectic, which 
treats of the formation of sentences*. Both these subjects are 



with an attempt to disseminate popular information on a variety of sub- 
jects, these treatises very soon aimed at communicating exact and scientific 
knowledge, and some of them are even replete with learning derived from 
the older schools of classical philology. 

* This appears to be the real extent of the term philology. W. von 
Humboldt, however, would confine it to that department which is con- 
versant about the interpretation of the written monuments of a language, 
as distinguished from the analysis of its structure and comparison with 
other idioms, which he calls Linguistik (uber die Verschied. d. rnenschl. 
Sprachbaues, p. 202) ; and an able writer in this country would restrict 
the term philology to a part of the first of the two branches into which 
we have divided it. " By philology," says he, " I understand that study 
which deals with words in reference to their meaning. It is in this respect 
the opposite of logic, which strictly speaking is not concerned with the 
meaning of words at all. The one uses human discourse as a mean of 
attaining to a knowledge of human thought and feeling ; the other ex- 
plains the conditions under which human discourse is possible." (Sub- 
scription no Bondage, p. 46.) 



6 THE UTILITY [Book I. 

comprised in general grammar, which is therefore identical with 
philology, and have also their representatives in the etymology 
and syntax of every particular grammar. Although they are 
but component parts of one science, it is of the utmost conse- 
quence that they should not be confused or interchanged : for it 
is not too much to say that the most signal mistakes of philolo- 
gers may be traced to the practice, hitherto so common, of sup- 
posing that the formation of words may be discussed on a 
logical basis. In endeavouring, then, to estimate the importance 
of philology we must consider as separate questions, what is the 
use of etymology or the doctrine of words, and of logic or the 
doctrine of sentences : including under the latter all that belongs 
to the method of language, and under the former whatever 
pertains to its origin and generation. And in the first place it 
is to be shown, that the rudiments of philology in both its 
branches are or ought to be the basis of the intellectual training 
of man, or of that education which is alone worthy of the name. 
As logic or the method of language, though properly secondary 
to etymology, is of more ancient discovery, we shall consider it 
first. 

4 From what has been already said it will be seen that we 
distinguish between education properly so called, and the train- 
ing which is necessary for the successful prosecution of any pro- 
fession or business. The former, as has been already said, is 
designed for the cultivation of the intellect and the develope- 
ment of the reasoning faculties. The latter is intended to adapt 
a man for some particular calling, which the laws of society, on 
the principle of the division of labour, have assigned to him as 
an individual member of the body politic. Now the training of 
the individual for this particular purpose is not an education of 
man as such ; he might do his particular work as well or better 
if you deprived him of all his speculative faculties and converted 
him into an automaton ; in short, the better a man is educated 
professionally the less is he a man, for, to use the words of an 
able American writer*, " the planter who is Man sent out into 
the field to gather food, is seldom cheered by any idea of the 



* See An Oration before the Phi-Beta-Kappa Society, by Ralph 
Waldo Emerson, p. 5. 



Chap. 1] OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDIES. 7 

true dignity of his ministry. He sees his bushel and his cart, 
and nothing beyond, and sinks into the farmer, instead of Man 
on the farm. The tradesman scarcely ever gives an ideal worth 
" to his work, but is ridden by the routine of his craft, and the 
soul is subject to dollars. The priest becomes a form ; the 
attorney, a statute-book ; the mechanic, a machine ; the sailor, 
a rope of a ship." It was for this reason that the clear-headed 
Greeks denied the name of education (iraL^eia) to that which is 
learned, not for its own sake, but for the sake of some extrinsic 
gain or for the sake of doing some work ; and distinguished 
formally between those studies which they called liberal or 
worthy of a free man and those which were merely mechanical 
and professional*. In the same way Cicero speaks of education 
properly so called, which he names humanity (humanitas)^, be- 
cause its object is to give a full developement to those reasoning 
faculties which are the proper and distinctive attributes of man 
as such J. Now we do not pretend that philology is of any me- 
chanical or professional use, unless the business of the teacher is 
to be regarded as a professional employment: we do not say 
that philology will help a man to plough or to reap ; but we do 
assert that it is of the highest use as a part of humanity, or of 
education properly so called. 

5 The test of a good education is the degree of mental 
culture which it imparts; for education, so far as its object is 
scientific, is the discipline of the mind. The reader must not 
overlook what is meant by the word "mind" when used in 
reference to education. That some dumb animals are possessed 
of a sort of understanding is admitted ; but it has never been 
asserted, by those who pretend to accuracy and precision of lan- 
guage, that they enjoy the use of reason. Man, however, has 
the faculty called reason in addition to his understanding ; he 



* See Plato Legg. I. p. 643 B : Tavrrjv rrjv rpocprjv (rrjv rrpos dperrjv e< 
7rai8cov naidelav) dcpopiaapevos 6 \6yos ovros, cos epoi (paiverai, vvv (3ov\oit av 
povqv iraidelav npoo-ayopeveiv, ttjv de els xp i ll JLa ' ra reivovaav tj two. 7rpos 
icrx vv Kai irpos aXXrjv riva aocpiav avev vov kcu diKrjs fiavavcrov elvai kcll dveXev- 
Sepov kcu ovk d^iav to napanav iraibciav KaktlcrOai. Similarly Aris- 
totle, Polit. VIII. c. 2. 

f Pro Archia Poeta, 1. De Oratore, I. 9. 
J Aul. Gellius, XIII. 16. 



8 THE UTILITY [Book I. 

has a power of classifying or arranging, abstracting and gene- 
ralizing, and so arriving at principles*; in other words, his mind 
is capable of method : and thus it has been well said that we at 
once distinguish the man of education, or, among men of educa- 
tion, the man of superior mind, by the unpremeditated and 
evidently habitual arrangement of his words, grounded on the 
habit of foreseeing, in every sentence, the whole that he intends 
to communicate in the particular case, so that there is metliod in 
the fragments of his conversation even when most irregular and 
desultory f. Accordingly, what we mean by saying that the 
object of education is the cultivation of our minds, or that the 
goodness of an education varies with the degree of mental cul- 
ture, amounts simply to this, that we better perform our func- 
tions as rational creatures in proportion as we carry farther 
the distinction between ourselves and the brute creation, that 
is, in proportion as we are the better fitted for the discourse of 
reason. 

There are two ways in which we carry on the process of 
reasoning, just as there are two relations out of which all method 
or science is made up. The relations are, that of Law, by which 
we lay down a rule of unconditional truth which we call an 
Idea, and that of Observation, by which we get to a distinct 
knowledge of facts. By the former we know that a thing must 
be ; by the latter we see that it is. Now when we reason from 
the facts to the law, we call it analysis or induction ; when we 
reason from law to law, when from a known truth we seek to 
establish an unknown truth, we call the process deduction or 
synthesis. As then all science is made up of Law and Observa- 
tion, of the Idea and the Facts, so all scientific reasoning is 
either induction or deduction. It is not possible, however, to 
teach inductive reasoning, or even to cultivate a habit of it 



* As the general reader may not perhaps be familiar with the Kantian 
distinction of reason and understanding, it may be mentioned, that accord- 
ing to the critical philosophy understanding is the faculty of rules, derived 
from experience, and proverbially subject to exceptions, but reason the 
faculty of principles or laws, to which there is no exception : the former 
is the faculty of the unity of phenomena by means of rules, the latter the 
faculty of the unity of the understanding- rules under principles (Kritik 
der reinen Vemunft, pp. 258, 260. 7th edition). 

t Coleridge's Friend, Vol. III. pp. 133, foil. 



Chap. 1.] OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDIES. 9 

directly ; we all reason inductively every moment of our lives, 
but to reason inductively for the purposes of science belongs 
only to those whose minds are so constituted that they can see 
the resemblances in things which other men think unlike, in 
short, to those who have powers of original combination and 
whom we term men of genius. If, therefore, we can impart by 
teaching deductive habits, education will have done its utmost 
towards the discipline of the reasoning faculties. When we 
speak of laws and ideas we must not be misunderstood as wish- 
ing to imply any thing more than general terms arrived at by 
real classification. About these general terms and these alone 
is deductive reason conversant, so that the method of mind, 
which is the object of education, is nothing but the method of 
languag i ; and this is the reason why, as we have said, the 
educated man is known by the arrangement of his words. 
Hence, if there is any way of imparting to the mind deductive 
habits, it must be by teaching the method of language ; and this 
discipline has in fact been adopted in all the more enlightened 
periods of the existence of man. It will be remembered, that 
in this method of language it is not the words but the arrange- 
ment of them which is the object of study ; and thus the method 
of language is independent of the conventional significations of 
particular words ; it is of no country and of no age, but is as 
universal as the general mind of man. For these reasons we 
assert that the method of language, one of the branches of 
philology, must always be, as it has been, the basis of education 
or humanity as such, that is, of the discipline of the human 
mind. We may even go farther, and assert, that, when Geome- 
try is added to Grammar, we have exhausted the known mate- 
rials of deductive reasoning, and have called in the aid of all the 
machinery which is at our disposal. 

With regard to the importance of etymology as a part of a 
liberal education very little need be said. It is just as necessary 
that the educated man should be able to select and discriminate 
the words which he employs as that he should be able to 
arrange them methodically. We acquire our mother-tongue 
insensibly and by instinct, and to the untrained mind the words 
of it are identified with the thoughts to which they correspond 
in the mind of the individual, whereas he ought at least to be 
taught so much of their analysis as to know that they are but 



10 THE UTILITY [Book I. 

outward signs, the symbols of a prima facie classification, and 
to employ them accordingly. In this simplest form etymology 
is nothing but an intelligent spelling lesson, which the most 
violent utilitarian would hardly venture to discard. When, 
however, we remember that the most important result of intel- 
lectual education is the overthrow of one-sided prejudices, and 
when we reflect how apt we are to fall into practical Realism, 
and " to apply the analytical power of language to the interpre- 
tation of nature*," we cannot value too highly that habit of 
dealing with words, which leads us to distinguish accurately 
between the mere sign and the thing signified. 

6 But, though perhaps every one will at once allow that 
such a knowledge of language as we have described is an essen- 
tial element of intellectual training, it may still be asked, What 
has this to do with the study of two dead languages? In the 
first place, then, to study one branch at least of philology, namely, 
Etymology, we must have some particular language in which to 
study it ; and although the method of language is independent 
of any particular language, yet, like every other method or 
science, it must have its facts as well as its laws. It will be 
conceded that if we would go beyond the rudiments of spelling 
and speaking, if we would catch a glimpse of what speech is in 
itself and as detached from ourselves, it would be desirable to 
select some foreign language, and if possible one no longer spoken 
or liable to change : languages still in use are so fluctuating and 
uncertain that an attempt to get fixed ideas of the general 
analogy of language from them is like trying to copy the fan- 
tastic pictures of an ever-revolving kaleidoscope. The classical 
languages lie before us in gigantic and well-preserved remains, 
and we can scrutinize, dissect, and compare them with as much 
certainty as we should feel in experimenting upon the objects of 
any branch of natural philosophy. They are, therefore, well 
adapted to supply us with the facts for our laws of speech or the 
general analogy of language ; and we might make them the basis 
of our grammatical study, even though they had nothing to 
recommend them but their permanence of form and perfection 
of grammatical structure. 



Hampden, Bampton Lectures, p. 88. 



Chap. I.] OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDIES. 11 

7 This, however, is not all : it is indeed necessary to study 
some language, and that too a dead language, in order to give 
the mind a full grammatical training ; but the mere fact of learn- 
ing another language, whether dead or living, is in the highest 
degree beneficial. We learn our own language from the lips of 
a mother or a nurse, it grows with our growth and strengthens 
with our strength, so as to become a sort of second self; and 
the words of the uneducated are household gods to him. This 
idolatry is shaken, the individual is brought away from his own 
associations to the higher truths which form the food of the 
general mind of man, whenever he has learned to express his 
thoughts in some other set of words. It was a great mistake of 
Ennius to say that he had three hearts because he understood 
three languages (Aulus Gellius, nodes Jtticce, xvii. 17) ; the 
heart of a people is its mother-tongue only (Jean Paul, xlvii. p. 
179). The Emperor Charles the Fifth was nearer the truth when 
he said — autant de langues que Ihomme sgait parler, autant de 
fois est il homme ; — for every language that a man learns he 
multiplies his individual nature and brings himself one step 
nearer to the general collective mind of Man. The effect of 
learning a language, then, consists in the contrast of the asso- 
ciations which it calls up to those trains of thought which our 
mother-tongue awakens. In this again the dead languages pos- 
sess a great advantage over every living one. It has been well 
remarked " that our modern education consists in a great measure 
in the contrast between ourselves and classical antiquity*;" it is 
a contrast produced by a sleep of more than a thousand years 
between the last of the great men of old and the first of the great 
moderns when the reawakened world looked with instructive 
astonishment upon its former self. 

8 In addition to the two reasons which we have stated as 
grounds for preferring the two classical languages as materials 
of grammatical study, there is a third reason which has generally 
been thought to be alone sufficient, — the value of the literature 
to which they are a key. On this particular subject we do not 



W. von Humboldt, iiber die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen 
Sprachbaues, p. 27. 



12 THE UTILITY [Book I. 

intend to dwell ; books without number have been written upon 
it, and there does not seem to exist a doubt as to the paramount 
excellence of the Greek and Latin writers. To those who still 
argue the old question about the comparative merits of modern 
and ancient literature, it is sufficient to answer, that if the old 
classical literature were swept away the moderns whom they so 
admire would in many cases become unintelligible and in all lose 
most of their characteristic charms*. 

9 Lastly, the introduction of that branch of philology which 
we call comparative grammar offers a great recommendation to 
the careful study of these two languages. Notwithstanding the 
beneficial contrast which they present, they are aged sisters of 
our own mother-tongue, and, studied according to the true phi- 
lological method in combination with the Asiatic members of the 
family, they open the way to an easy and speedy acquirement of 
every one of the Indo- Germanic languages, and are thus a key to 
the greatest treasure which the mind of man has collected, — the 
recorded wisdom of the Caucasian race. 

10 From what we have said it appears that for the mental 
training of the individual some philology is necessary ; that 
grammar is best studied through the classical languages ; that 
the study of these languages is also recommended by their con- 
trast to our own, by the value of the literature to which they are 
the key, and by their place in the family of languages to which 
our own tongue belongs. These are reasons why the individual 
who is to be liberally educated, should study Greek and Latin. 
But the advantages of philological studies are not confined to the 
individual. They may be cultivated to a higher degree than is 
necessary for the mere purposes of education, and be made to 
contribute to some of the most valuable and interesting applica- 
tions of human knowledge. The claims of ethnological philology 
to rank as a principal branch of general science have been suf- 
ficiently vindicated of late years. The British Association for 
the Advancement of Science, at its meeting in 1847, was thus 



* See Sedgwick, Discourse on the Studies of the University, 4th edit. p. 36; 
and "Whewell, On the Principles of University Education, p. 35. 



Chap. 1.] OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDIES. 13 

addressed by the Chevalier Bunsen*: " If man is the apex of the 
creation, it seems right, on the one side, that a historical inquiry 
into his origin and development should never be allowed to sever 
itself from the general body of natural science, and in particular 
from physiology. But, on the other hand, if man is the apex 
of the creation, if he is the end to which all organic formations 
tend from the very beginning ; if man is at once the mystery and 
the key of natural science ; if that is the only view of natural 
science worthy of our age — then ethnological science, once 
established on principles as clear as the physiological are, is the 
highest branch of that science for the advancement of which this 
Association is instituted. It is not an appendix to physiology or 
to any thing else ; but its object is, on the contrary, capable of 
becoming the end and goal of the labours and transactions of a 
scientific institution." Those who are jealous for the dignity 
of man will not fail to echo these sentiments. Ethnology, which 
treats of the different races into which the human family is 
subdivided, and indicates the bonds which bind them all together, 
has not only appropriated to itself all the functions of the anthro- 
pology, which discussed the natural and moral, the physical and 
metaphysical history of man, but has exacted contributions from 
other sciences which were once independent of it. Anatomy, 
chemistry, geography, history, grammar, and criticism have 
each brought a stone to this great fabric ; and it is reasonable 
that this should be the case. For when the very Kosmos finds 
in man the most beautiful exemplifications of its own perfect 
harmony and order, universal science should recognise in the 
science which treats of man, its object, its aim, and its end. 

11 There is in fact no sure way of tracing the history and 
migrations of the early inhabitants of the world except by means 
of their languages ; any other mode of inquiry must rest on the 
merest conjecture and hypothesis. It may seem strange that any 
thing so vague and arbitrary as language should survive all other 
testimonies, and speak with more definiteness, even in its changed 
and modern state, than all other monuments however grand and 
durable. Yet so it is ; we have the proof before us every hour. 
Though we had lost all other history of our country we should 



Report, p. 257. 



14 THE UTILITY [Book I. 

be able to tell from our language, composed as it is of a substra- 
tum of Low German with deposits of Norman-French and Latin — 
the terms of war and government pertaining to the former of the 
superinduced elements, the terms of Ecclesiastical and Legal use 
to both of them — that the bulk of our population was Saxon, and 
that they were overcome and permanently subjected to a body 
of Norman invaders ; while the Latin element would show us how 
much that language had been used by the lawyers and church- 
men. We know too that the inhabitants of Wales, oiihe High- 
lands of Scotland, and of the Isle of Man, speak a Celtic dialect ; 
and from the position of these people we should infer that they 
were the earliest inhabitants of the island, and were driven into 
the mountains by the Saxon invaders. Even the names of 
places would tell us as much. When we hear a stream called 
Wans-beck-water, and know that the three words of which the 
compound is made up all signify " water," the first being Celtic 
(as in Wan's-ford, A-von), the second German {beck— bach) t the 
last English, we at once recognize three changes of inhabitants 
to whom the older name successively lost its significance*. It 
has been the same with other countries also. Persia, for in- 
stance, has been under the dominion of Mohammedan conquerors 
for twelve hundred years, and we find an immense number of 
Arabic words naturalized in the country, but the language which 
forms the basis of the whole, and the general organization and 
grammar, are as entirely Indo-Germanic as if the country had 
never had any intermixture of an Arabian population. 

12 The study of language, therefore, in its wider range 
may be used as a sure means of ascertaining the stock to which 
any given nation belonged, and of tracing the changes of popu- 
lation and government which it has undergone. It is indeed 
perfectly analogous to Geology ; they both present us with a 
set of deposits in a present state of amalgamation which may 
however be easily discriminated, and we may by an allowable 
chain of reasoning in either case deduce from the the 

former condition, and determine by what causes and in what 
manner the superposition or amalgamation has taken place. 
The excellent historian of the Inductive Sciences f would group 



* Sec Varronianus, p. 33. f Vo1 - EL P- 4S1 - 



Chap, i.] OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDIES. 15 

these and other speculations together in a separate class, con- 
sidering them all " as connected by this bond, that they 
endeavour to ascend to a past state of things, by the aid of the 
evidence of the present." He would term them palcetiological 
sciences, and the sanction of his distinguished name will per- 
haps give currency to this coinage of his private mint. In that 
case, the classical scholar will wish that he had been induced to 
select some designation more strictly in accordance with analogy 
and more plainly expressive of his meaning. As the word 
archaeology is already appropriated to the discussion of those 
subjects of which the antiquity is only comparative, it would be 
consistent with the usual distinction between ap-^aio^ and ira\ai6<s 
to give the name of palceology to those sciences which aim at 
reproducing an absolutely primeval state or condition ; or if 
we were anxious to express that the objects of our science are 
not only absolutely old, but, in the particular cases, constitute 
the originals and beginnings of their class, we might indulge 
in the combination palce-archceo-logy*. But whatever deno- 
mination we may agree to employ, it is clear that linguistic 
ethnology is entitled to the most prominent place among its 
sister sciences. 

13 But the application of philology to the case of ethno- 
graphy is by no means its only use. Language is the oldest of 
historical monuments ; indeed, it enables us to go back to a 
period long antecedent to the first beginnings of history, and to 
trace the migrations of a people among whom history has never 
existed. But philology is also conversant with the interpreta- 
tion of historical documents. It is philology which has ex- 
tracted a wonderful array of chronological data from the 
hieroglyphical monuments of ancient Egypt. It is philology 
which has recognised the contemporaneous history of Darius in 



* The distinction between naXaios and dpxaios is well given by Reiske, 
ad Lys. p. 107, 41 : "iraikaiov est antiquum et solummodo rationem habet 
temporis : dpxaiov autem est quod ab initio rerum aut reipublicce cujicsdam 
semper ita fuit actitatum, ut semel antiquo ritu fuit institutum." The 
ancients constantly used these synonyms in juxta- position, and a very 
slight parody of Sophocles would aptly describe a bone of the Dinotherium 
as oarovv naXaiov dpxaiov irore drjpos. (Trachin. 555.) 



16 THE UTILITY [Book I. 

the cuneiform inscriptions of Behistun. It is philology which 
promises important revelations from a survey of the long-buried 
sculptures of Nineveh. And while the science of language deals 
thus familiarly with the contemporaneous records of ancient 
history, which modern research has discovered, or which have 
long been exposed to the careless eyes of an unobserving world, 
it belongs to the same instrument to test the genuineness and 
accuracy of traditionary annals which have been embellished 
and diffused by a more modern and popular literature. Histo- 
rical criticism is the legitimate offspring of philology. Its 
functions are not destructive, but rather, in the highest degree, 
conservative : for its chief aim is to ascertain and establish the 
granite basis of history which is overlaid by the more recent 
strata of poetical, philosophical, and religious mythology*. It 
is true that there are still persons, especially in this country, 
who plead for the undisturbed enjoyment of an ignorant and 
childish credulity, and whose acceptance of historic truth is so 
intimately connected with their adoption of the legendary 
ingredients which enter so largely into all ancient records, that, 
for them, the kernel and the shell are irrevocably identical, 
and facts and fictions must stand or fall together. It is true 
also that those whose feeble conscience leans for support on 
some authority supposed to be infallible, as well as those who 
are interested in the maintenance of such a tribunal of final 
appeal, are still as heretofore occupied with endeavours to check 
the inquisitiveness of our philosophical instincts. But the time 
is long passed and gone, when timid science, wearied with 
fruitless investigations, could be induced to sell its birthright of 
expectations for the tasteless mess provided and prepared by an 



* " Denkmaler bilden das Zifferblatt der Geschichte ; so lange diese 
nicht vorhanden sind, gehort einem Volke nur seine Gegenwart nicht 
seine Vergangenheit, es lebt ohne Geschichte. Verliert ein Yolk seine 
Denkmaler, sei es durch eigne Schuld oder die der Yerhaltnisse, so 
wird es auch seine Geschichte nicht retten konnen, sie gerath in Unord- 
nung, wird zur Tradition, und gewinnt im besten Falle statt des verlorenen 
rein geschichtlichen ein anderes Prinzip der innern Ordnung, ein poetisch- 
mythologisches wie bei den Griechen, ein philosophisch-mi/thologischcs wie 
bei den Indern, oder ein religioses wie bei den Israelitcn, verliert aber 
stets ihren urspriinglichen zeitgcschichtlichen Werth." Lcpsius, Einlcitung 
zur Chronologic der uEgyptcr (not yet published). 



Chap. 1.] OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDIES. 17 

eager and suspicious bigotry. Convinced of the truth of its 
own conclusions, inductive philosophy needs no support from 
without ; and it has become incumbent upon those, who advocate 
the claims of an assumed authority, to find some common ground 
on which it may succeed in reconciling its pretensions with the 
demonstrable truths of science. 

14 Now it is philology alone, acting principally through 
its chief instrument, historical criticism, which can effectually 
mediate between tradition and reason ; for it is philology alone 
which finds its materials in the former, and derives its principles 
from the latter. To the mere votary of abstract science, it 
matters not what opinions have been held by the most civilized 
nations of antiquity ; he is not interested in attempts to indicate 
the first beginnings of his own speculations ; satisfied with the 
possession of truth, he cares little who first discovered it. But 
the philologer, whose main principle is a recognition of the 
unity of human nature and of language as the necessary asso- 
ciate and exponent of reason, is as much concerned with the 
opinions of primitive Egyptians and Aramaeans as with those of his 
own contemporaries; and he is predisposed to believe that there 
must be some portion of divine truth in that which man has in 
all ages accepted as binding on his faith and conscience. He is 
anxious therefore that a maximum of ancient history should be 
established on a scientific basis ; and while he examines ancient 
documents with the rigorous accuracy which philosophy de- 
mands, he handles the recorded utterances of the past with a 
veneration which satisfies every enlightened believer. If the 
Christian religion is to maintain its distinctive position, if it is to 
enjoy other homage than that which must be always paid to its 
intrinsic truthfulness, its final triumph over the dangers, to which 
it has been exposed by the ignorance and prejudices of its teach- 
ers, will be secured by the scientific philology which has cleared 
away the obstructive suburbs, and has thus shown the fortress in 
its true and naked strength. 

15 That philology, as the method of interpretation, is of 
essential importance to the protestant divine, is nearly self- 
evident. According to his principles, no theology can be true 
which does not rest upon a sound exposition of particular Books. 

C 



18 THE UTILITY [Book I. 

He must therefore regard his system of divinity as merely a 
branch or application of philological science. And not only so 
in regard to the exegesis from which he derives his practical 
doctrines. In his controversies also, he would do well to limit him- 
self to the same safe criterion, and his triumphs would leave no 
room for a second fight, if, dismissing all perplexing references 
to the uncertain echoes of ecclesiastical tradition, he were con- 
tent to employ no weapons save those of Biblical Criticism 
against adversaries who have raised a fabric of error on their 
misconception of the difference between -rrerpos and irerpa*. But 
not to speak of the uses of philological criticism, it may be 
shown that linguistic ethnography contributes in no small 
measure towards establishing the grounds of Revelation. All 
the truth, or, at least, all the intelligibility of the Christian 
dispensation, depends on the derivation of the human race from 
one stock. If mankind had not a common origin, there must 
be branches of our race which have no more share in hereditary 
corruption or transmitted sin, than the supposed inhabitants of 
another planet. Now it is by philology alone that we can 
attempt to demonstrate the primeval unity of man. "We are 
already so far advanced as to be able to divide all the known 
languages of the world into two main classes ; and although 



* Matth. xvi. 18. To those who argue for the preeminence of the 
Apostle Peter it is sufficient to refer to ver. 23 in this same chapter, which 
shows that the address has reference to his words and not to his person ; 
and the writer of the Apocalypse at all events considered the other 
Apostles equally foundation-stones of the church. (Apoc. xxi. 14; cf. 
Ephes. ii. 20.) The linguistic argument of the Romanists, that in the 
original languages of Palestine "ista generis differentia quae Greece et 
Latine est inter Petrum et petram non reperitur, sed uno eodemque 
nomine, sive Hebraice sive Syriace, Christus dixit: Kill ^>H N2JO 1.1 
THy? fWOHN N2fcO> tu cs pctra, et super hanc petram eedijieabo tcdtmam 
meam" (JIaldonat. ad I.) seems to be supported by the Syriac version, but 
will not stand the test of philological criticism ; for nirpos is a single 
stone, but nhpa is a rock, considered as including many 7reVpot, and this 
opposition is implied by the context; for otherwise he must have said 
teal eVt a-oi. Moreover, in biblical Hebrew we have only the plural 
D"22 "stones" in the signification of a rock, and the analogy of all 
the Scriptures shows that the rock on which the Church was to be built 
would be properly designated by -fl^, and not by N20- 



Chap. 1.] OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDIES. 19 

we do not yet possess sufficient knowledge of the whole body 
of languages to be able to say what affinity exists between 
the two great divisions, approximations have been made to the 
conclusion that there are certain points in which they osculate ; 
and, judging from the progress of linguistic studies hitherto, we 
may fairly hope that, as in the case of languages now known to 
be cognate we were impressed with the differences long before 
we perceived the similarities which are now the most prominent 
features, so it will be hereafter with all the languages of the 
world ; and investigation will fully confirm what the great Apostle 
proclaimed in the Areopagus, " that God has ordained that from 
one common parentage all the different tribes of men should 
spread themselves over the whole face of the earth, having de- 
termined the particular times of their successive emigrations, 
and the boundaries of their respective settlements*." — Thus 
much may be expected from comparative philology. The philo- 
sophy of grammar, however, has already gained one decisive 
victory over scepticism, in demonstrating from the organization 
of language the impossibility of the hypothesis, maintained by 
many, of the human invention of language, and a progression 
from barbarism to metaphysical perfection. In this point the 
conclusions of our science coincide with the statements of reve- 
lation |. 

16 On the whole then it may be asserted, that philology is 
essential to a liberal education, and useful as a branch of science. 
We do not, however, maintain that every one should make him- 
self a scientific philologer. In the first place, it is not every 
one who is qualified by capacity and taste to become a scholar : 
some particular faculties are needed for the successful study of 
dead languages, as well as for a profitable employment of one's 
time in the docks of London and Liverpool, or in the manu- 



* 'E7roir)(ri re e£ ivos alp-aros nav tOvos dvBpco7rcov KaroiKeiv in\ nav to 
Trpo<T(onov rfjs yrjs, 6pi<ras irpoT€Tayp.ivovs Kaipovs kcu ras 6po6eo~Las rrjs 
KaroiKias avrwv. (Act. Apostol. xvii. 26.) Here it is clear that eVo/jyo-e is 
construed with the accus. and inf. as in Matth. v. 37, Mark vii. 37, and 
that the e| ivos alfiaros is the main point in the passage. The other 
words indicate the manner in which ethnical distinctions really arose. 

t See Dr Wiseman's Lectures on the Connexion between Science and Re- 
vealed Religion, and below Chap. III. 

C2 



20 THE UTILITY OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDIES. [Book I. 

factories of Birmingham and Elberfeld : it is also a question 
of time, for no one can make himself acquainted with the wide 
range of subjects which philology in its scientific cultivation 
includes, so thoroughly and perfectly as to become a competent 
teacher of immediate learners, and, by his writings, of the world, 
without years of patient study and earnest thought ; in a word, 
he must make philology his profession, and if his fellow-men 
set any value upon his labours he will live by this as he might 
by any other business. But in a civilized state of society every 
one ought to learn so much of philology, that is^ he should 
have such an acquaintance with the vehicle of his thoughts, as 
may enable him to acquire a habit of method in the way of 
practical teaching. The mistake into which we have fallen in 
this country does not consist in our making classics and mathe- 
matics the basis of our education, nor even in obliging all to 
attempt what few can attain, but in making boys learn by rote 
like parrots instead of learning by reflexion like men. We 
repeat that man is a thinking being, and that his education 
as such consists in giving him a power and a habit of arranging 
his thoughts. The learning of Latin and Greek is profitable 
so far as it is made a lesson on the analogy of language ; and 
we are convinced that the youth of this country would gain 
more from two years exercise in the rigorous discrimination of 
the like and unlike in the Greek language alone, than by 
spending ten years, as many do, in overloading their memory 
with a mass of crude facts, into the chaos of which the untu- 
tored intellect cannot penetrate. And, if any one's profession is 
to be that of a scholar, he will not be the longer in getting to 
the end of his journey, because he has spent more time than 
some of his fellow-travellers in making himself thoroughly ac- 
quainted with the route. 

We now proceed to inquire, what is the state of scholar- 
ship in reference to the objects which give it importance and 
value. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE OF 
PHILOLOGY. 

I. Classical Philology. 17 Origin and causes of philological studies. 18 Scholastic 
philosophy. Nominalism. 19 Occham's grammatical logic. 20 Reformation 
connected with nominalism. 21 Revival of literature in Italy. 22 Invention 
of printing. 23 Progress of learning in Germany. 24 In France. 25 In Eng- 
land. 26 In Holland. 27 Progress of scholarship. 28 Bentley. 29 Modern 
German literature in connexion with scholarship. Heyne. F. A. Wolf and 
Niehuhr. Buttmann and Hermann. K. O. Muller and Welcker. Schleier- 
macher and Savigny. 30 Merits and defects of German literature. 31 Verbal 
criticism in England. 32 Prospects of classical scholarship in this country. 
II. Comparative Philology. 33 It did not emanate from the old classical 
scholarship. 34 The true method of proceeding was first pointed out by 
Leibnitz. 35 Study of Zend and Sanscrit. 36 Sanscrit scholarship, and its 
connexion with comparative philology. Bopp and Grimm. William Humboldt 
and A. W. Schlegel. 37 Progress of comparative philology in England. F. 
Rosen. Prichard and Garnett. Rawlinson. III. Combination of classical 
scholarship with comparative philology. 38 Advantages which the former would 
derive from such a combination. 39 An application of the old classical and 
critical spirit would be not less advantageous for comparative philology. 40 
Philological design of the present work; how far anticipated by Buttmann's 
Lexilogus and Grammar. 

17 rpO form a proper estimate of the present condition of 
1 philological knowledge, we should at least be acquainted 
with the circumstances in which the study originated, and with 
the principal changes which it has undergone up to our time. 
An adequate discussion of this subject would, however, far exceed 
the limits of an introductory chapter. All that we propose to 
attempt in this place is first, to point out, as briefly as possible, 
the more prominent and striking features that have marked the 
progress of those grammatical and critical studies which consti- 
tute our modern scholarship ; then to indicate the rise and pro- 
gress of comparative philology ; and lastly, to plead for a closer 
connexion between these two departments of linguistic study. 

The importance, which, for the last three hundred years has 
been attached to philological studies, is at once accounted for 
and justified by that cessation of all literary exertion for a long 
period, which ensued upon the overthrow of the Western Empire. 



22 THE HISTORY AND [Book I. 

The rude vigour of barbarism bad triumphed over the languish- 
ing energies of civilization, and it seemed as if the last rays of 
mental culture had faded away in tbe prison of Boethius, as if 
some sudden paralysis had seized upon tbe general mind of 
Europe, as if men had drunk of the waters of oblivion, or had 
lost irrecoverably the key to those treasures of learning, wisdom, 
and genius, which the old world had amassed for their use. 
Kapid as was the downfal of literature, it must be recollected 
that many causes bad been gradually operating to produce it, 
some of which continued their agency to prevent its revival. 
Among these not the least efficacious was the influence of the 
Romish Church, tbe subjection of the less cultivated laity to the 
growing power and greater intelligence of the clergy, and the 
prejudices which these last entertained, as well from motives of 
interest as from scruples of religion, against the learning of the 
heathen world; so that, after the crisis had taken place, the 
church carefully appropriated to herself the little learning that 
still struggled for existence, and the papal authority was openly 
opposed to the diffusion of secular knowledge. Accordingly, 
when, notwithstanding this prostration of mental culture, the 
literary spirit revived after nearly a thousand years of darkness 
or doubtful light, and the mind awaking like Epimenides from 
its long slumber found all things altered but itself, men turned 
eagerly to the written monuments of the former waking and 
thinking world ; and the grammatical studies necessary for the 
understanding of these works constituted that philology or scho- 
larship which has ever since formed the basis of education. 

As the Romish Church throve by the ignorance which it 
fostered, so it fell by means of tbe learning which it had always 
opposed. The causes which produced modern scholarship were 
identical with those which brought about the Reformation of 
religion. Of these the most important were the three follow- 
ing: the overthrow of the scholastic realism, and the introduction 
of rationalism, or a philological spirit, by the Nominalists ; the 
reproduction of tbe classical authors in Italy, and the revival 
of the study of Greek, which created a learned class in Europe ; 
and the invention of printing, which by multiplying books im- 
parted to the bulk of the laity the effects of the two former 
causes, the rationalism and learning of the thinking part of 
mankind. 



Chap, 2.] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. 23 

It will be proper to make a few remarks on each of these 
causes. 

18 The grammatical studies, which the Romans had bor- 
rowed from the Greeks, and which they had reduced to such an 
excellent system, were utterly lost in the dark ages. If one 
needed a proof of this, it would be sufficient to refer to the fact 
that the languages of those nations, which had been most exposed 
to the influence of Roman literature, and which had for the most 
part adopted the Latin idiom, degenerated into a barbarous 
jargon without inflexions or syntax. A certain amount of educa- 
tion was necessary for the clergy, but, though Grammatica 
formed a part of the trivium in the seven arts which were then 
taught, this term did not signify rational grammar, but merely 
an acquaintance with the Latin of the schools. The nature, 
however, of some of the Romish doctrines necessitated a mixture 
of metaphysics with theology. In this mixture originated the 
scholastic philosophy, which was simply an attempt to prove, 
by what they knew of Aristotle's logic, the necessary union of 
reason and orthodoxy. It was only by such an instrument as 
the quasi-realism of their Aristotle, that they could establish 
those points of faith which constituted the difficulty of the 
Romish creed. It was necessary that the mere abstractions 
of common language should be considered as objective realities, 
for it was about these abstractions alone that they argued ; and, 
as there were some clear-headed men among them who could 
not accept this position, there arose a dispute in the schools, 
of which the real point under discussion was, whether the scho- 
lastic philosophy had any authentic basis or not. This dispute is 
commonly known as the question about Universals, or the con- 
troversy between the Realists and the Nominalists; the former 
of whom considered universal ideas as pre- existent in the mind 
of God and man (ante rem), and the latter as simple abstrac- 
tions of the understanding from the objects of the senses (post 
rem). Now as it was about these universals alone that the 
scholastics reasoned, it followed, that, if the universals were mere 
words, they could not pretend to establish anything by their 
argumentation, and consequently the whole system would be 
overthrown. We can, therefore, easily understand why the 
nominalists were so violently persecuted, and why they were 



24 THE HISTORY AND [Book I. 

considered as little better than heretics ; for, if orthodoxy rested 
upon scholastic realism, those who undermined the one contri- 
buted not a little to the downfal of the other. Roscelinus, 
the first opponent of the realists, went into the opposite extreme 
of ultra-nominalism*, and as he was confuted without much dif- 
ficulty by Abelard and the other conceptualists, his efforts did 
not avail much to the overthrow of the system. It was reserved 
for our countryman, William of Occham, to effect this. Without 
running into any paradoxical absurdities, he showed in a straight- 
forward manner that words are instruments of reasoning, not 
objects of science, and set up the grounds of rational grammar 
against realism, which had overlooked the fact that logic has 
nothing to do with the particular significations of words, but only 
with their methodical arrangement. 

19 The Nominalism of Occham, however, was not merely a 
reassertion of grammar ; it was an overthrow of that worship of 
words which was so important a part of the idolatry of the time. 
As it is one of the objects of this work to maintain the opinions 
which Occham advocated, both against the symbolical realism, 
which is still prevalent, and against the ultra-nominalism which 
now and then makes its appearance, we shall offer no apology 
for giving a statement of views so much in accordance with our 
own as his are ; at the same time it is but due to the sturdy 
Franciscan, who is little thought about by the thousands who 
are reaping the benefit of his labours, to give as nearly as pos- 
sible in his own words the important principles which he so 
opportunely revived, and by which he earned the titles bestowed 
upon him by his editor Marcus de Benevento — logicorum acutis- 
simus, sacrce scholce invictissimorum Nominalium inceptor, in 
omni disciplinarum genere Doctor plusquam subtilis. It will 
be sufficient to give the statements in his Summa totius logical 
(Venet. 1522), one of the best of his works, and indeed as sound 
a treatise on the philosophy of syntax as any which has come 
to our knowledge. Arguments and syllogisms, says Occham, 



* "We apply this term to the doctrines of those philosophers who, like 
Cratylus, Hobbes, and Home Tooke, not only reduced universals to mere 
names, but even made truth to consist in names, for which reason Leibnitz 
has called Hobbes plusquam nominate. 



Chap. 2.] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. 25 

are made up of propositions, and these again of terms. Of 
terms there are three kinds, (l) that which is conceived, (2) that 
which is spoken, (s) that which is written : the last two are 
parts of a proposition meant to be heard by the bodily ear or 
seen by the bodily eye ; the first is merely an intention or affec- 
tion of the mind signifying or consignifying something as a 
part of a mental proposition*. We say that words are signs 
subordinated to the conceptions or intentions of the mind, not 
because, in the strict acceptation of the term "sign", words 
primarily and properly signify the actual conceptions, but be- 
cause words are imposed to signify those very things which 
are signified by the conceptions of the mind : for the word sig- 
nifies secondarily what is primarily signified by the conception, 
and is instituted to denote something implied by a conception, 
so that if the conception changes its meaning, the word would 
also change its meaning unless it were altered to suit the change 
in the conception. The intention, conception, or affection of the 
mind, is defined to be something in the mind naturally signifying 
something-)-. As writing is the secondary sign of speech, so 
speech is the secondary sign of the intention or conception, which 
is the primary sign of the thing signified as forming a part of 
a mental proposition, which belongs to no particular idiom\. 
An intention is either primary or secondary : primary, when it 
is the mental representative of the thing signified ; secondary, 
when it is a sign of such primary intentions : genus, species, 
&c. are secondary intentions^. With regard to universals, under 
which are included the five predicables, genus, species, differ- 
ence, property and accident, he adopts Avicenna's definition with 
the following explanation || — an universal is a single intention of 



* Cap. I. fol. 2. Terminus conceptus est intentio seu passio animce ali- 
quid naturaliter significans vel consignificans, nata esse pars propositionis 
mentalis. 

t Cap. XII. fol. 6. Intentio animce vocatur quoddam ens in anima 
natum signijicare aliquid. 

% Propositio mentalis quce nullius idiomatis est. 

§ Stride vocatur intentio prima nomen mentale natum pro suo significatu 
supponere. Intentio autem secunda est ilia quce est signum talium inten- 
tionum primarum : cujusmodi sunt tales intentiones : genus, species, fyc. 

|| Cap. XIV. fol. 6, 2. Vult dicere quod universale est intentio singularis 
ipsius animce nata prcedicare de pluribus non pro se sed pro ipsis rebus : ita 
quod per hoc quod ipsa nata est prcedicari de pluribus non pro se sed pro 



26 THE HISTORY AKD [Book I. 

the mind made to be predicated of many, not for itself but for 
the things themselves, and because it is thus predicable of many 
it is called universal ; but it is called singular because it is one 
form really existing in the mind. Of the arguments which 
Occham advances to prove that an universal is not a substance, 
it will be sufficient to mention one. This intention which we 
call an universal is a perfectly arbitrary sign, for this is the 
only thing that is predicable of many. Substance, however, 
cannot be thus predicated, otherwise a proposition would be 
composed of particular substances. Now a proposition is either 
mental, or spoken, or written. But these are not particular sub- 
stances. Therefore no proposition can be composed of substances. 
They are however composed of universals. Therefore universals 
are not substances. Occham says the same of the categories or 
predicaments*, respecting which, in his important treatise de 
Sacramento altaris, he adopts the grammatical views of Joannes 
Damascenus. The ten predicaments, he saysf, are the most general 
signs, under which are included all mere words. For every 
word which can be placed at the end of a proposition, or em- 
ployed in answering a question, may be arranged under some 
one predicament ; for example, all words which make answer to 
the question " How much ?" are placed in the predicament of 
quantity. And the words thus placed in the predicaments are 
not only nouns, but also verbs, and other parts of speech ; and 
even phrases, such as prepositions with their cases. So that 
predicaments are only certain predicables and uncombined signs 
of things, out of which true or false combinations may be made. 
A difference of inflexion may make an irreconcileable difference 
of signification between two predicaments ; for example, angelus 
cannot be angeli, nor e converso. He adds, that such pre- 
dicaments are not merely arbitrary signs, but rather meanings 
or intentions of the mind, because they are signs naturally 
denoting objects ; and as words may be distinct, notwithstand- 



illis pluribus ilia dieitur universalis : propter hoc autem quod est una forma 
existens realitcr in intellectu, dieitur singulare. 

* Cap. XLI. fol. 13. 

t Tractatus Vencrabilis Inceptoris Guilgelmi Ocham de S 
altaris, Cap. XXXV. (This book is very scarce: our copy is a little 
black-letter duodecimo, without a date, but stated to be inn risiis 

per Petrum Levet, impressorem.) 



Chap. 2.] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. 27 

ing the identity of the things signified, so meanings or intentions 
may be distinct, although the objects signified are identical. 
Thus the words substance, quality, and quantity, are not syno- 
nymous, because they can be predicated of the same object. 

20 It is obvious, from the way in which Occham speaks 
throughout his logic, that his object was to draw a strongly- 
marked line of distinction between the method of language, as 
the instrument of deduction, and the science or truth of things. 
By doing so he not only contributed to overthrow the scholastic 
theology, but also laid the foundation for that system of inter- 
pretation which became philology in the hands of the scholar : 
and therefore it was not without reason that Luther, who so well 
estimated the importance of grammatical studies to the ministers 
of his Reformation, paid so much attention to Occham while he 
despised and neglected the other schoolmen*. Indeed it appears 
from Luther's early works that he had embraced very heartily 
the Occhamistic nominalism |. 

But the adoption of Occhamistic theology by the Reformers, 
whatever may have been its effect on the sacramental doctrines 
of Luther, or on the fate of scholastic dogmatism in general, is 
important to us principally as furnishing collateral testimony to 
the increasing influence at this period of that critical and ration- 
alistic spirit, which is the essential characteristic of modern 
times J. To deprive words of their mysterious attributes, and 



* "Diu multumque legit scripta Occam; hujus acumen anteferebat 
Thomse et Scoto." Melanchthon, Historia de vita et actis Lutheri. Vite- 
berg. 1545. fol. 5. 

t Laurence (Banipton Lectures, Serm. III. note 6) after quoting Me- 
lanchthon, Op. I. p. 414, Loci Theol. p. 113, says, "William of Occam here 
alluded to (an English Scholastic of great reputation) had been a pecu- 
liar favourite of Luther and Melanchthon ; the former styling him cams 
magister meus, and the latter delicice quondam nostrce." Ranke (Hist, of 
Reform. I. p. 310, Engl. Tr.) says: "Luther and Melanchthon are the off- 
spring of nominalism." 

% Even Dr Mill, the uncompromising advocate of " old paths," admits 
that the perfection of critical skill " is undoubtedly one of the real boasts 
of the later generations over the most intellectual and able of the ancient 
world." (Four Sermons, 1849, p. 114.) With this admission, we may 
doubt the success of any attempts to restore the authority of a dry and 
scholastic dogmatism in our chief seat of learning and science. 



28 THE HISTORY AND [Book I. 

to subject every sentence to the fearless searching of the critical 
faculty, is the greatest triumph of iconoclastic reason, which has 
yet to celebrate the last of a long series of victories. This was 
the result in part effected by the early success of the nominal- 
istic school. 

21 The overthrow of the scholastic philosophy, however, 
and the proper cultivation of grammar, though good in them- 
selves, would have had but little effect in dispelling the darkness 
of the middle ages, had it not been for the classical enthusiasm 
of the poet Petrarch, and the subsequent exertions of Poggio 
Bracciolini, who laboured incessantly, and to a certain extent 
successfully, in saving and bringing to light the remains of the 
great Latin writers. The increased study of pure Latinity, pro- 
duced by the gradual diffusion of these books, naturally created 
a desire to become acquainted with the sister literature of ancient 
Greece, which the overthrow of the Eastern Empire by the 
Turks accidentally favoured, as those of the Greeks who had 
retained a knowledge of their ancestors' language hastened to 
Italy, where the patrons of learning offered them protection and 
reward. For some time, however, the number of Greek scholars 
was very limited, and nothing was done for scholarship beyond 
the translation of Greek authors into Latin, which, as the per- 
formers were mostly modern Greeks who were indifferently 
acquainted with Latin, and had but a traditional knowledge of 
the language of their ancestors, have little to recommend them 
beyond the merit of the attempt. But although the influence of the 
new learning was somewhat limited, still a beginning was made, a 
learned class was formed, comparisons were inevitably suggested 
between the enlightened views of the old world and the ignorance 
of the day, and the first seeds were sown of that freedom of 
inquiry which shook the papal throne and changed the tendencies 
of the world. 

22 The third and greatest cause of the revival of letters 
was the invention of the art of printing, which by the multipli- 
cation of books spread the influences of revived learning over 
the whole of Europe, and, it is not too much to say, produced 
immediately and at one birth the Reformation and Philology. 
This invention is due to Germany or to the Low Countries ; and 



Chap. 2.] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. 29 

though it must not be overlooked that its immediate effects and 
its application to the diffusion of classical learning were first felt 
in Italy, yet the origin of philology or sound scholarship is to 
be sought on this side of the Alps ; its beginner was Reuchlin, a 
German ; the two men who brought it forward most prominently 
and tangibly were Budseus, a Frenchman, and Erasmus, a Dutch- 
man ; and the combined influences of scholarship and printing 
were developed in Germany by Luther, and by Melancthon, a 
kinsman of Reuchlin. Under the more immediate influence of 
the papal chair, and shrinking from German sway with all the 
aversion produced by their historical recollections, the Italians were 
not likely to be affected by that free spirit of inquiry which had 
been for some time at work among the Germans, and which seems 
to be still their natural characteristic. It was, however, to this 
free German spirit, and the materials furnished to it by the 
revival of letters in Italy and the invention of printing among 
themselves, that we are to attribute the great German Reform- 
ation. Luther himself has said as much*, and we see that, in 
the expression of their alarm at the probable effects of printing, 
the catholic hierarchy of the time had reference to Germany 
alone |. 

23 Intimate, however, as was the connexion between the rise 
of philology and the Reformation, it cannot be denied that the 
country which gave birth to the latter was for many years after- 
wards far behind other countries of Europe in its cultivation of 
the former. Nor shall we wonder at this when we recollect 
that all intelligent Germans who embraced the principles of the 
Reformation were absorbed in theological studies, and that in 
consequence of the religious differences which were produced by 
this engrossing change, Germany became one great battle-field, 
and was prevented from attaining to a full literary developement 
till after the results of the thirty years' war had restored peace 
and tranquillity to the Protestants. 



* In his 239th letter (Erster Theil p. 464, de Wette), where he talks of 
Germanorum ferocia ingenia, quce, nisi capta sint Scripturis et Ratione, non 
est vel multis Papis irritare tutum ; prcesertim hoc tempore, ubi in Ger mania 
regnant literce et linguce et sapere incipiunt Laici 

t See the Proclamation of the Archbishop of Mainz in 1486, quoted 
by Hallam, Literature of Europe, Vol. I. p. 348. 



30 THE HISTORY AND [Book I. 

24 The connexion of France with Italy, in consequence of 
the ambitious projects of Charles VIII. and his successors Louis 
and Francis, made the former country an important instrument 
in the diffusion of the learning revived in the latter. The first 
approach to really accurate scholarship is due to Budaeus (Bude) 
and the family of the Stephens' (Estienne), who brought the know- 
ledge of Greek and Latin to a point of perfection which has 
induced many to believe that there was little more to be done 
by the modern scholar than to study the commentaries of the 
former* and reprint the Thesaurus of Henry Stephens. Their 
successors, Casaubon and Salmasius, exhibit in their works an 
extent of reading and an accuracy of scholarship which few of 
our modern philologists can rival, and Joseph Justus Scaliger, 
who, though of Italian extraction, must be reckoned among the 
glories of French literature, may fairly be considered as still 
entitled to precedence above all scholars, Bentley, perhaps, ex- 
cepted f. Even Muretus, who was the most learned man in Italy 
at this time, was a French emigrant. 

25 Our own country occupies a very distinguished place 
among the first promoters of philology ; Erasmus taught Greek 
at the University of Cambridge as early as 1510, and many of 
our native scholars were sought as instructors in Germany and 
elsewhere on the continent^. 

26 The noble demand of the citizens of Leyden, that an 
University might be established there as a reward for their 
heroic defence in 1574, led to the institution of many similar 
establishments in the country, and to the foundation of a school 
of philology, which in accurate knowledge and extensive reading 
soon left the rest of Europe far behind. 



* Porson intended at one time to re-edit the Commentaries of Buda?us, 
with such additions and improyements as would make it serve as a manual 
for the Greek student. 

t See the remarks of Niebuhr, Hist, of Borne, Vol. I. note 660; and 
compare his nachgehus. Sckriflen nicht phUolog. Inhalts, p. 141. 

I The fragmentary translation of the New Testament by Sir John 
Cheke, which has lately been published (C 1S43), is a curious 

specimen of the accurate philology of the time. The controversy between 
the same writer and Stephen Gardiner on the pronunciation of Greek is 
also well worthy of notice. (Basihce, 1555.) 



Chap. 2.] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. SI 

27 Whatever may be the merits of these different countries, 
the progress of scholarship was every where the same. At first the 
object of the learned was to publish as many of the Greek and 
Latin authors as they could collect, to supply the former with 
Latin versions, and both with such commentaries as might help 
the less perfect scholars to an understanding of the grammatical 
construction of the text, and the various allusions contained in it. 
To further this object collections of miscellanies or varice lec- 
tiones, as they were called, were from time to time published by 
different scholars. As grammatical knowledge advanced, the 
editors were induced to remark the corruptions of the texts, pro- 
duced by the ignorance of those who had copied the manuscripts 
in the dark ages, and from this verbal criticism arose. But in 
all that was done for nearly a hundred years after the death of 
Scaliger, we perceive a want of method combined with much 
individual industry, nor do we discern any marks of command- 
ing genius in the many who directed their attention to the eluci- 
dation and correction of ancient authors : they passed their time 
in polishing the ancient authors and abusing one another ; and, 
like the rhapsodes of old, while they corrected their authors, 
they needed much emendation themselves*. 

28 The real beginning of a more enlightened scholarship is 
due to Bentley, whose unrivalled ingenuity and boundless learn- 
ing enabled him not merely to correct the words of the ancient 
writers, but also to apply his intelligent criticism to the literary 
history and antiquities of Greece and Rome. His actual per- 
formances and the example which he set to those who came after 
him cannot be too highly estimated. Indeed, he may be re- 
garded as the founder of historical philology j\ In verbal criti- 
cism he found most able successors among his own countrymen : 
Dawes, Markland, Toup, Tyrwhitt, and Porson, who followed in 
his steps, have advanced this department of scholarship to its 
utmost limits. Meanwhile the scholars of Holland were not idle, 
and to them we owe a most accurate examination of the old Lex- 



Tovs pep yap payj/cpftovs ol8a ra pev enrj aKpifiovvras, avrovs Se itaw 
TJXiOiovs ovras. (Xen. Mem. IV. 2, § 10). 

t "Historical philology — the discovery of Bentley, and the heritage 
and glory of German scholars." Bunsen, Egypt, I. note 22. 



32 THE HISTORY AM) [Book L 

icographers and a collection of every thing that could contribute 
to the illustration of what they advance : besides, the first step 
in the systematic etymology of the Greek language was taken 
in that country, and, though the principles on which the under- 
taking was based were not sufficiently well founded, the attempt 
was not unproductive of benefit. 

29 The Germans did not contribute much to the advance- 
ment of philology before the end of the seven years' war. Their 
general literary condition was very low, as may fie discerned 
from the fact that the few great authors whom they had before 
this period, for instance Leibnitz, usually wrote either in Latin 
or French. When, however, they were released from the dis- 
tractions of war and turned themselves in earnest to read and 
write, they showed that the active spirit which had made Ger- 
many the scene of the Reformation was still alive among them, 
and they advanced with such giant steps that within a century 
they had placed themselves at the head of literary and learned 
Europe. About the middle of the 18th century Gesner and 
Ernesti came forward as prominent philologists in Germany, but 
their style of scholarship had little in common with that of their 
countrymen at the present day, being rather formed on the 
model of the Dutch school ; indeed, the two most learned Ger- 
mans of this time, Ruhnken and Drakenborch, confined the 
sphere of their usefulness to the Universities of Holland. The 
beginning of German, or, to use a more comprehensive but syno- 
nymous term, of modern scholarship, is to be referred to Les- 
sing, who created German literature by casting off the trammels 
of the French school, and to Winckelmann, who laid the founda- 
tions of the archaeology of art, a most important application of 
philology in the wider sense of the word. The successive ap- 
pearance of the literary giants AVieland, Herder, Schiller, Gothe, 
and Richter, who were all to a certain extent contemporaries, 
and the searching philosophy of Kant, which arose at the same 
time, furnished the active intellect of Germany with abundant 
materials for speculation ; and the people became at once remark- 
able for bold theories and uncompromising inquisitiveness. This 
was not long without its effect upon scholarship, which as we 
have said existed among them as an offshoot of the Dutch school, 
and German philology properly so called arose with Heyne. 



Chap. 2.] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. 33 

The difference between him and his predecessors consisted mainly 
in this, that he did not limit his investigations to the narrower 
field of the ancient authors, but combined with it all the newly 
applicable resources of the archasology of art, of the principles 
of taste, and of literature in general. In fact, the line of de- 
marcation between literature and learning no longer existed for 
the Germans. We see this in the acknowledged influence of 
the translations of Yoss, in the classical spirit which pervades all 
the great German writings, and indeed even in the adoption of 
classical metres for vernacular poems. The school which Heyne 
founded was combined with a revival of the Bentleian spirit in 
the person of F. A. Wolf, a man of the most purely literary 
genius that ever marched with the heavy baggage of book- 
learning. Whether he owed any thing to Vico or not, he must 
certainly be considered as the literary descendant of Bentley ; 
and his treatise on Homer produced an effect upon scholarship 
analogous to that of the Dissertation on Phalaris. It is no dis- 
paragement to the undeniable genius and prodigious learning of 
Niebuhr to say, that the History of Rome, the master-work of 
historical criticism which will ever mark our age as distinguished 
in the annals of literature, is due in a great measure to the 
example of Wolf; and we may join the illustrious Historian of 
Rome in hailing him as the Hero and Eponymus of the race of 
German philologers *. But with all these wonderful extensions 
of the domain of philology the Germans were not inattentive to 
the details. The early works of Buttmann and Hermann f placed 
the study of Greek grammar on an entirely new footing, and 
the Dictionaries of Schneider and Passow constitute an epoch in 
the department of Lexicography. Lobeck has proved himself 
a worthy successor of Hemsterhuis and Ruhnken. The editions 
of classical authors published by Spalding, Heindorf, Bockh, 
Dissen and others, are a proof that the more enlarged views of 
the age have not been without their influence on the old system 
of note-writing ; and the overthrow which Hermann experienced 
some years since in his opposition to the more extended views of 
Muller and Welcker is a proof that philology has, in Germany 



* Eheinisches Museum for 1827, p. 257. 
f Buttmann's Greek Grammar, first published in 1782. Hermann de 
emendanda ratione Grcecce Gramm. Pars I. Lips. 1801. 

D 



34 THE HISTORY AND [Book I. 

at least, taken its place among the subjects of general literature. 
In addition to the causes enumerated above, a great and imme- 
diate influence is attributed* to the new system of interpretation 
introduced by Schleiermacher, a most distinguished metaphysi- 
cian and divine, who commenced at the beginning of this century 
a complete translation of Plato arranged according to a compre- 
hensive view which he had taken of the general connexion of 
thought and mutual dependence of the separate dialogues : perhaps 
few German books are a better example of the influence of the 
general literary spirit on philology f. In other fields equally 
important advances were made. The connexion of philology 
with the study of the civil law produced a most striking effect 
on the latter, and a fortunate discovery of the fragments of 
Gaius has given an entirely new complexion to the History of 
Jurisprudence: in this department Savigny stands foremost as 
the greatest of lawyers and one of the greatest of philologers. 
But we should far exceed our limits were we to particularize 
the different German authors who have written first-rate books 
on mythology, geography, or art. Suffice it to say, that by the 
exertions of the Germans alone, philology has made more pro- 
gress in the last fifty years than in the preceding two hundred. 

30 It was not, however, to be expected that such a sudden 
advance should be made without some corresponding disadvan- 
tages. And here we may be permitted to make a few general 
remarks on the merits and defects of German literature. The 
merits of the German writers may be inferred from what we 
have already said. They have a large share of originality ; great 
honesty and consistency of purpose ; indefatigable industry ; and 
an entire freedom from prejudices and one-sided views. Their 
defects, so far as they are constitutional, arise from the excess 
of those qualities which constitute their chief merit : they are 
liable to give way too much to their imaginative enthusiasm : 
like the student Anselmus, in Hoffmann's tale J, they are fasci- 



* See Dissen in Bockh's Pindar, Vol. III. p. 7 : and Bockh himself says 

(Abhandl. Bcrl. Akad. 1S22, 3, p. 264): "und ich will niich auch nicht 

ruhmen es erfunden zu haben, da ich es von Schleiermacher gelernt habe." 

f See the Journal of Education. Vol. IX. p. IIS, foil. 

| bergoJJne Togf. 



Chap. 2.] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. 35 

nated by the dark-blue eyes in the elder bush, and the crystal 
bells are ever sounding in their ears. The circumstances under 
which their literature so rapidly created itself have also produced 
their evils : every young man who has any pretensions to learning 
or ability feels himself called upon to write something novel : the 
result of which is, that without sufficient sobriety of mind to keep 
them from error, their disposition leads them continually to make 
rash attempts upon subjects which ought never to be treated 
without the greatest care and circumspection, so that they have 
given much scandal to people of more timid minds, and created 
prejudices against that freedom of investigation which when 
soberly exercised is at once the most imperative duty and the 
highest privilege of civilized and educated men. There is per- 
haps no literature in the world which furnishes so decided, so 
strongly marked a contrast as the German does between the first- 
and second-rate authors : which, while it presents to us more of 
the true and the valuable, more that is kindled into sunlike 
splendour by the fire of genius, more that is arrayed in the secure 
panoply of learning, more that is dressed in the gay but not 
inelegant trappings of a rich and luxurious fancy, can yet on the 
other hand display so much frigid pomposity, so much flippant 
ignorance, and such audacious dulness. True it is we have 
but few of the first class among our writers : but then how very 
few we have of the second. The same principle of cautious 
reserve or of a persevering pursuit after the profitable, which 
has doomed to the desert air many a glowing thought and many 
a golden truth, has also saved us from sundry proofs of the 
danger of trying to be ingenious, and has deterred many a 
literary Curtius from leaping into the gulph, ever open in the 
forum to swallow up those whose destiny it is to write and be 
forgotten. Another feature in the German literary character is 
the air of consciousness and pretence with which the great bulk 
of writers bring forth their works. The mark of real originality 
is, that the author is before his age. The great writer, through 
his own modesty, is generally the last to discover this, or, per- 
haps, through the tardy appreciation of his contemporaries he is 
left in ignorance of the great service he has done. Like Spenser's 
Chrysogone, he has unawares conceived and borne children of the 
sun, and they lie unheeded by the parent's side in some rude 
wilderness untrodden by men, till the goddess of Beauty claims 

D2 



36 THE HISTORY AND [Book I. 

them for her own and rears them in her own fair garden, that 
the j may hereafter delight and instruct mankind*. The Germans, 
on the contrary, make an exhibition of their genius, and do not 
scruple by themselves or their friends to point out, to those who 
might fail to discover it, the value of their wares. There is per- 
haps no other country in which the intercourse of literary men is 
so much a commerce of compliments, and where friendship is so 
likely to cool whenever it is not fed with the fuel of commendation f. 
An excessive love of applause, when gratified, is apt to generate 
a self-complacent indifference to the merits of foreign labourers 
in the same field ; and when we consider the almost extravagant 
applause which is bestowed upon German learning in this country, 
it may seem the less surprising that the Professors of Berlin and 
Leipsig should never take the trouble to inquire whether they are 
not bestowing their industry, on some investigation, to which the 
acuteness of English scholars has already been successfully ap- 
plied J. It is part of the same self-reliance that a German will 



* Faerie Qiieen, Book III. Cant. vi. 

f This was the case with Wieland and Jacobi. Wolf's ill-treatment 
of his friend and pupil Heindorf may be traced to wounded vanity ; see 
Schleiermacher's Werke : riulosoph. I. p. 697, sqq. 

\ These remarks were made with a general reference ; but the author 
has lately had his attention directed to a special application of them. 
Some few years ago M. George Curtius published a little tract entitled 
die SpracJiverglcichung in iJrrcm Verhaltniss zur ckutkkm Philohgie, of 
which the second edition (Berlin 1848) is now before us. This was fol- 
lowed by the first part of a more extensive work called Spraci 
ende Beitragc, Berlin 1846. We arc amused to find that the idea which 
led to the composition of the Xciv Oratyhu is gravely put forward toti 
verbis as the original thought of M. Curtius. The words " ich war also 
audi bei der Untersuchung die der Gegenstand dieses Buch ist, bemiiht, 
das aUgcmeincre Studium mit den bestmderen mogliehst zu verbinden," are 
really a translation of the first sentence in our preface ! and the same repe- 
tition is manifested in details. Thus he claims as his original discovery an 
imperfect transcript of our theory respecting the Greek augment, and 
though he has subsequently become acquainted with Mr Garnett's argu- 
ment in favour of our opinion on that subject, he quietly patronises that 
gentleman as the independent author of views confirmatory of his own. 
We do not, of course, imagine that M. Curtius knew that the X c: Oratyhu 
hid completely anticipated him in the task which he has proposed to him- 
self, but his ignorance of this fact in the case of an English work not un- 
known in Germany is one instance among many of the peculiarity men- 



Chap. 2.] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. 37 

never acknowledge his errors : his reputation for infallibility is 
dearer to him than the truth. To take an instance from our 
own field: Hermann used to praise our excellent Elmsley for 
his candour and willingness to admit his mistakes : when did he 
follow Elmsley's example? These, it must be confessed, are 
serious drawbacks. Nevertheless, all honour be to the Germans, 
for they have made the mind of Europe what it is ; and, though 
much that many a one of them has written is neither wise nor 
true, though now and then we may meet with something which 
startles us even in the pages of the wisest and most true-hearted 
among them, yet let all those who love knowledge and admire 
genius apply themselves diligently to the treasures of German 
literature and scholarship, with caution indeed lest they mistake 
dross for gold, but yet with earnestness of purpose and with full 
confidence that if they seek aright they will not be disappointed. 

31 The names of the verbal critics who succeeded Bentley 
in this country have been already mentioned : in their perform- 
ances is included all that was done by Englishmen for the 
scholarship of the eighteenth century. The very limited nature 
of the instructions given at the classical schools at that time, 
and the insufficient learning of the masters, necessitated some 
arbitrary method of employing the ten years which it was 
thought right to spend upon Latin and Greek. The principle 
of competition which was introduced very early in this country, 
and the facility of determining the relative merits of such 
exercises, induced the masters of the schools to direct their 
attention principally to the composition of Latin and Greek 
verses, which had been the amusement of scholars at the revival 
of learning; or perhaps the custom was derived immediately 
from these early scholars together with the grammars which 
long maintained their place in our principal schools. The effect 
of this narrow range of reading was to incapacitate our scholars 
from making any real advances in philology, while the great 
facility of verse-making, which every one brought up to the 



tioned in the text— namely, that German scholars limit their chances of 
improvement by the narrow boundary of their own nationality ; and that 
consequently they are not more favourably situated than our English 
scholars were some forty years since. 



38 THE HISTORY AND [Book I. 

University with him, was a very good preparative for the appli- 
cation of verbal criticism to the correction of the ancient poets. 
Hence we find that, in knowledge of the old metres, and in 
conjectural emendation, the scholars of this country were always 
infinitely superior even to the most learned of their continental 
contemporaries. The last great scholar of this class was Porson, 
who was indeed a man of very decided genius, and, though he 
lost himself in trifles unworthy of his power, it must be admitted 
that, in the little which he directly contributed to Greek learn- 
ing, he showed a knowledge of the language in all its details, 
to an extent which can hardly be surpassed. The great mischief 
of which he is guilty was not so much in omitting to do all that 
he might have done, though this is deeply to be regretted, but 
in investing with exclusive importance a merely subordinate 
branch of Greek philology, and thus creating a school of cri- 
ticism in England which has stood seriously in the way of our 
philological progress. 

32 At the termination of the war with Napoleon a very 
great change took place in the intellectual state of the better 
classes in this country. Excluded as we had been, more completely 
than at any former time, from all intercourse with the continent, 
we were suddenly seized with a passion for foreign travelling ; 
Englishmen were to be met with in every corner of the world ; 
an acquaintance with other languages was no longer thought 
wonderful ; and in the process of time many returned home 
impressed with the novel conviction that there was something 
good out of England. This influence of foreign intercourse was 
felt latest in its effect upon classical scholarship ; the prejudice 
against German scholars, which Porson's quarrel with Hermann 
had produced, and his authority with his imitators, kept us for 
some years after the peace in the same state as before it, and 
the pert mediocrity of the Museum Criticum was the only 
representative of our philology : some of Porson's successors, 
especially Elmsley, were able critics, and accurate collectors of 
minutia?, but not philologers. At length, in 1819, Mr Valen- 
tine Blomfield's translation of Matthias's Greek Grammar made 
its appearance, and its great superiority to any thing of the 
kind which we had in England soon recommended it to general 
use; this work and the German editions of classical authors, 



Chap. 2.] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. 39 

which were now imported in considerable numbers, began to 
wean us from our unreasonable prejudices against the scholar- 
ship of other countries. In 1824 appeared the first part of 
Mr Clinton's Fasti Hellenici, the most important work which 
had been published in this country since Bentley's time ; and 
the number of editions of classical works, variorum editions, 
reprints of old lexicons, &c. which appeared about this time, 
were a sufficient proof of a reviving spirit of philology. The 
most important services, however, were performed by the 
almost simultaneous appearance of translations of Niebuhr's 
History of Rome, of Bockh's Public Economy of Athens, and of 
Miiller's Treatise on the Dorians. In fact, English scholarship 
became every day more and more germanized, to such an 
extent that our philologers hardly dared think for themselves. 
Gradually, however, the characteristic elements of the English 
mind have asserted themselves, in this as in other departments ; 
and our apprenticeship to German philology has ended in pro- 
ducing a number of original workmen at least equal to the 
majority of those in whose school they have been trained. In 
some of the highest applications of scholarship we should 
impartially prefer the English to the German expositor ; and 
books have been published in this country during the last 
twenty years, which stand in favourable contrast to any conti- 
nental works on the same subject*. Although Dr Arnold's 
edition of Thucydides, of which the first volume appeared in 
1830, was not distinguished by profound or even very accurate 
learning, we believe that the manly tone in which the notes are 
written, and the large and unprejudiced views which they mani- 
fest, and which were never seen in any former commentary on 
an ancient author, produced a most beneficial influence on clas- 
sical literature in general. The two periodicals which were 
established shortly afterwards, — the Journal of Education and 
the Philological Museum — at least gave indications of the fact 
that a truer scholarship, a more comprehensive criticism, and 
more extended views of general literature, were beginning to 
supersede the meagre, one-sided notions of a few years before. 
And if we must pronounce an opinion with regard to the pros- 



* We may mention particularly The Egypt of Herodotus : with notes 
and preliminary dissertations, by John Kenrick, M.A. London, 1841. 



40 THE HISTORY AND [Book I. 

pects of British philology at present, we must needs confess 
that they are far from discouraging, and that, although there i3 
still much to be done before we can cope with the Germans in 
this field, there is every reason to hope that the labourers will 
not long be wanting. Enlightened and accomplished scholars 
have been placed at the head of all our great schools, so that the 
stumbling-blocks of prejudice are no longer to be dreaded in that 
quarter : the Universities, it is well known, have never opposed 
themselves to any necessary change in the method of their clas- 
sical studies : and in the recent histories of Greece 'and Rome, 
which have been completed or commenced in this country *, and 
which will mark this epoch in the annals of our philology, we may 
clearly discern what may be expected from an union of the multi- 
farious learning and chastened scepticism of the better class of Ger- 
man scholars with the good taste, sober judgment, and straight- 
forwardness for which this country is so eminently distinguished. 

33 While classical scholarship has been making this progress 
in England and on the continent, a new branch of philology has 
grown up by its side, and is now so matured as to be entitled 
to a place among its primary elements. This is the comparative 
study of languages, which, while it also serves as an important 
instrument in the study of ethnography and early history, seems 
likely to engross the whole grammatical element of the older 
philology. It is curious to trace this study back to the time 
when the first glimmerings of light broke upon the scholars of 
Europe, when they first saw the little blue flame which pointed 
out to them the treasures still in the mine. It must be admitted, 
in the first place, that classical scholarship can claim no share in 
the first production of the comparative grammar, which is new 
its most important adjunct. Theology was the original, though 
not perhaps the voluntary cause of this important addition to 
human knowledge. Linguistic science began t in the examina- 



* By Dr Thirhvall, Mr Grote, Mr Maiden, Dr Arnold, Mr Donne, and 
Mr Merivale. 

f Dr Wiseman has given a brief history of comparative philology in 
his first and second lectures. Those who wish for further information 
may consult Dorn, uber dicVcricandtscha/t dt - i, g&nmamiackm umi 

gricschisch-Iatcinischen Sprachstammcs. pp. 91 sqq. and Pott, in Ersch u. 
Grubcr's Encyclop. s. v. Indo-Germani$cJo mums, p. 6 sqq. 



Chap. 2.] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. 41 

tion of the claims of various dialects to be considered as the 
original language of the world ; and the oldest collections of 
materials for the erection of this new superstructure were made 
by Propagandas and Bible Societies. Most of the earliest in- 
quirers favoured the pretensions of the Hebrew, and, as they 
proceeded by derivation rather than by comparison, they were 
obliged to have recourse to a number of very forced etymologies 
in endeavouring to establish the affiliation of the European lan- 
guages to a Semitic mother. Even when they perceived the 
connexion between sundry of the Asiatic and European members 
of the Indo-Germanic family*, as when Lipsius in 1599f or Sal- 
masius in 1643 J made a comparison of modern Persian with 
German and Greek, they were utterly unable, from the want of 
a wider induction, to see the important conclusions to which such 
comparisons might lead, nor indeed had they any fixed principles 
to guide them in their search. 

34 The first who pointed out the true method of proceeding 
was Leibnitz, whose comprehensive genius seems to have sug- 
gested the beginning of almost every improvement in science. 
This great man saw that the Hebrew had no claim to be consi- 
dered as the mother of languages ; he showed that we must take 
the widest possible inductions, and compare with one another 
the languages of nations most remote in geographical position, 
and that the words to be selected for comparison were the most 
simple and necessary terms in each language § ; in fact, he pointed 
out the course by pursuing which succeeding philologers have 
realized most of the hopes which he entertained. 



* It has been erroneously supposed (Camden, Britannia, p. 123 ; 
Wilkins in Chamberlayn. orat. domin. p. 7) that Joseph Scaliger was the 
first to notice the resemblance of Persian and German ; but although he 
could not help observing the identity of some very common words in the 
two languages, he was far from thinking this an argument for a sameness 
of origin {Epistol. p. 489). If any one preceded Lipsius, it must have 
been Pontanus, but we are not acquainted with his writings. 

f In a letter to Schott (Lipsi Opp. Vol. I. p. 282 seqq. Edit. 1613.) 

J De lingua Hellenistica Commentarius, p. 331 seqq. 

§ Otium Hannoveranuni, p. 80; Collectanea Etymologica et Medita- 
tiones de Originibus Gentium (passim) ; Commerc. Epistol. Vol. III. p. 79 
Nouveaux Essais sur I'Entendement Huinain, p. 243, &c. 



42 THE HISTORY AND [Book I. 

35 But, although the right method was thus suggested, 
nothing of any great importance was performed till the disco- 
very of the Sanscrit or sacred language of India. The spirited 
researches of Anquetil du Perron, about the middle of the last 
century, had introduced a knowledge of the old languages of 
Persia, the Zend and the Pehlvi, into Europe ; but, though it has 
since been established that the Zend is but a variety of the 
Sanscrit, no attempt was made to connect the study of Zend 
with philological researches. Anquetil du Perron himself was 
no scholar, and people were much busier in endeavouring to 
settle the claims of the Zend to be at all considered as a lan- 
guage than to profit by it. In the year 1778, however, Mr 
Halhed published at Hoogly his Bengal Grammar, in the preface 
to which he remarks (p. in.), " I have been astonished to find 
the similitude of Sanscrit words with those of Persian and Arabic, 
and even of Latin and Greek : and these not in technical and 
metaphorical terms, which the mutuation of refined arts and 
improved manners might have occasionally introduced ; but in 
the main ground- work of language, in monosyllables, in the 
names of numbers, and the appellations of such things as would 
be first discriminated on the immediate dawn of civilization." 
These remarks were followed up and confirmed by Sir William 
Jones and a German Missionary named John Philip Werdin, 
more commonly known as the Pater Paulinus a Sancto Bartho- 
loma?o. The latter deserves the credit of being the first to 
publish Sanscrit books in Europe, and to make a formal com- 
parison of the Zend and Sanscrit with the German and Latin ; 
but as he had only a vague acquaintance with the Sanscrit, and 
did not print his books in the Diva-nd<jari or Sanscrit cha- 
racter, he can hardly be said to have been the founder of San- 
scrit philology in Europe*. 



* Werdin heaped all kinds of abuse upon our Calcutta scholars, and 
therefore has been somewhat roughly handled by them. Dr Ley den 
(Asiatic Researches, Vol. X. p. 27$), "his I 

SamscrdamUw Ungues Institutio, Ixomce. 1S04, has given a death-blow to 
his vaunted pretensions to profound oriental learning ; and shown, as was 
previously suspected, that he was incapable of accurately distinguishing 
Sanscrit from the vernacular languages of India." And Professor Wilson 
has pointed out the ludicrous fact that he mistook the A 
common Sanscrit vocabulary, for a ritual and liturgy coexistent with the 



Chap. 2.] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. 43 

36 The real beginning of this study is due to our country- 
men in India, who acquired a thorough and critical knowledge 
of the language from the native Pandits, and made it by their 
writings accessible to European students. In the first rank of 
these stand Sir William Jones, the founder of the Asiatic Society 
at Calcutta ; Mr Colebrooke, the author of the first good Sanscrit 
Grammar, the beginner of Sanscrit Lexicography, by his admi- 
rable edition of the Amara-Cosha, and, in fact, the Scaliger of 
Sanscrit scholarship ; Sir Charles Wilkins, the first who printed 
Sanscrit in Europe, and the author of an excellent Sanscrit 
Grammar*; and, finally, Professor Wilson, the compiler of the 
great Sanscrit Dictionary. From England the knowledge of this 
language passed into Germany. Frederick Schlegel, who visited 
this country during the peace of Amiens, learned a smattering 
of Sanscrit from Mr Hamilton, and subsequently gained further 
instruction from M. Langles, at Paris, where, since Anquetil du 
Perron's time, the Asiatic languages had been cultivated with 
some success, and whither we must look with the eyes of hope 
for all such additional knowledge as can be obtained respecting 
the old language of Persia j. The little work on " the Language 
and Wisdom of the Indians," which F. Schlegel published in the 
same year with Colebrooke's Amara-Cosha and Wilkins' Gram- 
mar, was the first to awaken the Germans to a sense of the 
value of these studies. The mere knowledge of Sanscrit, how- 
ever, would not have been sufficient to create or even to suggest 
the comparative philology of the present generation. Polyglot- 
collections of Pater-nosters furnished but scanty materials for a 
wide induction; and though the Mithridates of Adelung and 
Vater undoubtedly contributed to awaken a taste for linguistic 
studies, little advance would have been made in the right direc- 
tion had not some men of genius turned their attention to the 



origin of the Hindu Idolatry and the basis of the Brahmanical super- 
stitions (Preface to Sanscrit Dictionary, 1st edition, p. 22). 

* The Edinburgh reviewer of this grammar (Vol. XIII.) deserves the 
credit of being one of the very first of our countrymen who perceived the 
extensive aflinities of the Sanscrit : he has given a comparative table of 
Sanscrit, Persian, Latin, and German, which at once established the com- 
mon origin of these languages. 

t We allude to M. Eugene Burnouf's most meritorious labours in 
editing and explaining the fragments attributed to Zoroaster. 



44 THE HISTORY AND [Book I. 

great capabilities of this untried field of speculation. The esta- 
blishment of Sanscrit scholarship as a branch of philology is 
due to Francis Bopp and Augustus William Schlegel. By the 
exertions of these two scholars, seconded in no slight degree by 
the illustrious William Humboldt, a sound and accurate know- 
ledge of the Sanscrit language has been introduced into Germany ; 
and Schlegel, in particular, has brought to the study of the old 
Indian poems the truly literary spirit and the highly-finished 
taste, which are so conspicuous in his celebrated lectures on the 
drama and in his inimitable translation of Shakspere. The in- 
terest which the study of Sanscrit has created in Germany results 
entirely from the greater diffusion of philology in that country ; 
and a wonderful impulse to the study of comparative grammar 
had been given by the publication of James Grimm's Deutsche 
Grammatik*, by far the most important book of the kind which 
has made its appearance since the revival of letters. William 
Humboldt's posthumous work on the Kawi dialect applies the 
results of a truly comprehensive survey of human speech to the 
solution of the most important problems respecting the origin of 
language. And at an earlier period, Raynouard had shown, in 
his scientific examination of the Romance lan^uacjes, the causes 
which lead to the disorganization of grammatical structures. By 
means of these masterpieces of philological criticism, and of 
Bopp's numerous writings, to the efficacy of which the subsidiary 
or subsequent researches of Arndt, Chezy, Rask, Abel-Remusat, 
Hitter, the Schlegels, Dorn, Pott, Bunsen, Lepsius, C. Meyer, 
Eugene Burnouf, and Lassen, each working diligently fan his own 
field, have in no slight degree contributed, comparative philol 
has been raised to the rank of a science, the mechanism of the 
different branches of the Indo-Germanic family has been investi- 
gated and explained, the pedigree of the various dialects included 
in it has been enrolled, and their written monuments have been 
rendered accessible and intelligible by the application of the 
sound criticism created and fostered by the classical studies of 
Europe. 

* Grimm's last work (Ocsch. der drnttd S ' |>b|&1S B ^con- 

tains in its ethnographical department some very ingenious and learned 
combinations. But the purely philological chapters appear to us singu- 
larly deficient in critical discrimination. 



Chap. 2] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. 45 

37 In the first beginnings of this new branch of inductive 
science, England, we are sorry to say, did little that will bear 
comparison with the performances of our continental neighbours, 
in regard either to comparative philology in general, or to Indian 
scholarship in particular. Indeed, with the exception of the 
great Colebrooke and Sir Graves Haughton, no one of our San- 
scrit scholars can be called a philologer in the higher sense of 
the word, and even these eminent orientalists have confined their 
attention to the languages of Asia. Accordingly, as we borrowed 
our philology in its literary spirit from the Germans, we were 
compelled to import also the raw materials at least of their com- 
parative grammar. But when the good work had once com- 
menced amongst us, our philology made very rapid progress, 
and we can point to conceptions more original, and to results 
more important, than any which have signalized the efforts of 
the learned elsewhere. It is not to be denied that we had great 
advantages at starting, and that it would have been very dis- 
graceful if we had not learned to profit by them. Bopp's System 
was first published in an English journal*, and one of his most 
able and distinguished pupils, the late Dr Kosen, became natu- 
ralized among us, as Professor of Sanscrit in the University of 
London, more than twenty years ago, and so consecrated his 
learning and abilities to the service of our philology. It is diffi- 
cult to estimate the loss which learning in general sustained in 
the too early death of this admirable person : but we must not 
forget that we really owe to him the first application of compa- 
rative philology to the public teaching of the classical languages, 
a merit which has been too eagerly claimed for and too readily 
conceded to the Greek and Latin lecturers at the London Uni- 
versity. That institution is entitled to grateful commemoration 
from all those who received any part of their philological training 
there during the life of Dr Rosen ; but we must not bestow the 
whole of our acknowledgments on the Professors, who merely 
transmitted to their pupils the ideas and information which they 
had derived from their German colleague f. The same influence 



* Annals of Oriental Literature^ Vol. I. London, 1820. 
f The author considers it incumbent on him to make these remarks, 
because, in the former edition of this work, he was led by a youthful 
feeling of regard for one of his tutors to admit the extravagant claims 



46 THE HISTORY AND [Book I. 

was soon conspicuous in the pages of the Penny Cylopcedia, to 
which Dr Rosen was himself a frequent contributor, and which 
owes its decidedly philological character to writers more or less 
connected with the London University. Independently, however, 
of this immediate relation to Bopp's philological school, there 
appeared, about the same time, two writers whose services to 
philology have been of the utmost value. Dr Prichard, who 
may be regarded as almost the founder of the Science of Ethno- 
graphy, was not long in perceiving the important aid which his 
favourite speculations might derive from a consideration of the 
affinities of language. He made no insignificant contribution to 
pure philology in his vindication of the claim of the Celtic lan- 
guages to a place in the great Indo-Germanic family*; and in 



set up for the first Professors of Greek and Latin at University College. 
He has since then become aware that these gentlemen were entirely in- 
debted to Dr Rosen for their first acquaintance with the principles of 
comparative philology, and that they filtered into their class-rooms tho 
knowledge which they had picked up at the ill-attended lectures or 
in the instructive society of the clitor of the L At the time 

no doubt the Classical Professors did not attempt to conceal their 
obligations to Dr Rosen; but in the . which they have sub- 

sequently shown, to gain a character for originality, they have made no 
mention of the fact that comparative philology was Ant taught at the 
London University because Dr Rosen was there. To those of the stu- 
dents who could profit by it, the result was much the same as if these 
hints had reached them directly, and not through the intervention of 
middle-men : and the University itself may fairly claim the credit of the 
improved philology of which it was the first nursery in this Island. But 
very little praise is due to the individuals, who were invited and induced by 
the very circumstances of their position to adopt any novelties opposed to 
the conventional teaching of our classical schools: and some of the in- 
stances quoted in the following pages will convince the reader that : 
do not possess the philological faculty in any great measure, and that they 
are alike deficient in geniality of conception and comprehensiveness of 
erudition. 

* The Eastern Origin of the Celt' London, 1S31. Although 

we think that Dr Prichard has on the whole proved his point, we must 
take the liberty of saying, that his little book shows a great want of philo- 
logical exactitude. He has not attempted to distinguish between those 
words which the ancient Britons might have derived from the Roman 
conquerors, or from the Anglo-Saxons who subsequently established 
themselves in the island, and those which must have belonged to the 
Celtic dialect from the first. Accordingly, many of his instances, where 



Chap. 2.] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. 47 

his Natural History of Man, and other works, he has done a 
great deal towards classifying and grouping the varieties of 
human speech. Mr Garnett, whose comprehensive and truly- 
philosophical analysis of the constituent elements of language 
was first made known in a notice of Dr Prichard's Celtic work*, 
has since then developed his views in various contributions to 
the records of the London Philological Society ; and we do not 
know where to look for sounder or more instructive examples of 
linguistic research. In regard to palaeography also, English 
scholarship may claim the honour of having made the first and 
most important, or the last and most complete discoveries. 
Young guided Champollion to that systematic examination of the 
Egyptian hieroglyphics, which in the hands of Bunsen and 
Lepsius has produced, and is still producing such important re- 
sults for chronology and historical criticism f. Major Rawlinson, 
with the intelligent aid of Mr Norris, has decyphered and trans- 
lated the contemporaneous records of the first Darius, and the 
same industry and acuteness will probably extract historical truth 
from the cuneiform chronicles which the enterprise and indefati- 
gable zeal of Mr Layard have brought from the ruins of Nineveh. 
To come nearer home, Mr Kemble and Mr Thorpe have prose- 
cuted the study of Anglo-Saxon philology with no less devotion 
than Grimm. Mr Kemble, in particular, formally enounced the 
leading principles of comparative philology in his lectures on the 
history of the English language, delivered before the University 
of Cambridge in 1834 ; and has since published more than one 
original work indicating the depth and extent of his acquaintance 
with Teutonic lore. Dr Bosworth also has connected his Anglo- 



they are merely comparisons of Celtic with the Latin, or with the German 
dialects, prove nothing; his strong point is the comparison with Greek 
and Sanscrit, and his analysis of the pronouns and inflexions ; but in this 
there is still room for a further and more accurate examination. 

* Quarterly Review, Vol. LVII. 

f Many English writers have made valuable contributions to the de- 
tails of the important subject of Egyptology ; e. g. Mr Osborn, Dr Hincks, 
Sir G. Wilkinson, Mr Birch, and Mr Sharpe. Nor must we omit to men- 
tion the labours of Mr G. R. Gliddon, who has made the wonders of 
ancient Egypt familiar to our brethren in the United States of America : 
see Otia JEgyptiaca: Discourses on Egyptian Archaeology and Hieroglyphical 
Discoveries. London, 1849. 



48 THE HISTORY AXD [Book I. 

Saxon researches with comprehensive investigations in general 
philology, and Dr Latham, who had first distinguished himself 
in this field, especially by the publication of a treatise on the 
English language, has since become very generally known as a 
collector of philological facts, mainly with reference to the lan- 
guages of Africa. When we look to the activity of the Asiatic, 
Geographical, Philological, and Syro- Arabian societies in this 
country, to various publications which appear from time to time *, 
and to the effects which may be expected from the adoption of 
ethnographic philology by the British Association, we cannot 
allow ourselves to entertain any fears respecting the successful 
cultivation of linguistic science in this country. 

38 From this survey it will easily be seen what is the con- 
dition of scholarship in reference to the higher objects and more 
extensive applications of which we have spoken in the preceding 
chapter. To these we need not return : but it is desirable that 
we should inquire, whether the knowledge which we have recently 
gained with regard to language in general, and the Indo-Ger- 
manic family of languages in particular, may not now be applied 
by the classical scholar in gaining a more correct insight into the 
structure of the Greek language, in classifying more accurately 
its grammatical forms, and in interpreting more satisfactorily 
the authors who have written in it. To this inquiry we may add 
another : whether the general study of comparative irrammar as 
applied to the Indo-Germanic languages would not gain by such 
an examination of the most perfect member of the family. 

The advantages which classical scholarship would derive from 
a more intimate union with comparative philology may easily be 
enumerated. The true scholar is of course not merely a student 
of the Greek and Latin languages and an interpreter of the 
authors who have written in them. It is his business to lift the 



* We ought particularly to mention the late Mr Winning's Manual of 
Comparative Philology, London, 1S38. The first and second parts of 
this work, which are composed, in a great measure, of well-selected ex- 
tracts and translations from other writers, with intelligent criticisms on 
their opinions, are worthy of almost unqualified approbation. The third 
part is rather at variance with the other two, and is deformed by r 
ences to Rabbinical authorities, on which we do not set the slightest 
value. 



Chap. 2.] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. 49 

curtain which has fallen on the glories of the past : to bring 
Athens and Rome again upon the stage : to enable the modern 
reader to regard the old authors and the events of which they 
write with the eyes of a contemporary. With regard to this 
latter function the study of comparative philology is of little 
avail. The Greek and Latin authors must be read together 
and in connexion, and we must endeavour to peruse them with 
as little interruption as possible from modern and extrinsic asso- 
ciations. But for the study of the Greek language alone and 
for the critical interpretation of Greek authors, comparative gram- 
mar is indispensable. And first, with regard to the explanation 
of particular passages, in which daily experience teaches us that 
much remains to be done even after all the labours of preceding 
scholars. The method of most extensive application is indeed 
purely a literary one : it is to deduce the meaning of the words 
in question from a general survey of the connexion of thought in 
the whole work, and, for the language, from a comparison of the 
passage with other similar ones in the same or contemporary 
writers. Cases, however, frequently occur in which the difficulty 
or misapprehension results entirely from an ignorance of the 
meaning of some particular word ; and though, as even Thomas 
Aquinas has told us*, the signification of a word is not identical 
with its etymology, yet the latter is sometimes essential, on the 
principle of suggestion, in order that we may arrive at the former, 
which in most cases will also be determined, prima facie, by the 
context. Now in such cases we must have recourse to compara- 
tive philology combined with, and regulated by, the old method 
of scholarship, and we hope to show, in the course of the follow- 
ing pages, that something may be effected by such an union. 
But secondly, it is also the object of the Greek scholar to anato- 
mize the forms of the words, to classify them according to their 
etymological coherency, and so to simplify the practical grammar 



* Aliud est etymologia nominis et aliud significatio nominis. Etymologia 
attenditur secundum id a quo imponitur nomen ad significandum : nominis 
vero significatio secundum id ad quod signi/icandum imponitur, quos quando- 
que diversa sunt ; nomen enim lapidis imponitur a lossione pedis, non tamen 
hoc signijicat, Alioquin ferrum, cum pedem Icedat, lapis esset. Similiter 
etiam nomen superstitionis non oportet quod significet illud a quo nomen est 
impositum. — Thomas Aquinas Summa Theolog. II. 2, qucest. 92. Articulus 
primus: conclusio ad 2. p. 201. Edit. Paris 1631. 

E 



50 THE HISTORY JCsB [Book I. 

of the language. For this purpose again comparative philology 
is indispensable. If we were confined to the Greek language we 
should know absolutely nothing of the principles of its verb-con- 
jugation, of the declension of its nouns, of the value of its particles, 
and of the real causes of its peculiar conformation. A sufficient 
proof of this is furnished by the old grammars and lexicons. 
But after we have once taken up the higher ground of compara- 
tive philology our difficulties on these points, be they ever so 
great, immediately vanish, and our perplexities, /however in- 
tricate, are at once unravelled. In consequence of the facility 
with which all this is effected by the true scholar, many who knew 
little either of the language which they wished to illustrate or of 
the aids which they sought to employ, have been led to attempt 
a solution of all the difficulties of Greek Grammar by a compari- 
son with Latin, German, or Sanscrit. It is not to be wondered 
at that such persons should fall into great errors and incur the 
just reprobation of mere Greek scholars. At the same time, 
however, it is not to be supposed, as some of these last have 
inferred from the failure of the would-be philologers, that he who 
would increase our knowledge of the Greek language must con- 
fine himself to it, and that the study of comparative grammar is 
rather injurious than beneficial*. It is true that an accurate 
study of the Greek language alone is more profitable to the 
educated man and to the scholar than a smattering in twenty 
others : for knowledge which may be made the subject of thought 
is always better than general information which can only be 
rendered available for conversation in society. It is also true 
that our means of elucidating the difficulties of the Greek lan- 
guage, from itself alone and independently of comparative gram- 
mar, are greater at the present than at any former time. The 
inscriptions which have been lately collected and explained, the 
remains of Greek grammarians and lexicographers which have 



* These remarks are pointed at Lobeek (Aghiophamus. p. 478, note i. 
ParaVip. p, 127 note. Pathol. pra?f. p. vii.) and his pupil Ellendt ( 
SophocJ. prref. p. iii.). See V 195, note 2. They also rel'er 

to the Programme of the Imperial Academy oi Sciences at St Petersburg 
(29 Dec. 183G) proposing a reward for a treatise on the Greek dialects 
from which all consideration of Sanscrit affinities was to be excluded. 
This Programme is printed in Seebode's Nem J-thrluchcr, vn. Jahrg. VL 
Band. 3 Heft, p. 341. 



Chap. 2.] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. 51 

been published from manuscripts in the various public libraries 
of Europe, and the labours of Lobeck and others in examining 
the forms of the Greek language as they appear in the whole 
range of authors, would have enabled us to arrive at more accu- 
rate conclusions, than was before possible, with regard to the 
earliest state of the Greek dialects, even though the other lan- 
guages of the Indo- Germanic family had been unknown or neg- 
lected. But, though the comparative philologer would be much 
to blame if he failed, as some have done, to avail himself of these 
and similar resources, those are not to be listened to who would 
tell us, on the other hand, that the mere Greek scholar is more 
to be trusted than one whose studies, while equally accurate, have 
taken a wider range. It is as if a man, who might illuminate a 
room with a number of lamps, should find out that some one of 
them gave more light than any one of the others, and should 
therefore content himself with this one alone. The industrious 
observer of phenomena in the Greek, or any other language of 
the family to which we refer, is but a hewer of wood and a 
drawer of water for the architectonic philologer : he brings some 
of the materials necessary to the work, but cannot lay claim 
to any share in building up the mighty fabric of general scho- 
larship ; for, dig as he may in his own narrow quarry, he will 
never catch a glimpse of the ground-plan and elevation so long 
as he remains there. One-sided views are of little use to the 
philologer of our day ; and if he who forsakes the specialties of 
Greek for the generalities of comparative grammar has made 
a false step, neither is he to be commended, who, from prejudice 
or want of resolution, obstinately refuses to read more than one 
page of the great book of language which lies open before him. 

39 With regard to the other question, namely, as to the 
benefits which would result to the general study of compara- 
tive grammar from a combination of it with accurate Greek 
scholarship, very little need be said. The majority of those 
who have hitherto written on comparative philology have re- 
garded the subject from the side of the oriental languages or 
of the German dialects, and, occupied by the extent and novelty 
of their subject, have not paid sufficient attention to the old 
classical languages of Europe. In fact, no one of the great 
comparative philologers who have done so much for the science 

E2 



52 THE HISTORY AXD [Book I. 

is a professed classical scholar, and, as might have been ex- 
pected, they occasionally fall into errors with regard to the 
structure of the Greek language in particular, which are suffi- 
ciently obvious to the scholar who has been able to study that 
language with the advantages which may be derived from an 
acquaintance with the results of their laborious researches. For 
example, Bopp's Comparative Grammar is conspicuously deficient 
in that critical tact which is rarely found in any one who has not 
passed through the regular training of the older classical scholar- 
ship ; nor indeed does this excellent etymologer give any evidence 
of an extensive familiarity with the Greek or Latin authors. 
Intimately acquainted with the old languages of India and 
Persia, and well disciplined in Grimm's Teutonic philology, Bopp 
has not been able to acquire either the knowledge or the habits 
of mind which characterize the ripe and elegant scholar. His 
own field is wide, and he has well surveyed it. But he has not 
crossed its boundaries*. It must not be forgotten, however, that, 
although the science of comparative philology advances so rapidly 
that every succeeding writer, if competent to add any thing to 
the stock of knowledge, is also able to correct many mistakes 
and supply many deficiencies of his predecessors, no one ought 
to make this the ground of any assumption of superiority ; for it 
would well become every one who follows in the steps of Grimm 
and Bopp to recollect that he must himself have fallen into much 
graver errors had not these men gone before him : the KeXeuOo- 
iroiol 7rcuc€$ H(pai<jrov, "^Oora avtjfxepov TiQei>T€* ti(i€pwfieit)i>, 
should be held in honour even by the constructors of rail-roads. 

40 To pass from these general considerations to the subject 
at present before us, it may, we think, be concluded, that the 



* It is much to be regretted that Lord Ellesmere, to whose exertions 
and liberality the English student is indebted for a translation of Bopp's 
Verplmchmde Qimmiatik, did not seek the assistance of some cla~- 
scholar, who might have supplied the defects of his author, and com 
his oversights. The great knowledge of Sanscrit po-sessed by the Editor, 
Professor Wilson, was not needed for the mere translation of Bopp's gram- 
mar, which, on that subject, speaks for itself; and it is clear that the 
Professor and his coadjutor, Lieutenant Eastwick, were not competently 
acquainted with the German language in general, or with the gramma- 
tical technicalities of German philology in particular. 



Chap. 2.] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. 53 

time is at length come when the Greek language at all events 
must be subjected to the same scrutiny, absolute and comparative, 
to which the great body of German dialects has been submitted 
by Grimm, and the Sanscrit, Zend, and Sclavonic, in addition to 
these, by Bopp. This examination, however, should be lexico- 
graphical as well as grammatical. Buttmann was well aware of 
this, when he added his Lexilogus to his admirable grammar. 
And here let us express our regret that a man so wonderfully 
gifted, combining as he did all the learning of the old school 
with sound views and unexampled ingenuity, was placed in an 
age preceding though by a few years only the full establishment 
of comparative philology *. It must be obvious to any reader of 
Buttmann's works, that, had he possessed a sufficient knowledge 
of the other languages of the Indo-Germanic family, especially 
had he been acquainted with the Asiatic branch, the work which 
we consider as incumbent upon the scholars of our age would 
not be still unperformed. As it is, he was in spirit a comparative 
philologer, and succeeding scholars must make his works, the 
Grammar and the Lexilogus, at once the model and the ground- 
work of their labours. 

The object of this work, so far as it is confined to the ad- 
vancement of our knowledge of Greek, is to give to the Grammar 
and Lexicography of that language all the aid that may be de- 
rived from the present state as well of Greek scholarship as of 
comparative philology ; and for this purpose to combine in one 
body a series of contributions to the better classification of the facts 
of Greek grammar, and also to the explanation of those words 
which appear most frequently and prominently in the best writers, 
and the meaning of which is still doubtful or but half understood. 

We proceed to set forth its object so far as it has reference 
to the general philosophy of language. 



Much the same remarks had been made by H. A. Hamaker, in a 
valuable work with which the Author did not become acquainted until 
some years after the publication of his former edition (Akademisclw 
Vorlezingen, Leyden, 1835, p. 3): "hoe dikwerf heeft niet Buttmann in 
dienzelfden Lexilogus zijne toevlugt moeten nemen tot gissingen en on- 
waarshijn-lijkheden, waar het voile licht der waarheid hem zou hebben 
bestraald, zoo hij met de vergelijkende studie der Germaansche dialekten 
en haar vasten grondslag, de aloude taal der Brahmanen, ware bekend 
geweest?" 



CHAPTER III. 
THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 

41 Etymology and Syntax — how they ought to be discriminated. 42 Original unity 
of language, which is necessarily co-ordinate with human reason. 43 The Book 
of Genesis is in accordance with the results of philosophy in this respect ; for it 
teaches : 44 (1) that language is an endowment, and not an invention ; 45 (2) 
that differences of language are the effect and not the cause of 'dispersion. 46 
Monumental writing connected with idolatry. 47 Spiritual abstraction favoured 
by alphabetic writing ; this was manifested in the highest degree by the inven- 
tion of printing. 48 Effects of literature on the structure of language ; syntax 
and prose. 49 Passage of language from a primary to a secondary, and from this 
to a tertiary state. The latter presumes ethnical admixture as well as literary 
cultivation. 50 Degraded languages ; these also capable of literary cultivation. 
The Chinese an example. 51 Outline of linguistic psychology. 52 Two ele- 
ments of speech, (a) the organizing, (b) the material. 53 Abstraction and 
association. 54 Space and time. 55 Algebra. 50 Realism and nominalism. 
57 Plato a nominalist. 58 Outlines of Plato's dialectics. .">!i He was opposed 
to ultra-nominalism. GO Design of his Cratylus. 01 Home Tooke the modern 
representative of the school controverted in Plato's Cratylus. 02 Philosophical 
design of the present work. 

41 rpHOSE who have hitherto written on the philosophy of 
I language have generally fallen into one of two error- ; — 
they have either omitted altogether the consideration of that 
department which relates to the formation of sentences, or, what 
is worse, they have failed to discriminate the two divisions of the 
subject, and conducting their etymological analysis on strictly 
logical principles, have necessarily taken a perverted view of the 
nature and object of their inquiries. In the present work we 
have endeavoured to remedy this defect, by showing that the 
resolution of a sentence into its elements is a totally different 
process from the analysis of those elements themselves — that in 
a scientific investigation of the general speech of man our prin- 
cipal concern is with the word, its structure and developement ; 
that the same causes which create syntax, or logical sentei 
tend to corrupt and destroy the original forms of speech, so that 
the attempt to derive the elements of the word from the 
elements of the sentence is absurd, as seeking the whole in 
its part, and must lead to conclusions utterly false and contra- 
dictory. 



Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 55 

A formal discussion of the philosophy of language attempts 
the solution of two problems ; — it purposes to ascertain, first, 
the origin of language ; and secondly, the connexion of our words 
with our thoughts. But, although this may be adopted as a 
methodical division and for form's sake, the two questions, 
according to our view of the former of them, are in fact one 
and the same ; for, if language is, as we have no doubt it is, a 
necessary result of the constitution of man as a rational being, if 
the gifts of reason and speech are necessarily coordinate, then 
there can be no discussion, but simply an explanatory statement, 
with regard to the connexion between language and mind. 

42 The primitive state of mankind has been a favourite sub- 
ject of inquiry both in this country and on the continent, and 
some theory of the origin of language generally forms a part 
of such disquisitions. Till the introduction of the comparative 
study of languages these theorists wanted their facts, and there- 
fore met with the fate of those who advance unsupported hypo- 
theses — they did not arrive at any convincing results. The 
researches of the present century, however, have given an entirely 
new turn to this subject ; the right method has been adopted, 
and it is this, — that the only safe conclusions, with regard to 
the primitive condition of language, are to be derived from a 
rigorous scrutiny of all the various forms which it exhibits in its 
existing state ; and though philologers have not yet examined all 
the dialects of the world in a complete and scientific manner, 
they have advanced so far as to be able to divide them all into 
a few great families, and have moreover examined the different 
members of the class to which our own language belongs, with 
a minute accuracy which leaves little to be desired : the facts 
with regard to this class have not only been carefully collected, 
but also scientifically arranged, so that the utmost reliance may 
be placed upon any conclusions logically deduced from them : 
and from a comparison of this family (considered in its unity, 
which is thus established), with the ether great classes of the 
general language of mankind, a comparison guided and illustrated 
by sound psychological views, the most profound and highly- 
gifted of those philosophers who have devoted themselves to this 
study have inferred, that language is the necessary and sponta- 
neous result of man's constitution, that human speech and human 



56 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. 

nature are inseparable, and consequently that language was ori- 
ginally one*: physiology has made some important approxima- 



* William ron Humboldt, the most eminent of those who have made 
the philosophy of the word their study, has stated his opinion to this 
effect in the most explicit terms. The reader will not perhaps be dis- 
pleased if we subjoin a few extracts from his great posthumous work, the 
introduction to his treatise on the Kawi language. The title of this in- 
troduction is, uber die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und 
ihren Einjluss auf die geistige Entwickelung des Menschengesckleehts (on the 
varieties in the structure of human languages, and their influence upon 
the intellectual developement of the human race). " The true solution 
of the contrast of stability and fluctuation, which we find in language, lies 
in the unity of human nature. Whatever is derived from that which is 
properly one with me, in this the conceptions of subject and object, of de- 
pendance and independance, are interchanged. — What is strange to me in 
language is so for my (for the time being) individual, not for my originally 
true, nature" (p. 63). — " The reciprocal working of the individual upon 
language becomes clearer when we remember that the individuality of a 
language, according to the ordinary acceptation, is such only by comparison, 
whereas the real individuality lies in the speaker for the time being. Speech 
acquires its last definiteness only from the individual. No one assigns 
precisely the same meaning to a word that another does, and a shade of 
meaning, be it ever so slight, ripples on, like a circle in the water, through 
the entirety of language. — The power of speech may be regarded as a 
physiological effect; that proceeding from the individual as a purely 
dynamical one. The regularity of speech and its forms consists in the 
influence exerted upon the individual; but there is a principle of freedom 
in that reciprocal working which proceeds from him ; for something may 
rise up in a man, the ground of which no understanding in preceding 
circumstances could discover" (pp. 64, 5). "Language is the outward 
appearance of the intellect of nations : their language is their intellect, 
and their intellect their language: we cannot sufficiently identify the 
two" (p. 37). " We must regard speech not so much as a do;, , but 

rather as a, begetting ; we must abstract from what it is as a designation of 
objects, and a help to the understanding ; on the contrary, we must go back 
more carefully to a consideration of its origin, so nearly connected with 
the subjective mental activity, and to its reciprocal influence thereupon " 
(p. 39). " Understanding and speaking are only different effects of the 
same power of speech" (p. 54). " Speech, considered in its real nature, 
is something constantly passing away. Even its preservation by means of 
writing keeps it only in an incomplete, mummy-like fashion, in which it 
can get vitality only by lively recitation. In itself it is not an epyov, but 
an cWpyeca. Accordingly its true definition can be genetic only. It is. in 
fact, the ever-recurring labour of the mind to make articulate sowid appli- 



Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 57 

tions to a similar result with respect to the bodily structure of 
mankind*; and thus external probability leads us to the conclu- 
sion, that the varieties which we distinguish as well in the form 
as in the language of man must have been produced by the dis- 
persion of the human race from some one home over the whole 
surface of the earth, and by the subsequent operation of the 
multifarious causes to which the different parts of the separated 
family would be exposed. 

The result of investigations of this nature is generally more 
satisfactory to our inquisitive spirit than any written testimony, 
however authenticated, with regard to the creation and early 
state of man : for the facts to which such a testimony relates 
occurred long before the invention of writing ; they are traditions 
handed down by word of mouth from father to son, beginning 
with the first man, and so going on to the man who wrote them 
down, and of which even the earliest narrator could have known 
little without a direct and immediate revelation. Yet all nations 
have traditions, in a great measure consistent, which describe 
minutely and definitely their primitive state : and when we find 
that the oldest of these traditions agrees exactly and entirely 
with the result of our anthropological studies so far as we have 
been able to prosecute them with safety, the most obstinate 
sceptic cannot refuse the homage of veneration to a narrative, of 
which, if true, there could be but one origin. It matters little 



cable to the expression of thought" (p. 41). The same author in a paper 
in the Berlin Transactions for 1820-1 (p. 247) expresses himself as follows: 
" According to my fullest conviction speech must be regarded as immedi- 
ately inherent in man ; for it is altogether inexplicable as the work of 
his understanding in its simple consciousness. We are none the better 
for allowing thousands and thousands of years for its invention. There 
could be no invention of language unless its type already existed in the 
human understanding. In order that man should understand a single 
word truly, not as a mere perceivable utterance, but as articulate sound 
denoting a conception, he must have already in his head the whole con- 
nexion of speech. There is nothing individual in speech ; every one of 
its elements announces itself as part of a whole. Natural as the belief in 
a gradual formation of speech may appear, the invention of it could only 
happen at once. Man is man only by means of speech ; but in order to 
invent speech he must be already man." 

* See Dr Prichard's Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, 
and Dr Wiseman's Third and Fourth Lectures. 



58 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. 

to us that the divine truths of the Book of Genesis are some- 
times couched in figurative or allegorical language, that the his- 
tory of our first parents is veiled under the common oriental 
symbols, that it teaches no lessons of chronology or natural phi- 
losophy, or even that some harmless interpolations may have 
been introduced into the text by priests and prophets, -when, 
with the fear of a Chaldean invasion before their eyes, they 
sought to rouse the drooping patriotism of their countrymen by 
a republication of the sacred books which told of God's great 
deeds in behalf of their ancestors and of his greater promises 
to their descendants ; still less are we disturbed by our know- 
ledge of the fact, that this, as well as the other books of the 
Jewish canon, was revised, modernized, and probably abridged, 
by the learned Ezra and his Masorethic conclave, after the 
return from captivity ; it is clear that the essential parts of this 
document remained unaltered, and we have enough of internal 
evidence and extrinsic confirmation to justify our belief, that this 
book contains the residuary substratum of those ancient and 
venerable traditions of the Aramaean race, which descended by 
an unbroken chain from the first and highly-favoured men who 
heard the voice of Jehovah Elohim as it floated to and fro on 
the evening breeze*. 

43 It is not our design in this place to enter upon a detailed 
exposition of the coincidences of science and revelation ; and we 
think we might fairly assume, as the basis of our view with 
regard to the origin of language, the account given in the Book 
of Genesis, so far as that account is confirmed by the researches 
of modern philosophy. Now the results of our philosophy are 
as follows. We find in the internal mechanism of language the 
exact counterpart of the mental phenomena which writers on 
psychology have so carefully collected and classified. We find 
that the structure of human speech is the perfect reflex or image 
of what we know of the organization of the mind : the same 
description, the same arrangement of particulars, the same no- 
menclature would apply to both, and we might turn a treatise 
on the philosophy of mind into one on the philosophy of language, 



* Genesis iii. 8. See Kennicott, Two Dissertations, Oxford, 1747, 
p. 47, note k. 



Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 59 

by merely supposing that every thing said in the former of the 
thoughts as subjective is said again in the latter of the words 
as objective. And from this we should infer, that if the mind 
of man is essentially and ultimately the same, — in other words, 
if man, wherever he lives, under whatever climate and with what- 
ever degree of civilization, is still the same animal, — the only 
reasoning and discoursing animal,— then language is essentially 
the same, and only accidentally different, and there must have 
been some common point from which all the different languages 
diverged, some handle to the fan which is spread out over all 
the world, some first and primeval speech ; and that this speech 
was not gradually invented, but necessarily sprung, all armed 
like Minerva, from the head of the first thinking man, as a neces- 
sary result and product of his intellectual conformation. 

But it is clear that the mind of man is essentially and 
ultimately the same in kind. Whatever may be the form of 
his features or the colour of his skin, man is everywhere dis- 
tinguished from the rest of animated creation by the godlike 
faculty of reason; and the scarcely less godlike attribute of 
speech is enjoyed by all human beings, from the broad-browed 
European, who speculates upon the high things of heaven, to his 
woolly-haired brother, who leads an unreflecting life in the arid 
plains of Africa. And this is not all. As the only combination 
of the two lives, — the animal and the spiritual, — as the only 
veritable amphibion in the world*, as the only union of im- 
mortal mind with corruptible matter, as the only being gifted 
with the co-ordinate faculties of reason and speech, man is not 
merely one; he stands alone among living creatures. And he 
needs no tradition to convince him of this. Jealous for the 
dignity of his species and proud in the consciousness of exclusive 
privileges, he is led by his philosophical instinct to reject with 
disdain any attempt to classify him with the animal tenants of 
this lower world ; and, that he may make the line of distinction 
between himself and them more definite and palpable, he claims 
for himself an aboriginal unity, and traces back the pedigree of 
his scattered families to one common ancestor and to one com- 
mon home. It is true that there are great outward bodily 
differences between the different races of men, and that there 



Sir T. Brown, Religio Medici, XXXIV. 



60 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. 

have been found some advocates for materialism, who ignore the 
spiritual indications of unity, and deny the claim of the inhabit- 
ants of Africa to rank with Europeans as the same animal. 
But, as we have already said, a more enlightened research has 
triumphed over all these difficulties, and it is now seen that the 
physical differences of the races spread over the earth's surface 
are explicable from secondary causes, on the hypothesis of a 
primeval identity of origin; and that we may account in the 
same manner for those differences in intellectual c|.evelopement 
which correspond to the physical differences of nations. The 
secondary causes to which these varieties are attributable are 
climate and civilization. We find that the language of a nation 
is materially affected by differences of climate and soil, and varies 
directly with the intellectual organization of the people; that 
language necessarily receives its last touches of completeness 
in the individual; that for the same dialect it varies with the 
education and reflecting powers of the speaker, and that for 
the same family of language it varies according to the education 
and reflecting habits of the particular tribe, in other words, 
according to the degree of civilization. When induction thus 
harmonizes with the more immediate intuitions of psychology, 
it might seem to some readers a superfluous work to go farther : 
but there are still many others, who will rejoice to know that 
these conclusions are confirmed, or at least not contradicted, by 
the primitive records with which their religious faith is so inti- 
mately connected. For the sake therefore of that union between 
science and faith, which ought to be self-sufficient, but which 
ignorant bigotry is perpetually endeavouring to disturb, we will 
step aside to show, that, in this case at least, there is no conflict 
of authorities; that here there is no occasion for mutual con- 
cessions, or a feigned reconciliation; but that the Book of Genesis 
itself describes the speech of man as an endowment, not as an 
invention, and attributes the differences of human language to a 
constrained emigration from the aboriginal settlement of our race. 

44 " And out of the ground," says the sacred writer, u the 
Lord God formed every beast of the field and every fowl of the 
air : and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call 
them : and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that 
was the name thereof. And Adam gave names to all cattle, 



Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 61 

and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field ; but 
for Adam there was not found an help meet for him" {Genesis, 
ch. ii. vv. 19, 20). These words imply that the power of 
speaking merely, and not language, was given to man, and 
therefore there are no grounds for the inference which a modern 
writer would draw from the passage, that the language of 
Adam was an immediate revelation from the divinity*. Accord- 
ing to the plain construction of the passage, aboriginal man was 
so constituted that he had the power of speech, and this power 
he exercised first of all in giving names to the different species 
of animals ; but, says the historian, although he had this power 
of speech he had no one to converse with, no one to share his 
sympathies, no one gifted like himself with the wonderful powers 
of reason and speech, no help meet for him, among all the 
numbers of animated creation which thus passed in review be- 
fore him ; and so God created him a wife. This short passage 
actually contains the outline of all that philosophy and philology 
have taught us of the probable origin of language. The ulti- 
mate results of human consciousness are, that the thinking subject 
is, and that there is something without him ; that there is, in 
the language of the German philosophers, a me and a not-me, or, 
if you will, he knows that he himself exists, and believes that 
there is something which is not himself. In those two results 
of all consciousness, in the consciousness of self and of not-self, 
is comprehended all the world as it exists for the individual. 
In the former are included all the thoughts, feelings, impres- 
sions and ideas which a contact with the outward world and 
the consequent sensations produce upon the thinking subject. 



* Quand on lit dans la Genfae, que toutes les criatures passerent en face 
de Dieu devant Adam, qui leur imposa des noms, espece de baptSme de V esprit, 
qu'il leur con/era on concoit pourquoi, dans le systeme des philosophes de 
V Orient, qui est aussi celui de Pythagore et de Platon, Vhomme est envisage" 
dans son origins comme un second cr&ateur, comme un verbe incarn£ &voquant 
au moyen du discours les mysteres de la creation : espece de Mage en rapport 
avec le monde idial et le monde terrestre, avec la nature et Dieu. C'est le 
language primitif des hommes qui est Varbre de la science ; c'est la, comme le 
disent les livres Indiens, le Veda Celeste ; et quelque corruption que les infir- 
miUs de notre nature y aient introduite par dans son essence, c'est une revela- 
tion de la Divinite m$me" (Le Catholique, Tom. I. p. 418, quoted by C. J. 
Sachs, de statu generis humani originali, p. 19 seq. Berol. 1831.) 



62 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. 

But the human mind is naturally impatient of pure thought : 
it strives ever after objectivity, and endeavours to complete and 
fix its inward conceptions by some species or other of outward 
manifestation ; the thought completes itself in the expression. 
Even if a man were placed alone in the world with all the 
faculties which he now enjoys, he would give names to the 
different objects of animal creation as they passed in review 
before him, he would seize upon some one prominent attribute 
in each class and mark it by a name of distinction*. This 
name he would no doubt express by that which is the only 
natural and obvious method, namely, by articulate sound. But 
if such an effort of language might be expected from a solitary 
man, it would be the inevitable consequence of his meeting with 
some other thinking and speaking being ; he would then neces- 
sarily seek to transfer his thoughts to that outward objective 
world which was cognizable to his fellow as well as to himself, 
by the most natural and obvious method, which is, as we have 
said, by articulate sound ; and if there were at first but two 
such persons in the world, their communications, regulated by ■ 
convention based upon a community of reason and necessitated 
by a community of wants, would constitute the first language, 
and, by transmission, the language of all mankind. 

45 The same striving after outward expression, which neces- 
sarily produced spoken language, as its primary effect, led in the 
course of time to the invention of letters or writing as a more 
durable manifestation of the thoughts, which was, however, 
strictly artificial, and must therefore be carefully distinguished 
from the natural language which necessarily preceded it. The 
first writing was not alphabetical ; each symbol was an inde- 
pendent and significant term, and the huge masses of stone 
which they set up for monuments, the walls and temples which 
they built, and the rude figures which they carved and painted 
upon them, were each and all of them distinct words. The 
pyramids, arches, and obelisks on which the traveller still gazes 



* "Without looking to the communication between man ami man, 
speech is the necessary condition of the thought of the individual in 
secluded loneliness." Humboldt, iibcr die 1 mtrtscM . Sj 

p. 53. 



Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 63 

with wonder, the ruins of Egypt, Babylon, and India, are not 
merely, as a quaint writer* has called them, the irregularities of 
vainglory, the wild enormities of ancient magnanimity ; — they 
are the huge chronicles by which the men who built them tell 
to posterity the wonderful history of their industry and of their 
art, — the writing of a race of giants, traced with enduring 
characters on the great page of nature, which neither the rage 
of the elements, nor the passions of men, nor even the slow sure 
hands of time have been able as yet to convert into a palimpsest. 
The primary impulse to these rude writings was a hankering 
after durability, a desire to leave a lasting memorial of their 
history, which should at the same time serve as a rallying point 
to their descendants. According to the sacred writings, they 
wished to build themselves a city and a tower, and to make 
themselves a name, lest they should be scattered abroad upon 
the face of the whole earth : as a punishment of this attempt 
the dispersion and consequent varieties of human language took 
place {Genesis xi. 4 foil.). It does not in any way appear from 
the words of the sacred narrative that the common language of 
man was violently and suddenly broken up into a number of 
different speeches or dialects. Indeed it has been more than 
doubted by some of the most learned commentators whether the 
confusion of tongues really means anything more than the sudden 
manifestation of a spirit of dissension among those who were 
previously united in a common design |. The words of Scripture 



* Sir T. Brown, HydriotapMa, ad fin. 
t This view of the passage was first proposed by Vitringa (Observ. 
Sacr. Tom. I. p. 106), who is followed by Robertson (Clavis Pentateuchi, 
pp. 93, 96) and opposed by Perizonius, Orig. Bdbyl. c. ix., whose views are 
adopted by Dathe and Rosenmiiller. It is the obvious intention of the 
writer of Genesis to make Babylon the scene and the starting-point of the 
dispersion of men. This is clear from the use of the particle UW v. 7, 
which is empatically repeated in v. 9, and from the etymology proposed 
for the name TQ.3., Bdvel, which the writer connects with the root 7/IL, 
" he poured forth," though the word would be more naturally explained as 
Uj ^Vj ^ a0 Bd = '■?■ 2W1 3 porta vel aula, civitas Beli (Winer s. v.). 
As Robertson rightly observes, all depends on the meaning of the words 
HSvtf and E'Hll in v. 1. He says ; "etiamsi TlSW significat aliquando 
linguam, dialectum, ut in Jes. xix, 18. xxviii, 11. xxxiii, 19. Ezech. iii, 5, 



64 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book L 

are(vv. 7, 8): "Let us go down, and there confound their language, 
that they may not understand one another's speech. So the 
Lord scattered them abroad from thence upon the face of all the 
earth; and they left off to build the city." The plain con- 
struction is, that as the offence of the Noachidae consisted in 
their reluctance to emigrate, their punishment was the dispersion 
which they sought to avoid ; and this dispersion might be, and 
probably was, a cause of the difference of tongues, but could 
hardly have been an effect of it ; for if any two sets, of men had 
a common object in view, they would not be long in finding a 
medium of communication. The statement therefore in the Book 
of Genesis is simply this ; that when the whole or a considerable 
portion of the early inhabitants of the world were settled in 
Mesopotamia, their attempt to contravene the decree of Pro- 
vidence, that man should multiply over the whole face of the 
earth, was punished with so immediate and sudden a dispersion 
that large gaps were left between the settlements of the different 
races, and by the operation of secondary causes the languages of 
the earth became different. On the supposition that the lan- 



9. Ps. lxxxi, 6, Scriptores fere sacri sermonis diakctum et linguam per 
\\wl exprimunt; iis in locis ubi omnibus constat de dialectis, non vero 
de sermonum sententiis, agi. Vide Gen. x, 5, 20. Vox "Q1 verti p 
ratio seque ac sermo, uti \6yos apud Graecos ; hie igitur reddi possit D^"01 
per ejusmodi sententias quibus inest consilium et deliberatio." But even 
if we take the words literally, and consider H2 w* , " lip," a synonym of 
pttH, "tongue," it is clear from Psalm It. 10, which perhaps contains an 
allusion to this very passage, that according to the Hebrew idiom a dis- 
traction of counsels might be spoken of as a division and confusion of 
language: for David says with reference to Achitophel and his brother 

conspirators: C}'^ ^2 tf« ybl, "Swallow up, O Lord, divide 
their tongue," where the root J^S clearly points to the name 2^2 given 
to the Patriarch in whose time the dispersion is placed ; Gt n. x. 25. With 
regard to v. 4, the phrase D^EC'2 KPIO) is merely an exaggeration like 
the epithet ovpavo^iajs', and Le Clerc has shewn that Citf, "a name," means 
simply a monument or pictorial commemoration; cf. n. Sam. viii. 13: 
and Ennius, Atmal. xvi: 

Reges per regum statuasque sepulcraque quaerunt, 

uEdificant nomen, summa nituntur opuui vi. 



Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 65 

guage of man was originally one, it is necessary, as Niebuhr 
suggests*, to suppose also a miraculous divulsion; for it is hardly 
possible that there should be such differences as we find between 
two contiguous families of languages, — the Semitic and the Indo- 
Germanic for instance, — if the nations which belong to the 
different families had gradually and slowly separated : but the 
miracle would be equally great and effective if it were such as 
we suppose. As far, however, as the historical character of the 
Book of Genesis is concerned, the so-called confusion of tongues 
resolves itself into a case of disunion and dispersion ; and science 
admits that this is the most probable cause of physical and 
linguistic differences. 

46 It would not be consistent with the narrow limits im- 
posed upon these incidental remarks to examine all or any of 
the theological inferences which might be deduced from this 
history of the tower- builders. We must not here pause to ask 
whether the religious lesson conveyed by this history of the 
dispersion of primitive men be any thing further than an inti- 
mation, that the true centre and metropolis of the human race 
is not an earthly Babel but a heavenly Jerusalem. We must 
not now busy ourselves with the inquiry, whether this compul- 
sory emigration from the plain of Shinar was not a second 
version or a supplementary description of the banishment from 
Eden. We must leave it to the professed theologian to show 
at length that as death and dispersion were the twin conse- 
quences of sin, so life and reunion are to be the conjoined results 
of redemption — that Christianity is not merely the harbinger of 
life ; but that it is also the point of reconvergence for the human 
race, and that this is indicated by the first gifts conferred upon 
the ministers who were to begin the work of reuniting man- 
kind — namely, an intuitive knowledge of the different dialects 
of the world, instead of that acquired by a laborious study of 
grammar, which man had invented as an antidote to the curse 
of confusion-)-. But it belongs to our present subject to call 



* H. R. I. p. 53. Tr. 

t Neque tamen dignitas ejus (Grammatices) parva censenda est; quan- 
doquidem antidoti cujusdam vicibus fungatur contra rnaledictionem illam 
Confusionis Linguarwm. Bacon de Augmentis Scientiarum, Lib. VI. (Vol. 
VIII. p. 307, Montagu.) 

F 



66 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. 

attention to the fact that this setting up of a name — this erection 
of a visible monument stretching towards heaven, was the first 
recorded instance of that striving after objectivity, and that 
tendency to realism, which is the most formidable antagonist of 
spiritual religion *. For it is worthy of observation, that one of 
the earliest and most important results of that hankering after 
outward manifestation, which produced the first rude monument 
and picture-writings, was the introduction every where of idola- 
trous forms of worship. The first great fact of consciousness is, 
as we have seen, the existence of an external world in contrast 
to the thinking subject. To this belief the mind attains on the 
evidence of the perceptions excited and called into being by con- 
tact with the world of sense. But there is another belief, to 
which the reason comes almost as soon on the evidence of its own 
reflexions, the belief in a superior being who created the subject 
as well as the object of consciousness, the great point of union to 
the two contrasted realities. It is, however, much easier to con- 
template the common objects of consciousness, than to think of 
and regard unceasingly this reality of the reason. And thus, 
impatient of abstraction, the reasoning being gives an outward 
manifestation to this as well as to his other thoughts ; he writes 
God on the world as he wrote other tilings, with picture and 
statue imitations, and ere long worships the type instead of the 
reality; he foils down on his knees before a mere menu 
technica, he pays homage to an object of sense, forgetful that 
the essence and definition of God, his own idea of a supreme 
being, is, that he is something without the subject, which i- 
not a part of the external world. Picture-writing, and indeed 
all the arts, are but so many different indications of that feeling 
which gave rise to the worship of images ; they are all different 
species of idolatry, different symptoms of man's aversion to abstract 
thought, of his love of dresses and disguises, of the unphiloso- 
phical tendencies of his lower nature. For what is philosophy but 
an undressing of the world f? It is to deprive our thoughts of 
all those outward veils and vestments in which they are gene- 
rally too prone to wrap up the objects of their contemplations, it 



* Theatre oft) 6th Ed. p, 

t "The beginning of all Wisdom is to look fixedly on Clothes, or even 
with armed eyesight, till they become tra 
p. 6G-, see also pp. 74, 210). 



Chap. 3] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 67 

is to strip eternity of the robe of time, to divest existence of the 
accident of mortality, to let fall the many-coloured cloaks of 
individuality, in which the genus is enveloped, to see the soul 
unclothed and unencumbered with that garment of flesh which 
weighs it down to earth, and brings it to the near contact of 
death and decay. All this is difficult to the untutored intellect ; 
as difficult as to gaze on the noon-day sun without a cloud, or a 
mist, or even so much as a bit of coloured glass, to break the 
intensity of his light ; and yet it is what we ought to do, what 
we must do if we would live as creatures that enjoy reason and 
hope for immortality. 

47 The invention of alphabets, or of writing, in the modern 
sense of the word, was the first step towards the overthrow of 
idolatry; and it is a remarkable fact, that Europe owes her alpha- 
bet to the only nation, which, in the remote ages, preserved itself 
to any considerable extent from the worship of symbols : but still 
it was only a partial remedy ; for books, those sworn foes of 
all idols, of all worship of the world of sense, were but few, and 
even " the old man eloquent" preached his mellifluous wisdom 
to a small audience. It is true that wherever they went they 
were fraught with a real vitality ; they sped like the knights 
errant of old, releasing many an oppressed mind from captivity, 
and here and there lighting the lamp of truth in a land of 
darkness ; yet their influence was very limited, and even after 
the Christian religion had appeared, causes, which are well-known, 
operating with it, crumbled the old fabric of civilization into 
minute fragments, and the mind of man was again a worshipper 
of images and of art. At length came the invention of print- 
ing, the most important event, perhaps, in the history of the 
world. From this time forth, the book was not a solitary hero, 
a Hercules or a Theseus, striving for the liberation of men from 
the giants who tyrannized over them. Their name was legion ; 
in infinite hosts they spread themselves over the world, conquer- 
ing and to conquer. First of all, the idolatry of popery fell 
before them, then art as the instrument of idolatry was over- 
thrown ; philosophy was by them reinstated in her rightful domi- 
nion ; philology came forth as her hand-maid ; feudality and 
tyranny gave way to their victorious march, and to this day 
the despots of the world tremble before them. Let us not be 

F2 



68 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. 

deceived : Luther was great, but Guttenberg was still greater *. 
The letter did not kill but gave life, for it was by the letter 
that the spirit lived again, and it is the aid of the letter, it 
is philology, in one of its forms, which we must have recourse 
to whenever we would struggle with those idols of the forum f, 
the realized ideals that ever and anon usurp the throne of reason, 
and tyrannize over the misnamed free-will of man*. 

48 From these reflexions on the influence produced upon 
literature, and, through it, on the opinions of the world, by a 
greater facility of writing, and an unbounded circulation of writ- 
ten documents, we come naturallv to consider the effects of the 
invention of writing on the spoken language of which it is the 
secondary expression. The art of writing was a mere inven- 
tion ; it stands on precisely the same footing with the other 
useful arts : hence it was at first rude and uncouth ; and I 
did not for a long time arrive at perfection, or become so e 
as to fall into general use, it has produced, by its want of com- 
pleteness, great and lasting evils on the mind of uneducated 
man. But language was a spontaneous result of our organiza- 
tion, and thus, like every production of nature, was as perfect 
at the beginning, indeed much more so than it is now. when 
literature or the written word has developed itself in a thousand 
different ways. If any one thing more than another can show 
the absurdity of those who speak of an invented language, it is 
simply this tact, that the oldest languages are always the ri< 
in materials, the most perfect in analogy, the most uniform in 
etymological structure. Philology too instructs us that those very 
words, which the believers in an invented language regard as 
the most difficult to invent, and therefore as the last introduced, 
are, in fact, the basis of all language ; for instance, the pro- 



* Luther himself called the invention of printing ■ da? letzte Auflodern 
vor dem Erloschen der Welt" i^Falkenstein, (r. mh. dtr Bmckdmtktrkmmtt, 
Vorrede, p. 1.). The reader will find in Victor Hog I de 

Paris (Lib. V. ch. 2.), some remarks on this subject, written in a wild and 
extravagant tone, as is the wont with modern French authors of that 
school, but yet very striking and true. 

t Bacon's Xovum Oraanon, Lib. I. Aph. 59, 60. 
X Carlyle's Hist, of the French RanhOion, I. p. 13. 



Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 69 

nouns and numerals, which Adam Smith* considers of recent 
introduction, are known to have been the very oldest part of 
every tongue ; for it is just these words which retain their identity 
in languages which have been longest separate, and have there- 
fore become most unlike in other particulars. The effect of 
increased use upon the structure of inflected language is rather 
to weaken and corrupt than to improve or amplify ; and it 
may be laid down as a general rule, that, as such languages 
remove themselves from their origin, the love of what is called 
euphony gains ground more and more, the elements or roots 
are no longer clearly discriminated from the terminations, and 
the meaning of the separate parts of the word becomes less dis- 
tinguishable, till at last all inflexion is superseded by a system of 
prefixes and auxiliaries. The monosyllabic languages, which are 
the most imperfect of all, appear to be degenerated forms of older 
and more complete idioms. It may seem strange, but it is never- 
theless true, that this corruption of the forms of language has 
arisen, not in spite of, but directly in consequence of literature ; 
and the invention and diffusion of writing, which have produced 
such important results in literature and science, and, through 
them, on the general mind of man, have thus contributed to un- 
dermine the mighty and perfect structure of spoken language, 
the immediate production of that reason of which writing is so 
important an instrument. This has not been generally re- 
marked f, and it will be worth our while to bestow a little consi- 
deration upon it. 

The beginning of literature has been prior to the begin- 
ning of writing in all those countries in which literature has 
subsequently attained its greatest developement. As the want 
of writing materials necessitates the adoption of metre, the first 
composition in every language is poetry. Had the invention of 
writing and printing been coeval with the first beginnings of 
language, we should certainly never have had an epic poem, 
perhaps never a line of poetry in the world. Besides, there 



* Considerations concerning the Formation of Languages, at the end of 
the Theory of Moral Sentiments. (Vol. II. p. 431.) 

t It has been noticed, however, that writing could never produce any 
change upon the spoken language otherwise than through the literature. 
(See A. A. E. Schleiermacher, de VInfluence de VEcriture sur le Langa,ge. 
Darmstadt. 1835. p. 101). 



70 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. 

appears to be something in the nature of early man, full as he 
is of sublime inquiry, and impressed with the wonders of the 
earth and the sky, which he gazes on with awe and veneration, 
that leads him on to poetry. The language of the old world 
streamed freely from the breast, swelling with infinite redundancy 
of expression, replete with the richest and most significant com- 
pounds, and ever bursting forth into song. " We may suppose," 
says William von Humboldt*, "that there was hardly in any 
desert a wandering horde which had not its lays. Man, as a 
species, is a singing animal, connecting, however, tnought with 
his melody." The sage, who discoursed to his disciples on the 
mysteries of man and the world, set before them " the sweet 
food of sweetly-uttered knowledge f," and the chronicler, who 
wished to perpetuate the past deeds of his warrior- race, sang to 
the harp the verses he had composed. Prose can only arise 
after a long period of civilization, when writing has become 
tolerably easy, and writing materials sufficiently abundant!; it 
keeps pace with the logical or syntactical developement of a 
language ; so that writing, which can produce no effect in the 
way of improvement on the forms of a language, exercises a 
most important influence on the construction and connexion of 
its sentences, and therefore on the science of the people who use 
it. The method of language gains at the expense of its mate- 
rials. It is observable that the first literary productions of a 
nation, their epic poems and lyrical hymns, are either entirely 
devoid of syntax or but inadequately provided with it. In the 
earliest poems of the Indians, for example, the liamayana and 
Maha-Bharata, there is no syntax or construction properly 
called $ ; and as we do not know to what extent prose composition 
in the Sanscrit language was cultivated, we cannot say how far 
they ever arrived at a logical syntax. In the Greek literature, 
however, we possess an excellent specimen of a language developed 



* Uber die Vcrschi- hi. Sprb. pp. 59, 60. 

t Sir P. Sidney, D . p. 496. 

X Scripturam teuton et communi ww apian plat /ms$6, 

atque prosam temtart ct i Mm Wolf, Proltgomtm 

Ilonwrum, p. 72. 

$ By syntax we mean the strictly logical conformation of sen' 
including that accurate discrimination of subject and predicate, to which 
the article is more or less necessary. 



Chap. 3] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 71 

through all the successive stages, from the rude luxuriance of 
the Epos to the careful but barren elegances of logical prose ; for 
Hellenism, after it had secured its predominance over the Pelas- 
gian or older element, was subjected to no external interference ; 
its changes and progressions took place within itself; and it 
may therefore be cited as a good example of the influence of 
literature and civilization on the syntax of a pure and highly- 
cultivated idiom. In this language, before all others, we see 
the article, that great implement of logic as distinguishing the 
subject from the predicate, disunite itself from the pronoun or 
general designation of locality ; in this language we see the differ- 
ences of mood developing themselves from differences of tense, and 
all the syntactical modifications of the subordinate or accessory 
verb expressed by the participle, an etymological modification 
of the verb ; in a word, the Greek language, like Mahomet's 
coffin, which hangs between earth and heaven, has taken the 
middle place, between the synthetic and analytical languages, 
combining the perfection of the word with the regularity of the 
sentence, to a degree which no other idiom can parallel. The 
language of Homer is totally different from that of the later 
poets, and although his lines are not so devoid of logical struc- 
ture as the clokas of the Indian poems, (and this is perhaps 
explicable from the fact that our present text of the Iliad and 
Odyssee is little more than a rifaccimento of the original works), 
it is still obvious on the most hasty perusal that the logical 
structure of sentences, for which prose Greek is so remarkable, 
had not yet established itself in the language. The same is 
also evident from the old Attic prose of Thucydides, which is 
full of what we should call bad grammar, arising of course from 
his inability to correct and polish his style by writing his sen- 
tences over and over again. Thus we often find that he has 
forgotten at the end of a sentence how he commenced it, or 
has purposely changed the construction, without being able, from 
want of facility in the mechanical part of writing, to retouch 
the beginning of the period. When Plato and Demosthenes 
flourished, the materials and habit of writing must have improved 
wonderfully, as we may infer from the correctness and polish of 
their style ; it is stated, too, that the former used frequently to 
rewrite his works, and that a tablet was found after his death 
in which the words at the beginning of the Republic were trans- 



72 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. 

posed in a number of different ways* ; and we are told that 
Demosthenes copied out the history of Thucydides eight times f. 
Even in the Attic dramatists there is a great difference between 
the construction of the choruses, written after an old model, 
and the more prosaic dialogue ; and yet this last is by no means 
so conspicuous for that discrimination of the subject and pre- 
dicate by which the prose works are distinguished. Whenever a 
language has once arrived at a full syntactical developement this 
distinction between prose and verse ceases to exist ; tl^e construc- 
tions in poetry then possess the same logical exactness as those in 
prose. But the Attic idiom, though progressively approximating 
to this state, did not attain to it till the time of Xenophon and 
Plato, the latter of whom gave the first hints of the proper 
analysis of the sentence J, which he could not have arrived at had 
not the Greek language been by that time capable of logical 
prose : for in order that the theory of syntax may be discovered, 
the language itself must have become syntactical. As Plato 
discovered this theory from the logical texture which his own 
language had assumed, conversely Aristotle, when he had for- 
mally and methodically set forth the principles of the Platonic 
analysis of the sentence, adapted his own style to this method ; 
and thus he is not only the great expounder of the method of 
language, but also the most methodical of writers ; a circum- 
stance which has induced an eminent author § to compare his 
style to a table of contents. Thus we see that the history of 
Greek literature exhibits the developement of a language origi- 
nally the most copious into one confessedly the most syntactical, 
one in which the discovery of logic or of the principles of syn- 
tax was first made. And the wonderful fact about it is, as we 
have said, that it should have arrived at this ultimate state 
with a smaller sacrifice of its original form than any other lan- 
guage in the world. In general, however, it may be laid down 
that languages fall off in perfection of form as they gain in re- 
gularity of literary composition, and that the same causes which 
destroy the symmetry and regularity of the structure of words, 



* Quintilian. VIII. 6. § 63. Dionys. Halic. de Compositione Vtt b on t m. 
p. 208, Eeiske. 

t Lucian. adv. indoctum, p. 102. 
X See below, Chap. VI. $ The poet Gray. 



Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 73 

as a product and counterpart of the mind, promote the efficacy 
of language, as an instrument of science. Examine the ana- 
lytical languages of modern Europe — our own for instance ; you 
will find that in the arrangement of their words in sentences 
they are absolutely confined to the logical method. And what 
is the state of their etymological structure? In the English 
language we have no distinction of genders by means of in- 
flexion, no declension, no facility of forming compound words, 
and but a few fragments of the Anglo-Saxon conjugation. In 
fact, the most perfect language for the purposes of deduction 
would be one, the words of which have no individual significa- 
tion, but are merely general symbols ; for the method of lan- 
guage, as we have before observed, is independent of any par- 
ticular language ; but as such a language can exist in writing 
only, it follows that writing must have an important influence 
on science. And this we know to be the case : for it is clear 
that the greatest advances in science have always been preceded 
by some great improvement in written language, whether it be 
the step from picture-writing to the alphabet, from the rude 
manuscript to the printed book, or from the abacus to algebra. 

49 These considerations lead us to expect in the lan- 
guages of all nations, in which we find an earlv use of 
writing and an early cultivation of pure literature, some indica- 
tions of the triumph of syntax over etymology. To repeat 
here, what we have elsewhere stated*, this tendency is not so 
much a war of language with itself, as a contest between two 
modes of expression, one of which is best adapted to the memory 
unaided by written words, and the other best suited to the 
formal statement and registration of our connected thoughts. 
Accordingly, when we speak of languages as being in an old and 
new state or condition, we speak of them as more or less affected 
by the cultivation of prose literature and by the common use of 
writing. As we have not, by the nature of the case, any 
ancient language which is altogether unaffected by the written 
records which have transmitted it to us, we can only speak of 
these differences as differences of degree. But we may divide 
all languages known to us into three states or conditions, thus 



Mashil le Sopher, pp. 3, 4. 



74 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. 

differing in the degree of detriment which their cultivation of 
syntax has caused to their etymological structure. We shall call 
these primary, secondary, and tertiary states. 

(1) Languages in a primary, or highly etymological state, 
are those which have few or no syntactical contrivances ; but 
complete and regular inflexions, and a living power of derivation 
and composition. In such languages, writing has been culti- 
vated at a late period, and circumstances have not favoured the 
logical developement of the language. The most .remarkable 
specimens of languages in a primary state, are trie Sanscrit, 
Sclavonian, and old Latin. 

(2) Languages in a secondary state are those, which, 
without sacrificing, to any very considerable extent, their inflex- 
ions and power of composition, have still attained to a clear 
and copious syntax. The most remarkable specimens of this 
class are, the ancient Greek, and the modern High German. 

(3) Languages in a tertiary state are those, which have 
all but lost their inflexions and power of composition ; which 
substitute syntactical contrivances for those variations of form, 
which, in the older languages, characterize differences of declen- 
sion and conjugation ; and which enjoy all the resources of logic 
in the construction of their propositions. To this class we must 
refer all the Semitic languages, the dead no less than the living, 
together with a considerable number of modern idioms, including 
the Romance languages*, and our own. 

It is to be observed, however, that the passage of a language 
from a secondary to a tertiary state generally presupposes, in 
addition to the influences of writing and literature, some con- 
siderable infusion of heterogeneous ingredients produced either 
by conquest or emigration. Thus all the Semitic languages have 
lost their inflexions and their living etymology in consequence of 
a very early admixture of ethnical elements, to which the Book 
of Genesis bears satisfactory and circumstantial testimony. The 
Franks, when they conquered the Latinized inhabitants of Gaul, 
and the Normans, when they settled as a military aristocracy 
among the Anglo-Saxons, found, in the countries to which they 



* As wo have already intimated (above $ IS, p. 23) the original patois 
was utterly ungrammatical. The syntax was restored and extended by 
the literary efforts of the Troubadours. 



Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 75 

migrated, languages capable of inflexion ; and in each case the 
language, which resulted from a compromise between the victors 
and the vanquished, sacrificed all the characteristics of etymo- 
logical vitality. The same effects were produced in a minor 
degree by the Mohammedan conquest of Persia ; and it appears 
that when the Etruscans subjugated the Umbrians in Italy, the 
result was a mixed language, mainly that of the vanquished, in 
which the declensions and conjugations were nearly if not entirely 
annihilated. 

50 It cannot be said that the passage of a language from 
one state to another, and the improvement of syntax at the 
expense of etymology, is in any case tantamount to a degeneracy 
of idiom. On the contrary, as we have already suggested, the 
tertiary state generally accompanies and promotes an advance in 
science and social culture. The degradation of a language is 
a different process, and it is attributable to a widely different 
cause. Speech is degraded when it loses its etymological struc- 
ture without gaining the compensating advantage of a syntactical 
developement ; and this is occasioned by a retrogression in the 
social and intellectual position of the people, as when emigrants 
from a civilized community are widely dispersed, and reduced 
from an agricultural or political state to that of nomads, espe- 
cially when this is accompanied by privations, and by the 
deteriorating influences of a worse soil or climate. All the 
sporadic or Turanian idioms of High Asia, of which we shall 
speak in the following chapter, are instances of a degradation of 
language: they are all probably depravations of the Iranian 
type. Similarly, the languages of Africa must be considered as 
successive products of Semitic disorganization : the Syro- Arabian 
tongue passes from the Abyssinian to the Galla and Berber, from 
this again to the Caffre, from the Caffre to the Hottentot, who 
is finally caricatured by the savage Bushman. 

Any state of a language may become liable to this degrada- 
tion. But, in by far the greater majority of cases, the idioms, 
which have been subjected to this falling off, were in their 
primitive state, or at least in a primary condition, when the 
causes which we have mentioned led to this depravation of their 
structure and capabilities. It is scarcely necessary to mention 
that a return to civilization is by no means denied to any 



76 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. 

degenerate or sporadic tribes, and that they may not only 
resume their social and political state, but may also be liable to 
the same influences of writing, and ethnical admixture, which 
produce the transition from the secondary to the tertiary state 
of a language. We have a conspicuous example of this in the 
case of the Chinese. It cannot be doubted that the population 
of this immense empire is made up of successive stratifications 
of sporadic or Turanian immigrants, closely packed together, 
and reinitiated, at an early period, into the arts which their 
ancestors had cultivated in the original abode or the human 
race. The consequence of this revival has been to make the 
disintegrated remains of their degenerate idioms an artificial ap- 
pendage to a system of written symbols. And to such an extent 
is this carried that two entirely different spoken languages are 
represented by one single convention of arbitrary signs. 

These are the only changes to which language appears to be 
liable. It has a tendency to pass from an etymological to a 
syntactical state; and this process is facilitated by the cultivation 
of writing, and is carried to its fullest limits by the admixture 
of new ethnical elements. Language too may be degenerated 
or depraved, and in this condition it may, by the sacrifice of its 
few remains of vitality, become the instrument of literature and 
science, and minister to the intercommunion of civilized man. 
But if we believe that languages had a common origin, and that 
the aboriginal inhabitants of the world enjoyed a complete intel- 
lectual organization, we must conclude that the highly etymolo- 
gical condition of a language must have been its original type, 
and that all deviations from this type are of subsequent introduc- 
tion, and should be explained by a reference to the operations of 
secondary and external causes. 

51 We have now given a general sketch of the first part of 
the philosophy of language ; we have sought to point out the 
original unity of speech, to show that spoken language is na- 
tural, but written language artificial, and to draw a bold. and 
intelligible outline of the effects of the latter upon the literary 
developement of a nation. It remains that we turn to the 
second part of the subject, and state, by way of explanation, 
the connexion between the results of psychology, or the science 
of mind, and of the philosophical analysis of inflected language. 



Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 77 

That such a connexion, or rather identity of results, should exist 
is necessary, if we are right in maintaining that language springs 
naturally and spontaneously from the mind of man. 

The results of all that writers on the philosophy of mind 
have collected, with regard to our thoughts and the constitution 
of our intellectual powers, may easily be summed up, so far as 
they accord with our own convictions. Every man has one pri- 
mary belief; that he exists, and that there is something without 
him, full of realities, animate and inanimate ; he sees too an 
infinity of beings like himself, who live in the same belief. This 
something without him is known to him from his sensations, which, 
acting in the first instance on his bodily organs, produce an 
impression on his mind which we call a perception. These 
perceptions survive the presence and the influence of the sub- 
stance which caused them, they become a part of the mind, 
and are called conceptions. Now the mind of man is so consti- 
tuted that, whenever a perception is recollected or a conception 
arises, it instantly awakes some other similar conception, or 
perhaps a whole train of them, connected by the relations of 
resemblance or contrast. This habit or tendency is called 
association or suggestion. We can also combine those concep- 
tions at pleasure, so as to form new conceptions existing only 
in the mind, and this faculty is called imagination. Now all 
these powers, with the exception of the last, are confessedly 
enjoyed by the lower animals, and we class them all under the 
name Understanding, the faculty of rules, or the faculty of 
judging according to sense*. But there is also a higher faculty, 



* It will be observed that we use the term " understanding" in a more 
limited sense than others, Coleridge for instance, give to the " human un- 
derstanding." Coleridge attributes to the understanding many operations 
which we consider as peculiar to the reason — discourse, abstraction, 
generalization, &c. (Aids to Re/lection, p. 21 o). We adopt the Kantian 
distinction, in general, but we are rather disposed to comprehend under 
the term reason every faculty which is peculiar to the mind of man, 
excepting the imagination, which, however, in its truest and highest form 
can exist only in a reasoning and speaking creature. For imagination, 
when it really deserves the name, is intimately connected and blended 
with the reason. It is in fact the poetical reason, or the realistic element 
in the reason. In its lower form it constitutes the fancy, which ministers 
to the hope and fear of infants and dumb animals. 



78 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. 

which we alone possess, which presides over and regulates the 
understanding, and which we call Reason, or the faculty of 
principles. By this faculty we compare our conceptions with 
one another, we estimate their similarity or incongruity, we 
arrange the objects of our perception in classes, and these classes 
again under more geueral subdivisions; we compare these ulti- 
mate generalizations with one another, and so arrive analytically 
at absolute truth : or, in some cases, we seize upon the prin- 
ciples of science synthetically, a priori, and at once v It is this 
faculty which constitutes our humanity ; it is to this that speech 
ministers as an indispensable, but subordinate, adjunct. 

The knowledge of his own existence and the simultaneous 
belief in an external world, — this is the first act of man's con- 
sciousness. But this consciousness is itself subjected to two 
other primary intuitions : it is subordinated to the intuition of 
space, for he is here, and everything else is there, and these are 
two positions ; it is subordinated to the idea of time, for the very 
belief in his own existence presumes a continuance. 

This then is the sum of psychology. Man is, and the world 
is, there is a here and a there, a me and a uot-me, — the know- 
ledge of this fact is consciousness. lie has perception, concep- 
tion, association, which constitute his Understanding. lie com- 
pares, generalizes, knows, and discourses; these are the opera- 
tions of his Reason. And all his thoughts are modified by and 
subordinated to his primary intuitions of space and time. 

52 Now if language be, as we Bay it is. the genuine pro- 
duct of the reason, we should expect to find traces of all t: 
conformations of the mind in the structure of our speech. And 
so it is. 

Our analysis of the Greek and cognate languages has taught 
us that there are two primary elements of speech ; the first, an 
organizing element which enters into all words, and which we 
call a pronoun ; the second, a material clement which consti- 
tutes the basis of all significant terms which are not pronouns. 
The pronoun expresses in the first instance the relation of the 
thinking being to the external world, of the subject to the object, 
of the me to the n ot m e, and this is formally put as an oppo- 
sition of here to there. The first general and vague idea of 
there is soon split up into a number o^ modifications, of which 



Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 79 

the first is a distinction of objects in the there or outward world, 
according as they are nearer to or farther from the subject, and 
subsequently a designation of all the different directions in which 
they stand with regard to the subject. The pronoun therefore 
in its different forms is an expression of the first great fact of con- 
sciousness, — that we are and that there is something without us. 

53 The material element of language includes the names 
of all the objects, which present themselves to us in the outward 
world, and to our contact with which we owe the experiences 
that are the staple for our understanding. AYe find on exami- 
nation that all names of things are generic terms, that they 
describe some particular quality or attribute of the object, which 
strikes us as most remarkable in it, and by which we at once 
see its resemblance to the other objects of the same class. 
We observe, too, that even the words which we call proper 
names were originally generic terms, designating some qualities, 
and consecrated to certain particular objects possessing those 
qualities in a remarkable degree. It is, therefore, clear that 
the very act of naming implies classification and abstraction, or 
reasoning power, and when Adam is said to have named all the 
animals, this is only another way of expressing the fact, that 
by his reasoning power, which is identical with the power of 
speech, he divided them according to the prima facie classes of 
natural history. Of course, this use of general instead of special 
names has a great effect on the conciseness and perfection of 
language as an instrument of thought. But the process does 
not stop here ; not only are individuals described by general 
names, but all the relations which bear any resemblance to the 
attribute from which the body of the name, or the root as it is 
called, is derived, are expressed by words into which that root 
enters ; nay more, very many words expressing contrasted rela- 
tions have the same root perhaps slightly modified. This is an 
exemplification in language of the principle of association or 
suggestion, which all psychologists recognize as one of the most 
important operations of the mind. All writers on suggestion or 
the association of ideas admit, either directly or by implication, 
that contrast or contrariety is a species of connexion among 
ideas ; indeed, Brown makes it one of the primary laws of sug- 
gestion. Now, if we recollect that suggestion or association 



80 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. 

depends upon previous coexistence or previous proximate succes- 
sion, we shall not wonder, that, in this natural and necessary 
process of expressing the greatest number of thoughts or modifi- 
cations of thought with the fewest possible words or modifica- 
tions of words, ideas of contrast, as well as ideas of resemblance, 
should be expressed by words, into which the same, or a slightly 
modified root enters; for all contrasts and resemblances are rela- 
tions, and no idea of a relation could be formed unless we had 
seen the related objects together, or experienced the related 
feelings in close succession ; but in this case, where the percep- 
tions have taken place together, the recollection of one percep- 
tion awakens a remembrance of the other ; consequently, if we 
have got a word to express one of these related ideas, that word 
suggests £h e thcr idea to our mind ; therefore, the root of that 
word, or a slight modification of it, would naturally be adopted 
to express the other idea, whether it be an idea of contrast or 
an idea of resemblance. And thus we find that a word may 
bear two contrasted significations, or there may be two or more 
words, containing the same or slightly modified roots, which 
denote contrasted or contrary objects or feelings, when the 
objects or feelings have been seen, felt, or experienced, always 
or generally, in connexion or in immediate succession*. 



* The following arc a fen instances of the principle of association as 
it manifests itself in the same or a cognate tango 

Contra>t. Cause and Effect. 

. wish, habere, have. - ak, ma>, hear. 

cwpto, desire, caj>io, take. ov&m*, speak. •r<"li>.>, hear. 

Xnco, wish, Xaa), take. Ka\(a>, call, kXum, hear. 

Xpyo-ifios, xpcuoTif Ii/, assist, \ijpos, xP^C (lv f eideo, see, olha. know. 

want assistance. \ "■*■ (be place J). 

cants, possessed and vain- want. 5<u>, bind, to m i m , bim 

" dear," (prized) because yon have it, drjpos, dr)fi6s, do. do. 

" dear," (expensive) because you want it. a-rrrco, fasten, u7rra), set on fire. 

XP^'o, use, xp etrt > need. oVk-o-ios, , . SfK-ofiai, the 

gesture, wish, cany with one x € *P* alp-ia. 

trachten, look at eagerly, tragem, to carry, hand, | ^ hm f »— , [ qnanl 

, . uvypn \ . nnoer, > «, J act. 

fitvos \ a moving r / n ' I remain- J * 

pepova J force, desire. , j ing. 

0ew ) quickness of riOrjpi \ 
6o6s I motion. Oaitos I 
"fast" (rapid), "fast" (fixed). 



Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 81 

54 Every word containing a root, or belonging to the 
material element of language, also contains by way of prefix, 
suffix, or both, a pronominal element. This is the counterpart 
in language of the psychological fact, that every act of con- 
sciousness is subordinated to the two conditions of thought, the 
intuitions of space and time. The old Epicureans maintained 
that the only real existences in the world were matter and 
space *j and that every thing else was either a property (con- 
junctum) or an accident (eventum) of these |. Time, for instance, 
was an accident of matter, not perceptible in itself, but to be 
inferred from the rest or motion of things J. With what con- 
nexion with this materialistic view we know not, but all people, 
whether philosophers or not, seemed to have made up their 
minds, till Kant appeared, that space at all events was some- 
thing external, empirical, and real. Kant, however, deduces his 
critical philosophy from the position that space and time are 
a priori intuitions, because we cannot form a conception of out- 
ward objects without a presupposition of space and time ; they 
necessarily form the basis of all outward phenomena ; they are, 
both of them taken together, pure forms of all perception, and 
consequently make synthetical positions a priori possible §. It 
is true that the intuitions of Space or Position, and of Time or 
Continuity, are equally original and equally necessary, but if we 
analyze them more rigorously we shall find that the intuition of 
Time is only a refinement and modification of that of Space. 
These two primary notions may be otherwise stated as an intui- 
tion on the one hand of position or fixedness of objects with 
isolations or intervals, which is the intuition of Space, and an 
intuition on the other hand of continuousness or motion of ob- 
jects, or of such a closeness and proximity in their positions 
that the intervals are not perceived, or not taken into account, 



* Lucretius I. 446 : 

prceter inane et corpora, tertia per se 
Nulla potest rerum in numero natura relinqui. 
t v. 450 : Nam qucequomque cluent aut his conjuncta duabus 

Rebus ea invenies aut horum eventa videbis. 
I v. 463 : Nee per se quemquam tempus sentire fatendum est 
Semotum ab rerum motu placidaque quiete. 
§ Kritik der reinen Vernunft, pp. 28-43. 

G 



82 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. 

and this is the intuition of Time. Now it is clear even from 
common language, that this is the whole distinction between 
space and time; for the words which we use as indications of 
position, such as "before" and "after," "backwards" and "for- 
wards," are also indicative of time. We shall, however, make 
our meaning clearer by an example. 

55 That these primary forms of thought necessary to per- 
ception are the basis of pure mathematics, is distinctly stated by 
Kant*, and it is indeed obvious to every one, who agrees with 
Plato in considering the exact sciences as derived from percep- 
tion by the intellectual faculties. The two first invented of the 
exact sciences were Arithmetic and Geometry, which are both 
referable to the intuition of Space. The latter was always, in 
the hands of the old geometers, the science of position ; in the 
former, all the principles are derived from the notion of inter- 
vals, and the primary names of the numbers are, as we shall 
hereafter see, pronominal words signifying position. For con- 
venience in reckoning, it soon became customary to substitute 
for these arithmetical words a set of symbols, all of them single 
letters, and people were not long in inventing concise methods of 
combining these according to the principles of the science. But 
even these abbreviations were not enough, and a sort of short- 
hand was invented in different parts of the world, which Euro- 
peans have agreed to designate by the Arabic name Algebra% 
This written language, for it was only a set of symbols, and 
therefore could not be spoken, was, in process of time, extended 
to the expression of geometrical results: but only imperfectly; 
because the geometer sometimes encroached upon the domain of 
the other intuition; and a science of pure time had not been deve- 
loped from the sciences of Space. In fact, the intuition of Time 
or continuity was much more difficult to deal with ; like the old 
Ileracleitean doctrines, it presupposed a continual flowing or 
change, and escaped from the grasp of expression. The great 



* Kritil rmm/t, p. 41. 

t This word is referred to j^t and signifies "reduetio partium ad 
totum, seu fractionum ad iutegritatem." (Golius, c. 402. Freytag, I. 
p. 239 b.) 



Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 83 

difficulty to be overcome was a philological one, — the construction 
of a language to express motion, time, or continuous change. 
This obstacle was surmounted at nearly the same period by 
both Leibnitz and Newton, and their discovery of the language 
of change was one of the greatest importance immediately for 
physical science, and ultimately, we doubt not, for philosophy 
in general. No one has been at the pains to point out the 
natural progress of this discovery : it will, we apprehend, be 
easy to do so. The most obvious example of continued change, or 
melting down of intervals, is that of physical continuous motion: 
so obvious, indeed, that the ancient philosophers included under 
the name motion (icivrjeris) all that we include under the term 
change; thus, Plato Thecetet. p. 181 d: Svo Stj Xe^yw tovtco 
eiorj KivqcrewSi aXXoiooa iv> ttjv oe irepKpopdv (read (popav.) 
Par men. -p. 138 c: Kivovfxevov fj (pepoiro rj dWoiolro dv. 
Aristot. Nat. Ausc. VII. 2. § 1 : eirel %e Tpels elai Kivi]o~€is tj re 
Kara tottov, Kal Kara teal to 7ro7ov, Kal ra to iroo~ov, avayfer) 

KOI TOL KLVOV/UL€Va Tpia. tj fX6V OVV KUTa T07TOV (j)Opd, Y] 06 
KaTOL TO 7TOLOV d\\o ICOCT 1$, f] C€ KaTCL to 7TOcrov au]~t]o~is Kal 

(pd'toris. In accordance with this, then, the earliest language or 
science of change borrowed all its terms and even its name 
from physical motion : though from the very first it was applied 
to the investigation of problems in change or continuity in 
general. The natural division, therefore, of the exact sciences 
is this, (l) The science of positions or intervals, which includes 
geometry and arithmetic. (2) The science of time or of conti- 
nuous change, which comprehends mechanics, dynamics, and the 
great problem of physical astronomy. When Algebra, or the 
symbolical language in which the sciences of space were ex- 
pressed, was applied to the science of time, it was called 
Fluxions or Differential Calculus ; but it might in fact be called 
by the name of the older language, of which it is merely an 
extension. We are aware that an eminent mathematician, 
in the sister island, has asserted that Algebra, by which he 
means all that is included in the unphilosophical use of the word 
analysis, is the science of pure Time*, and he even goes so far 



* Sir W. Rowan Hamilton, in the introductory remarks to an essay 
" On Conjugate Functions and on Algebra as the Science of Pure Time" 
{Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, Vol. XVII. p. 293 foil.), states 

G2 



84 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. 

as to say, that arithmetic is a part of the same science * : but 
with deference to him and another distinguished analyst f, who 
defines Algebra as the science of general reasoning by sym- 
bolical language, we must insist that Algebra can never be 
called a science, when separated from its applications, which are 
all so many distinct sciences. If the science of pure time is 
coextensive and identical with Algebra, as the former scholar 
asserts, then must Geometry, which is the science of pure Space, 
become the science of pure Time whenever it is expressed in 
analysis. Algebra should be defined as the method or art of 
combining symbols, as a language in which we can carry on 
the most abstract and general reasonings about sensible objects, 
considered in their relation to one or other of our original 
intuitions. 

It appears, then, from the progress and extension of Algebra, 
that the intuition of Time, though necessarily co-ordinate with 
that of Space, may be derived from it by adding the idea of 
motion or change, or by melting down the intervals which con- 
stitute position, and that in scientific language, at all events, the 
expression of Time is posterior to that of Space. In the common 
languages we find two classes of the material words, which we 
call nouns and verbs. The former are capable of expressing 
relations of Space only : the latter denote actions or express rela- 
tions of Time. Yet we find that both are made out of the same 
materials ; the roots or stuff of language enter into each set, 
and they are each of them combined with pronominal elements, 
which denote the case-relations in the former, and the person- 



"that his object is to inquire whether existing Algebra offers no rudiment 
■which may encourage a hope of developing a Bcimce of Algebra, properly 
so called, strict, pure and independent, deduced by valid reasons from its 
own intuitive principles; and this not less an object of a priori contem- 
plation than Geometry, not less distinct in its own essence from the rules 
which it may teach or use, and from the signs by which it may express its 
moaning ; and that he has been led to the belief that the intuition of time 
is such an element." This is not the place to enter upon a formal exami- 
nation of so profound a subject: but we are sure that any one who will 
look into Sir W. R. Hamilton's paper, and compare it with the explana- 
tion given in the text, must admit that he has confused the method of 
Algebra with one of its applications. 

* Ubi supra, p. 308. t Professor Peacock's Algd ra, § 1. 



Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 85 

relations in the latter ; the eases of the nouns expressing the 
position of some object with regard to other objects, the persons 
of the verb the point from which the action begins, or at which 
it ends. These, we shall see, stand upon exactly the same 
footing, and the expression of agency, whether effected by a case, 
a preposition, or a person-ending, is still strictly pronominal or 
derived from the intuition of space. 

From this examination we see that the principles according 
to which the words of a perfect, or, what is the same thing, 
an inflected language, are formed, that is to say, their anatomical 
structure, or internal mechanism, is the counterpart of what we 
know of the operations of the mind. Here, however, the parallel 
is at an end, and we must be careful to recollect that the words 
themselves, when once formed into a whole, are nowise repre- 
sentatives of any thing in the mind. They may go on through 
all possible shades of meaning, and even be used by abstraction 
without any regard either to their structure or primitive signifi- 
cation, and without in the least affecting the mind with a compre- 
hension of their import : nay, it is, as we have shown, the natural 
process in language, as it developes itself syntactically, to destroy 
the fulness and significance of its individual words ; and it is 
highly beneficial to science that such should be the case. A very 
pregnant example of this is furnished by those general abstract 
terms of which so much has been said by metaphysicians. 

If we examine the abstract and general names in any lan- 
guage, we shall find that they are only tropical or figurative words 
properly referring to sensible objects ; and the reason of this 
is obvious, for the whole end of language is to transfer our in- 
ward feelings to the outward world, so that they may become 
cognizable to others, and objective to ourselves ; now in order to 
attach a name to a thing, it is necessary that the name and the 
thing should be presented to the observation a certain number of 
times together: but it is easier to present a material object to 
the observation of another for the purpose of naming it, than to 
describe to him an impression or a thought ; consequently, mate- 
rial objects are first named, and thoughts or ideas are described 
by a metaphorical reference to them. Of course, this method 
of forming our abstract terms, though necessary under the cir- 
cumstances, is productive of serious inconveniences; by using 
metaphorical words, we are apt to reason vaguely in consequence 



86 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. 

of the different significations which the words bear in common 
language. Hence for the purposes of science it would doubtless 
be desirable to have a set of words which bear no specific mean- 
ing. But this is impossible in spoken language, except in the case 
of merely pronominal words, denoting not things but the posi- 
tions of things : therefore it is only in Arithmetic, Geometry, and 
Music that we can have a spoken language perfectly general. In 
symbolical written language, however, it is possible to put down 
marks or signs, and invent laws for their combination without 
at all troubling ourselves about their interpretation ; and it is to 
the invention of such a language, and its subsequent extension 
to subjects beyond the arithmetical calculations to which it was 
at first applied, that the great advances in pure mathematics, 
and the sciences depending on them, are to be attributed. 

56 As abstract general terms are merely the names of sen- 
sible objects used tropically, they could not be considered as the 
representatives of any ideas in the mind, even though it were 
true that the words of a language, and not the mode of forming 
them only, might be regarded as the representatives of mental 
operations. The controversy between the realists and nominalist?, 
of which we have given a short account in the last Chapter, 
could not arise at the present day ; every one is now aware that 
words, as the signs of generalization, are the only objects about 
which general reasoning is conversant. If any question of this 
sort could be agitated at present, it must be one between the 
nominalism of Occham, or conceptualism as some might be pit- 
to call it, and the ultra- nominalism of the school of Hobbes, 
Home Tooke, or Bentham. Some of these have gone so tar 
as to seek for general truths in the words of a particular lan- 
guage, but no one, nowadays, would conversely assert the objec- 
tive existence of general ideas, as something independent of the 
general terms which we use in reasoning. 

It is true, indeed, that general terms presume generalization ; 
it is true that there is such a thing as general, necessary, abso- 
lute truth, and that synthetic judgments a priori are possible ; 
it is true that there are genera and species of things, and, 
in short, representative or abstract knowledge as opposed to 
perceptive or intuitive knowledge; but it is not true that, 
because we can abstract and generalize, therefore we have in 



Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 87 

our mind general abstract ideas or images of the absolute and 
unconditioned, still less that our general terms are representa- 
tives of such ideas, and least of all that such abstract ideas 
have an independent existence. As a great philosopher has 
remarked, in speaking of the metaphorical meaning of general 
terms, our necessities have obliged us to depart from the natural 
order of our ideas ; we have been obliged to attach ourselves 
to one furnished by the occasions and accidents to which we 
are liable, and this order gives us not the origin of our notions, 
but the history of our discoveries*. To adopt the words of the 
same philosopher, there are two different kinds of ideas, — the 
real and the nominal. The nominal idea of a thing is but its 
definition ; and thus a simple idea is only real, for it cannot 
have a definition, that is, a new simple idea cannot be raised 
in the mind by means of words. The nominal idea or essence 
of a thing is simply that quality or attribute which we remark 
in it as the point of similarity between it and other individuals 
which we class with it, and which is therefore the cause of its 
name. This definition, like all classification or naming, is of 
course to a certain extent arbitrary ; for as Dugald Stewart 
observes f — it does not necessarily follow that this quality is 
more essential to the existence of any thing as an individual 
than various other qualities which we are accustomed to regard 
as accidental. The real definition enables us to see the possi- 
bility of the thing defined, and it is this definition alone that 
can be made the basis of science, for which the nominal definition 
is not sufficient, unless it can be shown by experiment that the 
thing defined is possible, in which case the definition becomes 
real. There is, perhaps, no such thing in the world as a perfect 
circle, but the definition of the circle enables us to see the pos- 
sibility of the thing, and therefore the definition is allowed to 
rank among the first principles of the science of Geometry. The 
essence of a thing is but the possibility of it, and therefore does 
not depend upon ourselves ; the merely nominal definition is arbi- 
trary, and though there is but one essence there may be several 
nominal definitions of the same thing, while the real definition 
must be justified by the reason, which shows that it is possible, 



Leibnitz, Nouveaux Essais sur I'Entendement Hwmain, p. 324. 
| Elements, p. 130. 



88 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. 

or by experience, which shows that it actually is, and is there- 
fore possible*. 

57 The doctrines of the Realists in the middle ages seem 
to have been suggested by a misconception of the philosophy of 
Plato, which has prevailed to the present timej. It has been 
all along supposed that Plato was a realist in the strictest sense 
of the word, that he believed in the independent existence of 
universal ideas, that he had a great passion for the marvellous 
and mysterious, and so forth. We believe nothing of the kind. 
Plato may have been a bad citizen, — in his heart a traitor to 
his country, and an enemy to her institutions, — but he was not 
a mystical dreamer, or a wild enthusiast ; he was the very 
greatest of all true philosophers, because he was the first ; he 
was a sober, clear-headed thinker, and not the less so because he 
had the most brilliant fancy — a mind teeming with the most 
poetical imagery that ever gilded the page of abstract specula- 
tion. The business of philosophy, as we have before said, is to 
undress the objects of sense ; to take the thought away from the 
particular, and turn it to the general. In the beginning of real 
philosophy this was the great thing to be done. The first phi- 
losophers, so called, were materialists and ultra-nominalists, and 
therefore it was Plato's object, as a true philosopher, to estab- 
lish at least the position that truth and science cannot be found 
in the individuals, but must be sought after by general reason- 
ing ; that we must take general terms, the names of classes 
and not of individual things, if we would arrive at any valuable 
conclusions. If he had written, as Dugald Stewart might have 
written, on the same theme in the nineteenth century, after the 
world had enjoyed for many hundred years the lights of philo- 
sophy, science, literature, and a true spiritual religion, he would 
have had no occasion to use allegories about chariots and 
winged horses, and ideas dwelling in the world of intelligence, 
and metempsychosis J, and so forth. But living as he did in 



* Leibnitz (itbi supra, p. 252 foil.) 

t It is perhaps right to make an exception to a certain extent in favour 
of Bishop Berkeley (see Siris, § S3C 

I The allegory in the Phsedrus is borrowed entirely from the circum- 
stance, that, in the Attic dialect, words referring to the use of wings are 



Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 89 

an idolatrous country, where every association was opposed 
to abstraction, and the human soul made an image- worship of 
its every thought, where there was no literature except poetry 
and annals, and these too read by few, he was obliged to set 
up idols against idols, to make the imagination, which had 
created all the elements of Greek polytheism, its own iconoclast 
in favour of a rival worship ; and so he spoke of ideas as things 
real, objective, and independent, dwelling with God in the 
heaven of heavens, and making other things what they are by 
participation. Nevertheless, no one knew better than he did 
that this was but philosophy speaking in parables ; as will 
appear from the consideration of a very few facts*. 

58 Plato bases his whole system on dialectic or logic, the 
art of general reasoning. He knew that there could be no 
general reasoning leading to philosophy, or general principles, 
without real definitions. Now, the definition necessarily includes 
two things, generalization and division, or, in the words of 
modern logicians, it is made either per genus or per differ en- 
tiam. The former process is the base of the second ; the second 
is the developement of the former. Accordingly, dialectic, and 
therefore philosophy, depend upon generalization; and Plato's 



employed to signify the emotions of the mind (see, for instance, Sophocles, 
Ajax, 693) ; a metaphor so obvious that Aristophanes makes a very length- 
ened joke upon it in the Aves, 1436 — 1450. If the reader wishes for an 
instance of the way in which Plato could spin an allegory from the com- 
mon terms of poetical language, let him compare Phcedrus, p. 251 a-d, 
where we have Trparov pev €(ppi£e — olov ck rrjs (ppLKTjs — deppoTTjs — OeppavOev- 

tos 8e irdKrj — £ei ovv iv tovtco oXtj, kcu dvaKrjicUi ttj 8ie£6da> iy^pUi 

€KacrTTj — coo-re nacra Kevrovpevrj kvkKco rj yj/'V^rj olcrrpa kcu odwdrai, with 
Sophocles, Trachinice, 831 foil. ; 

el yap croje Kevravpov (povia ve(pi\a 

^piei doXo7roios avayKa 

7rkevpa npocrTaKe vtos lov 

8eivora.T<o pev vdpas tt po&TeTaKoas 
fpd(rpa.TL ; 
appiyd viv aoa'£ei 
v7ro(p6via doXopvda Kevrp* 
e7ri^€(rapra. 
* See Cousin, Nouveaux Fragmens Philosoplriques, p. 160 foil. 



90 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. 

theory of ideas, as it is called, is merely the assertion of the 
principle, that in order to general reasoning we must gene- 
ralize and classify, Kara yevo<$ SiaKpiveiv and /car' eiSrj GKoireH>> 
which he explains very clearly in the Phcedrus (p. 249 b) : eel 
yap avdpwnov ^vvievai kglt elcos Xeyo/mevov, e/c 7ro\\toi> iou 
alaOricrewv els ev Xoyia/iio ^uvaipov/nevov, — and this we presume 
is now generally admitted. It is strange that this should have 
escaped the notice of so many writers on the history of philo- 
sophy ; one would have thought that the connexion between 
him and the Pythagoreans, who made the same use of num- 
bers, — the first abstract terms in language, — which he did of 
his ideas, would have taught them that Plato's object was only 
to bring forward the principles of science or general truth, to 
draw the first outlines of a system of logic or general reasoning, 
by laying down the rules of classification and generalization. 
His pupil Aristotle, who has grievously misrepresented his mean- 
ing, did but fill up his scheme; and it may be shown from the 
words of both, that, in talking of genera and species, categories 
and universals, they meant only general terms, the necessary 
instruments of reasoning, the main part of the definition real, 
which is perpetual because it speaks only of the possible*. 

59 We need not search long in Plato's works without 
finding indubitable proofs of his nominalism, expressed in the 
most direct terms f. For instance, in the Republic (X. p. 596 a) 



* Leibnitz, u. s. p. 254 : les Essences sont / >xe s'y 

agit que du possible. 

t Mr Dyer in a paper On the novn, or name, as an instrument of r 
ing, read before the Philological Society, 14 Jan. 1S48 (Proceedings, Vol. III. 
No. 65), has combated this view of Plato's philosophy. He maintains that 
nominalism would have been totally inconsistent with Plato's particular 
tenets ; that he was in fact a realist. But he admits that Plato's " realism 
did not prevent him from making use of general terms for logical pur- 
poses, precisely in the same way as the most thorough nominalist." He 
tells us too that " the germ of Plato's philosophy lies in the well-known 
passage of the Phcvdrus (245 d. sqq.) in which the soul is likened to a yoke 
of winged horses;" and he maintains that "fanciful as this sketch may 
appear, it in reality contains the leading principles of the Platonic philo- 
sophy, such as we find them worked out in a more serious manner in the 
later dialogues." The question therefore between Mr Dyer and ourselves 



Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 91 

he begins an investigation by taking the generic name (ovo/jlo) 
as a representative of the genus (JcW, i<5e'a, which are in 
this passage used as identical words) and states that this is his 
usual method — fiovXei ovv evOevoe dp^wfxeda e7ricrK07rovvTes, ck 
Trj<s elwQvta'S fxeOocov ; elcos yap ttov tl hv ckcigtov e'icoOa/uev 
TiOeaOai 7rep\ eKaara tcl 7roXXa, oh tclvtov bvofxa ewiCpepo- 
/uev — 6w/uev ctj Kctl vvv on fiovXei twv ttoXXoov. olov, el OeXeis, 
7ro\\ai nov elai kXivui kcu Tpdire^ai, — aXX' loeai ye irov irepi 
TauTa ret cTKevrj cvo, fxla fxev k\ivt]Si /uia oe Tpairefys. And 
in the Laws (X. p. 895—6) he gives in plain words the dis- 
tinction, which we have given above, between the name and the 
definition, the former being & prima facie, the latter a scientific 
classification, the former a nominal, the latter a real descrip- 
tion : ap ovk av eOeXots irept eKaarov Tpia voeiv ; — ev /xev 
T))v ovaiav, ev ce Trjs ovo~la<$ tov Xoyov, ev oe bvo/ua' Kal 
orj Kal epwTrjaeis elvai irepl to bv d-rrav cvo. — Tore fxev r]/uwv 
eKauTov Tovvofxa irpoTeivofievov avro tov Xoyov airaiTeiV) Tore 
oe tov Xoyov avTov TrpoTeivo/uevov epcoTav av Tovvo/ua. — e<7Ti 
7rov ciya oiaipov/jievov ev aXXois re /ecu ev apiG/aou tovtm orj 
T(f KaT dpiO/jLOV ovofxa /xev ctpTiov, Xoyos ce dpiOfios Siaipov- 
fievos ei9 icra duo /uep)j. — liwv ovv ov TavTov eKaTepws irpoa- 
ayopevo,uev 9 av re tov Xoyov epwTcofxevoi Tovvo/xa air -oh tow Lie v, 
av Te To'vvofia tov Xoyov, apTiov ovofxaTi Kal Xoyw, $i%a 
ciatpov/uevov dpiO/uov irpoo-ayopevovTes TavTov bv', — w Srj ^vyt] 
Tovvo/na, tis tovtov X070S ; e^ofxev aXXov 7rXrjv tov vvv Sr) 
prjOevra, Tfjv cvvafievr}v avTrjv avTrjv Kivelv Kivrjaiv ; on which 
it is asked, to eavTo Kiveiv (prjs Xoyov eyeiv Tr]v avTr)v ovaiav 
rjvrrep To'vvo/ua b or] irdvTes xj/v^v 7r poaayopevonxev ; and this 



lies within a very narrow compass. He admits that Socrates was a nomi- 
nalist, and that Plato adopted the dialectic method of his master in a 
thoroughly nominalistic manner. Accordingly, it only remains that we 
should decide whether his idealism was a fanciful play with words and 
metaphors, which might be perfectly consistent with the merest nomi- 
nalism : or whether a clear-headed man, who understood the meaning of a 
general predication in language, was so besotted in his word-worship that 
he was obliged to give an external and objective existence to the signi- 
ficance of every verbal abstraction. In spite of the vagueness of his poe- 
tical phraseology, it is sufficiently clear from the passages quoted in the 
text that Plato regarded the general term or name as the only result of 
abstraction. 



92 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. 

is assented to. If we compare these two passages with those 
which we have quoted above from Occham, the chief of the 
Nominalists, we shall see that their opinions on the value of 
universals coincide*. 

Plato, although no philologer, had convinced himself of the 
fact which philology has made certain to us, that although the 
structure of language is a counterpart of the organization of 
the mind, the individual words are only arbitrary signs, and 
therefore do not contain the truth of things. But the great 
talkers, by whom he was surrounded, and whose writings con- 
stituted the intellectual food of Athens, had arrived at the 
extremest point of ultra-nominalism, and had asserted that truth 
was to be found, not only in the fleeting phenomena of the 
visible world, but even in the individual words of a particular 
language. Plato is not to be charged with realism because he 
opposed this abuse of nominalism, any more than a man is to 
be considered an infidel who is opposed to the excesses of reli- 
gious zeal. But he has been called so, because, as Aristotle says, 
those who are in one extreme of wrong, class in the opposite 
extreme of wrong all who hold to the golden mean of right. 

60 The work in which Plato directly opposed the philo- 
logical application of this ultra-nominalism, the Crati/lus, was till 
very lately altogether misunderstood ; we shall therefore give 
some account of it, and of the modern work which stands in 
prominent opposition to it, the Diversions of Parley, by John 
Home Tooke, as well on account of the contrast between 
them, and our decided opposition to the latter, as because the 
serious truths for the first time announced in the Cratylus. its 
connexion with the rest of Plato's system, and consequently with 



* We have elsewhere pointed out more fully the verbal and gramma- 
tical reasoning on which Plato's system depends : see 
s. v. riato, p. 236. Referring to the passages quoted in the text, and to 
Phcedrus, p. 237 b, we have there remarked that there is " an Mm or (l&os 
of every thing that is called by a general name. Hence the formula for 
the universal is neither ev only, as the Eleatics said, nor ttoWo only, as the 
Heracleiteans asserted, but h> <a\ 7roXXa, 'the one and the many.' i e. the 
subject, of which many predicates may be asserted, and which therefore 
appear as manifold (ResfmbL V. p. 47<3 v. SopHst. p, 2ol a: rarmm. 
p. 129e,&c.)" 



Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 93 

that philosophy which is the beginning of human knowledge, 
have induced us to borrow from it the title of this book. 

The utterly ridiculous and unjustifiable etymologies brought 
forward in Plato's Cratylus, and the strange mixture of joke 
and earnest which one finds in every page, formerly rendered 
this dialogue a great stumblingblock to all the admirers of the 
philosopher. They were generally unable to determine what 
place in Plato's works should be assigned to it, and what was 
its real object. At present, however, scholars are nearly agreed 
as to its general meaning. ' That Plato, whose main object was 
to establish a system of dialectics as a means of inquiring after 
truth, should have been ignorant of the importance and necessity 
of establishing the connexion between ideas and words, and should 
not have had some sober theory of language, the dialectician's 
instrument, cannot be believed. On the contrary, he seems to 
have been continually impressed with the conviction, that his chief 
business was to solve, in part at least, the problem of language, for 
he says that language is the counterpart of the mind (Phcedrus, 
p. 276 a), and that the word-maker must have a dialectician set 
over him (Cratyl. p. 390 d). The great object of Plato in all 
his works was to lead the mind away from its continual attrac- 
tion to objects of sense, to teach us, that, if we would find truth 
and science, we must ascend to laws or general principles, and 
not confine our attention to the multiplicity of facts and indi- 
vidual objects (or, as he expressed it in his poetical language, 
we must seek for them not in the world of matter, but in the 
world of mind, for the former contains only shadowy represen- 
tations of the realities displayed by the latter), that there is 
something more in man than a mere congeries of recollected 
experiences, and that he ought to have higher thoughts and 
more exalted pleasures than those which the outward world can 
furnish. This is the substance of his arguments with his con- 
temporaries, on all the great questions then agitated in philo- 
sophy, and it is well known that he thought banter and irony 
as good a vehicle as any other for his purpose. Accordingly, 
when he found that words, like other outward objects, instead 
of being considered as merely symbols of reasoning, were them- 
selves made the objects of examination, as if truth and science 
were to be discovered in sounds and signs, which had no meaning, 
save as interpreted from within ; when he found too that this 



94 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. 

examination was carried on in the most arbitrary and capri- 
cious manner, without any regard paid even to the most obvious 
principles of etymology, and solely for the purpose of supporting 
some specific dogmas ; he added to his works an exposure of 
these absurdities, which only differs from his other bantering 
treatises in having more ludicrous and extravagant theories to 
combat. The Eleatics and Heracleiteans in particular had made 
use of etymology to establish their contradictory positions, as- 
serting that it appeared from the words themselves, the former 
that every thing was fixed and stationary (icrTaaOai), the latter 
that every thing was in motion (KivelaOai). This furnished an 
excellent opportunity for ridiculing the method of both, by show- 
ing that both their systems were alike demonstrable from ety- 
mology. The Cratylus, who gives his name to the dialogue, 
was a disciple of Heracleitus, and, according to Aristotle* (or 
whoever is the author of the first book of the Metaphysica), 
Plato had, when young, some intercourse or acquaintance with 
him. The other interlocutor is Hermogenes, the brother of Cal- 
lias, who is introduced as a supporter of the Eleatic doctrines. 
When we remember how Protagoras, the Heracleiteans, and the 
Eleatics, are all introduced together in the Thea?tetus, and how 
in that dialogue Plato combats the two former sets of doctrines 
most especially, and in conjunction with one another, on grounds 
similar to those which he advances against Cratylus in this, we 
cannot avoid considering this treatise as a supplement to the 
Thea3tetus. The doctrines of Protagoras and Heracleitus coincided 
in many points, and particularly in their views on the nature 
of language ; it is for this reason no doubt that Hermogenes, 
as the representative of the Eleatics, is made to speak contempt- 
uously of the philological part of Protagoras' work, called AX>/- 
Oeia (Cratyl p. 3yi c), and the Homeric etymologies in this 
dialogue have been thought to be a hit at Protagoras ; for it 
appears from the Thea?tetus (p. 152 e), that the disciples of 
Protagoras and Heracleitus supported by quotations from Homer 
the doctrine of the perpetual motion of things ; also, as in the 
Theastetus, the Eleatics are treated with much more consideration, 



* €K veov re ydp o-vvtJ&tjs yevopevos 7rpa>TOV Kpan'Aco koi reus HpaxXa- 
rciots 86$-ais, coy andvrctiv t<ov alcr&r)T<av de\ ptovrotv *cai emcmjpTjs rrepi avrtaf 
oi>K ovotjs, k. t. X. Aristot. Mrtaphyt. I. a 



Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 95 

and all the weight of the ridicule is made to fall upon the re- 
presentative of the Heracleiteans ; the banter is carried to the 
greatest length, when Socrates tells Cratylus that he owes the 
absurd derivations which he brings forward, and to all of which 
Cratylus assents, to the inspiration which had come upon him 
from his morning's talk with Euthyphron, a mad and ridiculous 
quack. The object of the Thesetetus is to overthrow entirely 
the doctrines of Protagoras and the Heracleiteans, to show that 
the grounds of science are not to be sought in the province of 
the senses, that in fact science is neither perception nor right 
conception, nor even right conception combined with reasonable 
explanation. Now the second of these three things which science 
is not, namely, right conception, is one and the same thing 
with language*; and these sophists had actually made language 
an object of inquiry, as if science had been to be found in words : 
therefore it was necessary to show, not only that science was 
not identical with right conception, but also that there were 
no grounds of science in language, which, although intrinsically 
the same with right conception, was extrinsically so far different 
as to merit a separate investigation ; this, however, could not 
well have been introduced as a digression into the Thesetetus, 
and therefore the Cratylus was written as a distinct work sup- 
plementary to the Thesetetus. The general conclusion is given 
at the end of the dialogue (p. 439 a) ; that as words are merely 
the images of things, it would be much better, even if we could 
most perfectly learn the nature of things from their names, to 
make the truth a criterion as well of itself as of its image. 

61 The celebrated work of Home Tooke presents in many 
ways a striking resemblance to the sophistical philology against 
which the Cratylus was written. It was suggested more immedi- 
ately by some legal quibbles originating in the author's trial for 
high treason, just as the sophistical play upon words seems to have 
been recommended as a part of the juggling rhetoric with which 
the Athenian pleaders threw dust into the eyes of the dicasts; 
and as Cratylus was a partizan of the materialism of Heracleitus 
and Protagoras, so Home Tooke professedly adopts the sensual- 
ism of Locke. In his philological method too he nearly resem- 



* Schleiermacher, Einleitung zum Kratylos, p. 15. 



96 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. 

bles these old etymologers; he endeavours to establish his views 
by an examination of his mother-tongue, chiefly, if not entirely, 
unaided by a comparison of other languages. Of his fundamental 
error with regard to the parts of speech we have spoken in another 
place. His object is to establish nominalism in its lowest and worst 
form, as an instrument in the hands of materialism ; he endeavours 
to show that, in the English language at least, all words, how- 
ever abstract or general their present use may be, are ultimately 
traceable to a meaning derived from sensible impressions, and 
from this he concludes that these words must still be under- 
stood, not in their present metaphorical, but in their primitive 
literal sense, and consequently, that as words are the signs of 
ideas, and all words refer only to sensations, we have no know- 
ledge but through our sensations. But, as Sir James Mackin- 
tosh somewhere asks, would it be just to conclude that, because 
all words seem to represent, originally, visible objects, there are 
neither impressions of touch, smell, sound, nor taste in the human 
mind? This author, however, has no deductions more unwar- 
rantable in logic, or more truly conceived in the spirit of the old 
Sophists, than those in which he attempts, by twisting and material- 
izing the meaning of some of our most abstract terras, to subvert 
the principles of our inner subjective morality. For instance, when 
he says, that "truth is nothing but what every man truiitth ; that 
there is no such tiling as eternal, immutable, everlasting truth, 
unless mankind, such as then are at present, be also eternal, im- 
mutable, and everlasting ; that two persons may contradict each 
other, and yet both speak truth, for the truth of one person may 
be opposite to the truth of another" (Vol. n. pp. 4-02, 3) — what is 
this but to reassert the old dogma of Protagoras, that the in- 
dividual man is the standard of all truth (rarrw /mcrpov av- 
6(jto7ros)? what is it but to leave us to the dreary conclusion, 
which the follower of the Sophists must needs be contented with, 
that lie has no community either with men or with God, but 
remains, like another Prometheus, bound to the isolated and 
comfortless rock of his own personal consciousness, with all his 
social longings and irresistible first convictions preying like a 
vulture on his soul*? 



* See Sehleiermaeher's remarks in the Introduction to his translation 
of the ThoMftptiM p. 172 ad fin.) 



Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 97 

62 The Diversions of Pur ley still maintains its ground' 
censured by few*, and admired by many. To oppose the ex- 
travagant nominalism and false philology of that work, and 
others of a similar stamp, and to find the mean between an 
excess of philological speculation and the superstitious realism, 
which shrinks from all contact with philology, — this is the more 
general object of the following pages. We bring forward 
against vulgar materialism, a truer and more congenial philo- 
sophy ; we oppose to a narrow induction drawn from a mixed, 
wavering, and still spoken language, the carefully collected 
results of the labours of three generations of scholars, applied 
to a language copious, fixed, and comparatively pure, aided by 
the lights of comparative grammar, of a new era of the his- 
tory of philology ; in a word, we oppose to chimerical conjec- 
tures the results of a science founded on facts. On the other 
hand, our careful dissection of the whole body of inflected 
speech will make it plain that, while words are merely outward 
symbols, designating certain notions of the mind, those notions 
do not stand related, in all cases, just as the words or inflections 
which express them, and that we cannot by means of mere 
words convert into physical truth all that is logically and meta- 
physically true. It is time that some attempt should be made 
to show that the philosophy of language refuses its ministering 
aid both to gross materialism and to superstitious fancy, and 
that it stands forth as the chief confirmation of those systems, 
by which human reason contributes to the support of religion 
and morality. The word is destined to teach ; let it cease to be 
the instrument of deception. 



* A Dutchman, who seems to have anticipated Home Tooke, was less 
fortunate in the result of his experiment: "Un certain Hollandais, peu 
affectionne* a la religion, avoit abuse de cette verite (que les termes de The- 
ologie, de Morale, et de Metaphysique sont pris originairement des choses 
grossieres) pour tourner en ridicule la Theologie et la foi Chretienne dans 
un petit dictionnaire flamand, on il donnoit aux termes des definitions ou 
explications non pas telles que l'usage demande, mais telles que sembloit 
porter la force originaire des mots, et les tournoit malignement ; et comme 
d'ailleurs il avoit donne des marques d'impiete, on dit qu'il en fut puni 
dans le Raspel-huyss" (Leibnitz, Nouveaux Essais sur V Entendement humain, 
p. 235). One might almost fancy that this was a description of our 
English etymologist, if the date and the punishment were more suitable. 

H 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES OF THE 
ANCIENT GREEKS. 

63 Ancient Greece must not be isolated. C4 Origin of the human race in Armenia. 
65 Primeval civilization. 6G Mankind first spread into Asia Minor, and then 
into Mesopotamia. 67 Widely-dispersed emigrations from the plain of Babylon. 
68 Separation of the Aramaean and Iranian families in the vicinity /of the original 
settlements. 69 True classification of the human race presumes an opposition 
between the central and sporadic branches only. 70 Old division according to 
the descendants of Noah's three sons — how to be explained. 71 Spread of the 
Japhetic or Indo-Germanic race. 72 Order in which this family entered Europe ; 
(1) Celts, (2) Sclavonians, 3 (a) Low Germans, 3 (b) High Germans. "We 
trace them back to Asia in the reversed order. 73 I. Germans, (a) Low Ger- 
mans. 74 Saxons derived from the Saca?. lb (b) High Germans. 76 Origin 
of the name German. 11 II. Sclavonians. Their extensive diffusion. How 
connected with the Low Germans. Lithuanians and Scandinavians. Getae and 
Daci. 78 Relations of the Sclavonic and Teutonic tribes in general. 79 HI* 
Celtic tribes. The two great dialects of the Celtic. Causes of the insignificant 
ethnical position of the Celts. 80 IV. 1]; stem members of the Indo-Germanic 
family. Iran defined. High and Low Iranians. 81 Median origin of the 
Hindus shown by their ancient name. 88 The Low German tribes also derived 
from Media. 83 Meaning of the term Sanscrit. 84 Antiquity of the Sanscrit 
language and literature. 85 The High German tribes connected with the Per- 
sians or High Iranians. 8(» The Zend language a genuine remnant of old 
Persian. 87 V. The Latin and Greek languages. 88 The Pelasgian or com- 
mon element in Greek and Latin was allied to the Sclavonian. 81) The addi- 
tional or distinctive elements were Lithuanian or Gothic in the Latin, and High 
German in the Greek language. 00 Ancient proofs of resemblances between the 
Greek and Persian. 01 The Greeks aud Germans had many features in common. 
02 Their characteristic designation may be traced in its course through Asia 
Minor and Eastern Europe. 03 Proper classification of the Scythians. 04 In- 
fluence of the Phoenicians on the early culture of the inhabitants of Southern 
Greece. 05 The name M Pelasgus " was not of Phoenician origin ; but other 
names connected with the arts of ancient Greece may be traced to the Phoenicians. 
96 Characteristics of Hellenism. 07 Differences of dialect due to the prepon- 
derance of Hellenic or Pelasgian elements respectively. 



B 



63 PI EFORE we commence our researches in the Greek lan- 
guage, it will be as well to mention, for the information 
of those readers to whom comparative philology is a new subject, 
in what relation this language is supposed to stand in respect to 
the other languages which we are about to compare with it. 
The time is long past when we could surround Greece with a 



Chap. 4.] THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES, &c. 99 

Chinese wall*, and content ourselves with surveying only as 
much of its language, religion, and history as could be disco- 
vered within these arbitrary limits. We cannot now content 
ourselves with meagre disquisitions about iEolian or Dorian 
dialects, or vague stories of Pelasgian serfs and Egyptian in- 
vaders ; we must look forth upon the great stage of universal 
history, and consider whether these Greeks may not have had 
some near relationship with those barbarians of Europe whom 
they enlightened by their genius, and with those barbarians of 
Asia whom they conquered by their valour ; whether, in fact, 
this same distinction of barbarian, or other-tongued, be not 
after all the mere offspring of ignorance, which always perceives 
the different before it can recognize the similar. It is now 
incontrovertibly established that most of the inhabitants of 
Europe, and a great number of the most ancient and civilized 
tribes of Asia, speak, with greater or smaller modifications, the 
same language ; and the time may perhaps come when it will 
appear as probable philogically, as it is certain historically, that 
every language in the world has sprung from one original 
speech. 

64 If we collect into one focus all the scattered informa- 
tion respecting the birth-place of the human race, which we 
can gather from tradition, from physiological considerations, and 
from the exhaustion of contradictory hypotheses, we must feel 
convinced that man originated in the temperate and fertile 
regions which lie between the Southern extremities of the 
Euxine and Caspian seas. Independently of all special induc- 
tions, we should be inclined a priori to conclude, in accord- 
ance with the general and systematic arrangements which we 
notice in the procedure of creation so far as we are able to 
jtrace its successive stages, that the human race would not be 
planted upon the surface of the globe until life had become 
both possible and easy to a creature so endowed, until the 
earth had assumed its present, and, as we may conclude, its 
permanent form, until the conditions of soil, atmosphere, vege- 
table production, and animal life, to which our existence is still 



* Kruse's Hellas, Th. I. p. 395. 

H2 



100 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

liable, had been established on their present footing. And it is 
reasonable to think that man would be first cradled on some 
plateau, -which, — while it was raised above the lacustrine impu- 
rities of the alluvial plains — was likewise free from an over- 
growth of wood, and well adapted for the cultivation of those 
fruits and grasses, which furnish the necessary food of man. 
There is no region in the world, which combines all these recom- 
mendations so fully as the Armenian table- land lying to the 
South and East of Mount Ararat. All tradition points to this 
district. On the supposition that mankind originated there, we 
may harmonize every linguistic phenomenon, and explain every 
ethnographical fact. And the farther we depart in any direc- 
tion, the greater are the difficulties in which we find ourselves 
entangled. As for those on the other hand, who, recognizing 
Armenia as one birth-place of the human family, contend that 
man was created independently in different parts of the globe 
as they became favourable to his continued existence, we hold it 
sufficient to say that such an hypothesis is unnecessary, since 
the spread of population can be accounted for in a very satis- 
factory manner without the assumption of more than one start- 
ing point ; and the differences of race, which we observe in 
different parts of the globe, are not differences of species incon- 
sistent with one common origin. Besides, the hypothesis, that 
man was created at different times and in different parts of the 
world, would leave unexplained and inexplicable those proofs 
of an original identity of language to which philology is daily 
making additions of the greatest weight and importance. 
Nothing short of necessity should induce us to seek for an 
autochthony in different parts of the globe, which would break 
the ties of blood-relationship that bind all men together ; and 
so far are we from being able to point out any such necessity in 
this case, that all the attainable evidence clearly points in the 
opposite direction. 

65 We conclude then that the first family of men lived in 
the high but fertile country of Armenia, bounded to the North by 
the true temperate zone, which there coincides with the fortieth 
parallel of latitude. Little or no advantage is to be derived 
from fanciful speculations respecting the so-called " ages of the 



Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 101 

world," whether, with the old mythology we speak of a golden, 
silver, brazen, and iron age*, or, with Grimm, arrange the dif- 
ferent developements of society according to periods of stone, 
brass, and ironf. Armenia was always a fertile and prolific 
country. It abounded in corn, wine, and oil, and in those 
animals which minister most directly to the comfort of man. 
We cannot doubt therefore that the first society of human 
beings, having every advantage of climate and situation, would 
make a rapid advance in all the arts of life, and would soon lay 
the foundations of civilization and citizenship. The earliest 
records tell us of the use of fire J, of the fabrication of metals §, 
of the computation of time||, and even of navigation 1T. We read 
of cities built**, of fields cultivated ff, of herds collected JJ ; and 
even the fine arts were not unknown ; at least, these early men 
were able to accompany their native poetry with the sweet strains 
of instrumental music J J. 

66 How many years elapsed before this first establishment 
of social life spread beyond the limits of Armenia, we have no 
means of guessing. But tradition distinctly tells us that prime- 
val civilization first extended itself to Asia Minor, and afterwards 
to Mesopotamia. Thus the earliest emigrant is carried to 
Lydia|||| ; and the city of IconiumHIT in Lycaonia claims for its 



* Hesiod i. k. j. 108—199. cf. Ewald, Gesch. d. V. Isr. I. p. 305 sqq. 

t Gesch. der deutschen Sprache, I. p. 3. 

% This is implied in the name ?X"77nD i. e. the light or splendour of 
God {Gen. v. 15), if we seek its interpretation in the analogies furnished 
by the other names : see Ewald, Gesch. d. V. Isr. I. p. 316. 

§ Gen. iv. 22. 

|| On the analogy between 'Hanok and Janus, and on the significance 
of the number 365 attached to his name, see Ewald u. s. p. 314. 

IF A comparison of the name of TV Jared (Gen. v. 15), with that of 
the river \TV 9 Jordan, would seem to point to the first beginnings of 
sea-faring. 

** Gen. iv. 17. ft iv. 2. ++ ibid. §§ iv. 21. 

|| The name ■y'jj (Gen. iv. 16) seems to be only another articulation 
of T)S (Gen. x. 22) : see Ewald u. s. p. 315. 

•In Steph. Byz. S. V. : 'Ikopiop, no\is AvKaovias npbs to?s opois tov 
Tavpov. cpaal §' ort rp> ns 'Avvaicos, os eCrjaev vwep ra rpiaKoaia err), rovs 8e 
irepi£ pavTevo-ao-Gai, cW rivos (3i<0<r€(r6ai. iboOrf be xprjo-p.os, on toxitov rcXev- 



102 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

founder, Annacus, or 'Hanok, the first author of an improved 
calendar. In Mesopotamia again we can trace the stream of 
primitive civilization, as it descended the Tigris, skirting the 
mountains of Kurdistan, until it established itself, in full-blown 
luxury, at Babylon on the Euphrates. These facts are sup- 
ported by consistent tradition ; but we might have inferred, 
from general considerations, that such was the case. It was 
likely that the first migrations from Armenia would spread 
towards the West, because Asia Minor was not only very ac- 
cessible, but presented also the same conditions of soil, climate 
and elevation as the parent-country. Whereas the rich alluvial 
plains of the " Two Rivers" would not at first invite those who 
had been accustomed to a higher region, a more moderate tem- 
perature, and a purer air. When, however, the change of abode 
had once taken place, it is easy to understand how the growth 
of wealth, the formation of mightier empires, and the erection 
of gigantic cities, with their usual accompaniments of tyranny 
and vice, would flow from the new practice of living in open 
plains, and from a superabundance of employment and of the 
rewards of industry. 

67 So long as the primitive population of the globe was 
confined to Armenia and its two colonies in Asia Minor and Me- 
sopotamia, we find no traces of any differences of nation or 
language. It was on the lower Euphrates that the multitudes 
became too numerous for the soil ; and from thence they 
streamed away in successive parties, scattering their detached 
and isolated bands over the whole surface of the globe. Hun- 
dreds, nay, thousands of years may have passed away, while 
these emigrants were wandering; farther and farther from home, 
and becoming more and more forgetful of the civilization and 
social enjoyments which they had left behind them. It is rea- 
sonable to suppose that many of them who set out on this dreary 
and endless journey had committed crimes which made them 



rr/o-aiToy navrcs bta(f)6aprj(rovTai. ot Se Qpiycs aKOio-avrts iBprjvovv oxpoSpws. 
odev teal napoipla, " to Art \\vvcikov /cXai'oretv" «Vi rav Aiav oiKTi£op.eva>v. And 
then he proceeds to connect this with • legend about the deluge of Deu- 
calion. Meineke suggests Mmmmrfij but the old read to be the 
best. See Ewald u. $. p. 314. 



Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 103 

anxious to shun communion with their fellows, and many a Cain 
transmitted to his wandering descendants the indelible impress of 
degeneracy and sin. Not unnaturally those who went farthest 
would fare worst, except in those cases where the ocean inter- 
posed a barrier to all further progress, and where the stream of 
population was dammed up in some well-watered and fertile 
country, which soon brought man back to the city-life and social 
habits of his forefathers. Perhaps the earliest case of this kind 
was the empire of China. At a later period the narrow isthmus 
of Darien produced a similar effect in Mexico. In general, how- 
ever, the dispersion went on widening itself, and men whose 
ancestors had been on the same footing in regard to speech, 
colour, and frontal developement, became Mongols, Tungusians, 
Mantchoos, and Samoyeds in Asia ; Finns, Lapps, and Euskarians 
in Europe ; Negroes and Caffres in Africa ; and Red Indians in 
America ; to say nothing of the Papuans, the Tasmanians, and 
the more widely-scattered Polynesians. 

68 Meanwhile, modifications were taking place nearer 
home. Close to the original birthplace of man, two sister-races 
formed themselves, with equal qualifications both of body and 
mind, and divided between them, in nearly equal proportions, 
the great work of developing the human intellect. The geogra- 
phical line of demarcation, the boundary-line and wall of partition 
between their first abodes, is furnished by the mountains of 
Kurdistan and by the Persian Gulf. To the South and West of 
this, the Aramaic race occupied at a very early period Mesopo- 
tamia, Syria, Palestine, Arabia, Egypt, and all the North of 
Africa. To the East, the Iranian race was more slowly develop- 
ing itself on the great Western plateau of Asia, from whence it 
sent off successively streams of colonists, who carried the original 
language and the original appetences for high mental cultivation 
into India to the South East, and round by the North coasts of 
the Caspian and Euxine seas into Europe. We are precluded 
by the nature of this work from considering all the questions in 
physical geography, psychology, and history, which are connected 
with the ethnology of these civilized races ; and in the philo- 
logical part of the question, on which alone we can enter, we are 
obliged to limit our investigations, as far as possible, to those 
parts of the subject which are most immediately connected with 



104 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

the illustration of the Greek language in particular. But even 
with this restricted range of speculation, it will be necessary to 
engage in a survey which a few years ago would have been 
thought extravagantly wide and foreign to the main question. 
Accessions of knowledge bring with them expanded and compre- 
hensive views. There was a time when it was perfectly natural 
to regard the varieties rather than the affinities of human speech. 
It was seen that there were differences ; but the points of contact 
were unobserved. The time is rapidly approaching when the 
discrepancies will appear inconsiderable, and when the marks 
of a common origin and of a family-likeness will engross all our 
attention and interest. 

69 At present, however, the languages of the earth are 
divided into great families, which present remarkable points of 
difference. Some years ago two eminent philologists concurred 
in recognizing three great classes or families of languages. They 
are thus distinguished by A. W. von Schlegel (Observations sur 
la langue et litterature Provengales, p. 14): Les langues sans 
aucune structure grammaticale ; les langues qui emploient des 
affixes ; et les langues a inflexion* ; and this arrangement is 
adopted by Bopp (vergleich. Gramm. p. 112, 3) with the follow- 
ing explanation: (l) Languages with monosyllabic roots, but 
incapable of composition, and therefore without grammar or 
organization : to this class belongs the Chinese, in which we have 
nothing but naked roots, and the predicates and other relations 
of the subject are determined merely by the position of the 
words in the sentence ; (2) Languages witli monosyllabic roots, 
which are susceptible of composition, and in which the grammar 
and organization depend entirely on this. In this class the 
leading principle of the formation of words lies in the connexion 
of verbal and pronominal roots, which in combination form the 
body and soul of the language : to this belongs the Sanscrit 
family, and all other languages not included under (l) and (3), 
and preserved in such a state that the forms of the words may 
Still be resolved into their simplest elements ; (3) Languages 
which consist of disyllabic verbal roots, and require three con- 
sonants as the vehicles of their fundamental signification : this 
class contains the Semitic languages only ; its grammatical 
forms are produced not merely by composition, as is the case 



Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 105 

with the second, but also by means of a simple modification of 
the roots. 

More recently, it has been thought convenient to divide the 
known languages of man into five different groups or dynasties, 
(l) The Indo-Germanic, corresponding to number (2) in the 
above classification. (2) The Syro- Arabian, corresponding to (l). 
(3) The Turanian, or Ugro-Tartarian. (4) The Chinese and 
Indo-Chinese, corresponding to (3). (5) The languages of Cen- 
tral and Southern Africa. We still prefer a tripartite division, 
which in effect is capable of further arrangement in two groups 
of languages; and we think that the following is the simplest 
nomenclature. The two groups may be called (A) the central, 
and (B) the sporadic. Group (A) contains (l) The Iranian 
languages, corresponding to the Indo-Germanic, or Sanscrit 
family; and (2) the Aramaic languages, corresponding to the 
Semitic or Syro-Arabian family. Group (B) (3) or the sporadic 
family, includes the Turanian, the Chinese, and all those other 
languages which were scattered over the globe by the first and 
farthest wanderers from the birth-place of our race. According 
to this arrangement, the first two families are classed together 
as constituting one group of languages closely related in their 
material elements, and differing only in the state or degree of 
their grammatical developement. The third family stands by 
itself, as comprising all the disintegrated or ungrammatical idioms. 
By the researches of Dr Prichard and others, approximations 
have been already made to the establishment of family affinities 
between the different members of this sporadic group of lan- 
guages. At present, however, they must be regarded as belong- 
ing to a region of phenomena not yet completely explored by 
science, and surrounding like a cloud the clearly-developed and 
central mass of Aramaic and Iranian idioms. 

According to a mode of classification which we have else- 
where introduced*, these central languages differ rather in 
regard to their state or condition than in regard to the materials 
of which they are composed. By the state or condition of a 
language we mean, as we have already explained the term, the 
degree of detriment which the cultivation of syntax has caused 
to its etymological structure. The old languages of the Iranian 



Maskil le-Sopher, pp. 3, 4. Above § 49. 



106 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

or Indo-Germanic family belong to the first and second classes 
mentioned above. The Aramaic, Semitic or Syro-Arabian idioms 
all belong to the third class. 

70 The relations between the two great branches of the 
central mass of languages may be established by a theory 
resting on scientific inductions ; and the result is in close accord- 
ance with the ethnographical pedigree given in the tenth chapter 
of Genesis. That ancient record divides the nations then known 
to the Israelites into three classes, derived respectively from the 
three sons of Noah, — namely, — Shem, Ham, and Japheth. But 
although the subdivision is formally tripartite, the slightest exa- 
mination of the document will convince us that a more inti- 
mate affinity is presumed between the descendants of Shem and 
Ham, than between either familv and the tribes which claimed 
a descent from Japheth. For example, the Arab tribes da 
natcd as Ilavilah and Sheba are derived from Shem as well as 
from Ham. In fact, as we have elsewhere said, the relationship 
between the Shemitic and Ilamite nations is fully recognized, 
but the latter are described as the previous occupants of the 
different countries into which the Aramaean tribes afterwards 
forced their way. To repeat what we have stated on former 
occasions*, the diffusion of the Aramaic race seems to have been 
according to the following - After the aborigines of Armenia 

had extended their territory into Asia Minor, and while the 
population of Iran was beginning its developement, two streams 
of population descended from the mountains ; and, leaving the 
desert between them, founded, in Mesopotamia to the left and in 
Palestine to the right, wealthy and civilized communities, which 
cultivated at an early period all the arts of city-life and practised 
not a few of its attendant vices. From the left-hand colony, 
which included the empire of Nineveh, and subsequently that of 
Babylon, a further stream proceeded Southwards; and having 
on its way established the rich kingdoms of Ilavilah and Sheba 
in Arabia Felix, it ultimately carried its traditionary religion 
and social culture into Upper Egypt* where it came in contact 
with a kindred empire founded in Lower Egypt by those who 
had taken the right-hand course. All th : diffusers of 

* QuarUrh R ■ R6. CLV. p. ITS. M \ p. 35. 



Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 107 

sensual comfort and irreligious civilization are classed together in 
the Old Testament as Hamites, or descendants from Noah's 
godless son, and are opposed to the Shemites, that is, to the 
Hebrews, Assyrians, Syrians, and Arabians, who subsequently 
descended from the mountains of Aram. But there is every 
reason to believe that all these nations spoke languages, which 
exhibited the same peculiarities, and differed only as dialects 
of the same idiom ; and, as we have elsewhere shown*, their 
apparent trigrammatism, their etymological disintegration, and 
the tertiary condition in which their oldest remains are found, 
must be referred to the constant intermixtures, re-unions, and 
confusions produced by the emigrations and conquests of the 
different sections of this important family. 

By means of a scientific analysis it is possible to point 
tmt the existence of monosyllabic roots in Hebrew and in the 
jother Syro- Arabian languages no less than in the members of the 
Iranian or Indo-Germanic family (J 209). But though we must 
not neglect the various contacts and affinities of the two branches 
of our first and central group, the present is not the proper 
occasion for a full discussion of the Semitic idioms ; and we 
must content ourselves with a survey of the branch to which the 
Greek language belongs. 

71 In describing the spread of the descendants of Japheth 
the Book of Genesis enumerates only those tribes whose settle- 
ments were in Asia Minor, in the South-eastern parts of Europe, 
and on the Mediterranean. The immediate offspring of Japheth, 
in other words, the main divisions in this family of nations, are 
the Cimmerians (Gomer), Scythians {Magog), Medes (Mddai), 
Ionians (Jdvdn), Tibareni (Tubal), Moschi (Meshek), and Thra- 
cians (Tirdg). Besides these, the Bithynians (Ashkenaz), Sar- 
matians (Riphath), and Armenians (Togarmah), are mentioned 
as sons of Gomer, or offshoots of the Cimmerii ; and not only- 
Hellas ('HelisJidh), but other places in the Mediterranean, with 
which the Phoenicians trafficked, even the distant Tartessus in 
Spain, are said to be peopled by sons of Jdvdn, or Ionians. 
This of course is a one-sided survey of the spread of this great 
•family, though very valuable as far as it goes; and we must 



Mashil le-Sopher, p. 36. 



108 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

take a much more comprehensive view of the population of 
Europe, if we wish to understand the relation subsisting between 
the Greek language and the other members of the class to 
which it belongs. 

This great class of languages, extending from India to the 
British Isles, has been called the Japhetic, Arian, Iranian, San- 
scrit, Indo-European or Indo-Germanic family. We shall adopt 
the last of these names, because it points at once to the two 
most important branches of the family, the Indian and Teu- 
tonic languages, and is free from the vagueness which attaches 
to the term Indo-European; for there are languages in Europe 
which have no established affinity with this family. Besides, 
we believe that all the members of the family are deducible 
from two great branches corresponding to these, and the rigor- 
ous examination to which they, in particular, have been sub- 
jected, places them in a prominent position in regard to the 
other idioms, which are not only less important, but also less 
known. 

72 If we consider the elements of the population of Europe, 
according to the order in which they were successively added to 
the first sprinkling of scattered Turanian tribes which they drove 
before them to the mountainous extremities of the continent, we 
can hardly fail to arrive at the following results. The first 
emigrants from Asia were sons of Gomer, — Celts and Cim- 
merians, — who entered this continent from the steppes of the 
Caucasus, and passing round the northern coasts of the Black- 
sea, not only spread over the whole of Europe, especially to 
the South and AVest, but also recrossed into Asia by the Helles- 
pont, and conquered or colonized the countries bordering on 
the South of the Euxine. The next invaders were the sons 
of Magog, — Scythians, Sarmatians, or Sclavonians, — who are 
generally found by the side of the Celts in their earliest settle- 
ments. They more fully occupied the East of Europe, but 
though they contributed largely to the population of Greece and 
Italy, they do not appear to have spread beyond the Oder in 
the North, or to have established themselves permanently in the 
Alps, or in the Middle-highlands of Germany. The final settle- 
ment of Iranians in Europe was that of the Teutonic races, con- 
sisting first of the Low Germans, who, starting from the regions 



Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 109 

between the Oxus and the Jaxartes, burst through the Scla- 
vonians, and formally settled themselves in the North-west of 
Europe; and secondly of the High Germans, who subsequently 
occupied the higher central regions, having also contributed an 
important, and perhaps the most characteristic, element to the 
population of Hellas. In considering these tribes separately, 
we shall travel back to their original abodes in Asia, in an 
order the reverse of this, and shall take as our starting-point 
those who entered Europe last, and travelled farthest. 

73 We begin, then, with the German languages, which are 
of the highest interest to us, because our own language in its 
fundamental element, and the oldest part of the Greek, to the 
elucidation of which our present efforts are mainly directed, 
belong to the oldest branch of this set. The German languages 
are divided into two great branches, usually known as Low 
German and High German. The former, which is the older, 
was spoken in the low countries to the north of Europe : the 
latter was the language of the more mountainous districts of the 
South ; whence their distinctive names. There is every reason to 
conclude that the Low Germans entered Europe from Asia long 
before the High Germans, and that they were driven onwards 
to the north and east by the overwhelming stream of the sub- 
sequent invasion : this appears not only from their geographical 
position, but also from the internal evidences of relative antiquity, 
furnished by the languages themselves. 

The Low German includes (l) the Scandinavian languages, 
Icelandic, Swedish, and Danish ; (2) the Low German dialects, 
peculiarly so called, Anglo-Saxon, Frisian, Flemish, and Dutch ; 
(3) the old Gothic, or, as Bopp calls it, the German Sanscrit. 
We mention the languages in this order, namely, those farthest 
from Asia first, not only on account of the position, but also 
because the languages in their internal structure stand in this 
relation of antiquity. 

74 With regard to our own language, it has been truly 
remarked, that the Low Saxon and Scandinavian element seems 
to have overpowered the Anglian, and thus, although we call 
ourselves English (Anglians), the Celts, whom we drove into the 
mountains, were more correct in calling us Sassenach (Saxons). 



110 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book! 

" The Danes and Low Saxons, with the English, use no prefix ge, 
which the Anglo-Saxons did : Dan. lielligt ; Engl, hallowed ; 
A.-Sax. ge-halgud : it would appear, therefore, that the Saxon 
element prevailed over the Anglian in the formation of our 
present language ; and the Celtic name for English, both in 
Wales and Scotland, is Sassenach*." The Saxons, like the 
Germans, seem to have derived their names directly from Asia. 
A tribe of the Saca3, who dwelt by the Caspian, and were there- 
fore, as will be seen, Low Iranians, occupied Bactriana and the 
most fertile part of Armenia, and extended in a westerly direc- 
tion towards the Euxine; they were called Sacassani (accord- 
ing to Pliny Hist. Nat. VI. 11), and their country ^.aKaatjiij, 
(Strabo, p. 51 1); and it is supposed by the most eminent anti- 
quaries that these were no other than the Saxoncs, i. e. Saca- 
sunu, or " Sons of the Saca?." 

75 The High German is simply divided into three classes, 
or rather three stages of existence, the Old. Middle, and New 
High German. The latter, which took its origin in Upper 
Saxony, and which owes its present position, as the written 
lamruajre of all Germanv, to the influence of Luther, who was 
from L'ppcr Saxony, is probably the modern representative of 
the language which was spoken on the confines of Upper and 
Lower Germany, and this may account for its presenting, 
in some degree, the combined features of the two sets of lan- 
guages. 

76 Many of the ancients believed that the epithet 

tins, Tepimcti'os, by which they described the cognate inhabitants 
of central Europe, was merely the Latin adjective, which dei. 
brotherhood and kindred f, and the Komans often indulged in 
a play of words arising out of this misconception respecting a 
renowned ethnical appellation^. We need not trouble ourselves 



* Winning, p. 119. 

t Strabo p. 290 : Bio diKaid poi 8okovo-i 'Papaioi toito airoU 0t<r0ai 
rovvopa, a>s av yvrjatovs Ydkaras <ppd£uv $ov\6pcvoi' ymjaiot yap ol Ttppapoi 
Kara ti)v 'Pto/uat'coi/ Siakucrov. Wc find ■ reference to this error of the 
Romans in Plutarch, & XXIV., wlu : M applied to the 

Tcvroves is rendered d&(\<poi. 

X Quinctil. Till. 3. § 29 : Cimbri hie fuit, a quo fratrem necatum hoc 



Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. Ill 

with the conjectures of a period, when philology was non-existent, 
and when it was natural for proud and ignorant men to seek an 
interpretation of foreign words in the nearest corresponding 
sounds of their own language. It is desirable, however, to 
inquire into the origin of this celebrated name ; and we hope to 
be able to show that it is not only an indigenous title, but that 
it was brought by the High Germans from their settlements in 
Asia, and left by them, both in itself and in a synonym, among 
their earliest European colonists — the Dorian Greeks. This latter 
part of the investigation we will reserve till its proper place, 
when we come to speak of the Persians and Greeks: in the 
mean time, it will be right to show that the name borne by all 
the Teutonic tribes was itself a Teutonic word. 

In the valuable essay on the Germans, which Tacitus wrote 
as an Excursus or appendix to his Historice, we are informed 
that the name Germanus was originally confined to a particular 
branch of the Teutonic race, (nationis nomen non gentis, c. III.), 
from which, like the Hellenic name in Greece, it spread by 
conquest or imitation, to the other neighbouring and cognate 
tribes. As warriors, the Teutons took particular pride in calling 
themselves emphatically "men." According to Tacitus, they 
traced back their origin to Mannus, the son of Tuisco, the son 
of Earth, that is, to a brave warrior, the child of their abo- 
riginal god of war. The three great divisions of the nation 
were referred to three sons of Mannus, from whom they were 
styled Isccevones, Ingcevones, and Herminones, corresponding 
to the Franks, Saxons, and Thuringians of a later age. What- 
ever conclusion we may adopt respecting the origin and signi- 
fication of the two former designations*, we can hardly doubt 



Ciceronis dicto notatum est, Germanum Chnber occidit. Velleius Pater- 
culus, II. 67 : De Germanis non de Gallis, duo triumphant consules ; where 
there is a double pun. 

* See Grimm, Gesch. d. deutsch. Spr. p. 824 sqq. We believe that the 
element Isle- in Isccevones is identical with the significant syllable Ask- in 
the Ash-henaz of Genesis x. 3, in the Phrygian Ascanius, and the ethnical 
names HeX-ao-yos, Oscus, &c, and we think that the element Ing- is that 
which is found in the designation of the Ang-li. With regard to the letter 
i in Isk and Ing, it is worthy of remark, that though we use a or e in writing 
the words Angles or English, we speak of England as Ing-land. Are the 
words Mann-ing and Mensch = Mann-isk, indicative of contacts between 



112 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

that the ancient name of the Thuringians, as given by Tacitus, 
is merely the compound Herr-mann augmented by a formative 
syllable: and both the modern and ancient title of the same 
tribe are combined in the name of the Her-mun-cluri. We 
find the same element in the names of the Ala-manni, or "all 
men," and the Marco-manni, or " border-men ;" and we can 
hardly doubt that as the term " man " is thus appropriated 
to the free Teutonic warrior, the word Ger-man is strictly 
analogous to Gar-dane, which we find in Beowulf, whether the 
first word signifies "a spear," or is merely the intensive par- 
ticiple gar, " quite, entirely *." In the latter case the Gar- 
manner might be defined, in a certain sense, as the yvijaiot 
Tevroves ; and though this would not justify us in considering 
the term as a foreign epithet imposed by the Romans, it might 
serve to confirm the view which we have elsewhere taken f of 
the old Roman name Herminius, namely, that this was a word 
of Teutonic origin. 

On the whole, we feel disposed to consider the term Manner 
in general, and the compounds Ger-manner and Herr-manner 
in particular, as originally derived from the last, most con- 
centrated, and most warlike invaders of Europe — the Thuringian 
or Eastern Teutons. But as they dispossessed or conquered 
and settled amongst the Sclavonians on the one side, and the 
more nearly-related Saxons on the other, they imparted to the 
whole district the name which they brought with them from the 
mountains of Iran. In the time of Tacitus it is fair to conclude 
that, although the Hcrminoncs were the only pure High- 
Germans, the two other representatives of the sons of Mannus 
were not free from many admixtures and contacts with these 
vigorous warriors. 

77 The most widely-extended idiom of the Indo-Germanic 
family is the Sclavonian : it is spread over a wide surface of 



the Germans or Manner emphatically so called, and their neighbours the 
Inga'vones and ImxBwmm .' 

* See the different opinions collected in Weishaupt's edition of the 
Germania, p. 135 sqq. Grimm has lately added to these a Celtic etymo- 
logy — namely, from gairm plnr. gaik m mm m a = rnf, ausruf, so that I 
mani = fiorjv dyadoi (Geseh. d. deutsch. Spr. p. 7S7). 
t Varronianus, p. 76. 



Chap. 4] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 113 

Europe and Asia, from the Pacific to the Baltic, from the Adriatic 
to the Arctic sea. The different tribes who spoke this language 
were known to the ancients under the names of Rhoxolani*, 
Krobyzij-, Sarmatae or Sauromatae, Pannonians, Illyrians, and 
Veneti or Wenidae : at present it is spoken in Europe by the 
Russians and Rusniaks, the Bulgarians, Servians, Bosnians, Dal- 
matians, Croats, the Wends and Sorbs in Lusatia and Saxony, 
the Slowaks in Hungary, the Bohemians, Moravians, Poles, and 
Silesians. 

Closely connected with the Sclavonian, but not so widely 
diffused, are the Lithuanian languages; this set comprises the 
Lithuanian proper, Lettish, and Old Prussian. From grammatical 
considerations, which we cannot here enlarge upon, we have na 
hesitation in placing Sclavonian and Lithuanian, the agreement 
of which is universally acknowledged, in the same class with the 
oldest Low German dialects. In fact, wherever the Low Ger- 
man has escaped the overruling influence of the sister Teutonic 
dialect, it has been placed in such close contact with the Sclavo- 
nian, that it is often easier to pass from the Low German to the 
Sclavonic form, than, from the former, to reproduce the High 
German. Of the Low Germans who were thus Sclavonized, the 
Lithuanians were almost incorporated in the older race. The 
Scandinavian tribes, though they had escaped all direct contacts 
with their High German brethren, were much less tainted with 
Sclavonism than the Lithuanians, and exhibited in as pure a 
form as possible the distinctive characteristics of their progenitors 
the Getse or Goths. But the Gothic affinities of the Lithuanians 
have not been forgotten. Their proper name is Samo-getce; 
and the Prussian branch of this tribe call their neighbours, the 
Polish Lithuanians, by the name Gudas or Guddas. Not to 
speak at present of their Asiatic abodes, we find the Sclavonians 
and Lithuanians side by side on the very threshold of Europe. 



* The Rhoxolani are mentioned by Strabo (pp. 114, 294, 306) as the 
last of the known Scythians. From them Russia derives its name. " The 
Finns distinguish the Muscovites by the name of Rosso-lainen, or Russian 
people, and call themselves and nations of their own kindred Suoma- 
lainen. The word Rosso-lainen, heard and written by a Greek, would be 
Rhoxolani" (Prichard, Celtic Nations, p. 16). 

t The Krobyzi mentioned by Herodotus (IV. 49) are supposed to be 
the same with the Russian Kriwizen. 

I 



114 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

For we have no hesitation in recognising the Sclavonian race 
in the original Thracians, and the Gothic name appears in that 
of the Getse. Grimm has shown* that the neighbouring Daci 
may have borne the original name of their northern descendants, 
the Danes, who are an important scion of the Low German race. 

78 If these opinions are well founded, we shall have no 
difficulty in settling the relations of the Teutonic and Sclavonian 
tribes. The latter, it appears, originally occupied the greater 
part of Eastern Europe. They were first encroached upon by 
the Gothic or Low German tribes, who left them in uninterrupted 
possession of Thrace to the South and of Sarmatia to the North, 
but deprived them of all their central and western habitations. 
The High Germans finally pushed their way through the Low Ger- 
mans, and, first occupying in force the eastern part of the district 
which had been already Teutonized, gradually extended them- 
selves to the West, where they were assimilated more or less to the 
Low Germans who had gone before them. Along the coasts of 
the Baltic Sea and German Ocean, and in Scandinavia, the Gothic 
branch remained more or less independent of the other Teutonic 
race, but in Lithuania especially they were very much influenced 
by their Sclavonian neighbours. The High Germans had in 
some districts to give back what they had taken from the 
earlier tribes, especially in Bohemia, but to the West they carried 
forward their predominance till at last they crossed the Rhine, 
and gave the name of the Frankish confederacy to the most 
thoroughly Latinized of the Roman provinces. We may therefore 
say that the Lithuanians were Low Germans highly Sclavonized ; 
that the Scandinavians contained the Gothic clement in its purest 
form ; that the Saxons or In'/avoms were Low Germans un- 
tainted by Sclavonism, and but slightly influenced by High Ger- 
manism ; that the Franks or Iscavones were Low Germans, over 
whom the High Germans had exercised considerable controlf; 
and that the Thuringians or Ilermi nones were pure High Gcr- 



* Gcsch. d. deutschen fljpr. I. p. 192. 

f It is worthy of remark that the Jutes, who settled in Kent, referred 
the foundation of their kingdom to a mythical ^Esc (i.e. 1st) : and few- 
scholars will fail to recognise, in the dialectieal synonyms Himgut and 
Horsa, the last faint traces of a combination or fusion of High and Low 
Germans. 



Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 115 

mans, in the full vigour of their active opposition to the tribes 
among which they had settled. 

79 The Celtic nations, the claim of whose speech to a 
place in the Indo-Germanic sisterhood is now fully established, 
appear to have been the oldest inhabitants of Europe, but, by 
the pressure of subsequent immigrations, they have been thrust 
out to the extreme corners of the continent; and Arndt has 
endeavoured to show that they were also connected, to a certain 
extent, with the Finns, the Samoiedes, and the Mongols, nations, 
like themselves, detruded to the uttermost parts of the earth. 

There are two great dialects of the Celtic, which are thus 
exhibited by the most recent writers on the subject*. 

(I) The Gallic or British, comprehending 
(a) the Cymric or Welsh ; 

(6) the Cornish, which is extinct ; 

(c) the Armorican, or dialect of Brittany (Bas Breton). 

(II) The Gaelic (Gadhelic) or Erse, comprehending 

(a) the Fenic or Irish ; 

(b) the Highland Scottish (Gaelic) ; 

(c) the Manx in the Isle of Man. 

From this enumeration it will be seen that the remains of 
the Celtic language are now found only in nooks and corners of 
western and insular Europe. But the same evidence which 
establishes the Asiatic origin of the sons of Gomer, proves also 
their original diffusion throughout the whole of this continent. 
Being, next to the Turanian tribes, the first inhabitants of this 
part of the globe, they were either absorbed or driven onwards 
by the subsequent streams of population. In Spain to the South- 
west, and in the North of Scandinavia, they were swallowed up 
in the more closely-packed Turanian tribes who preceded them 
in those directions. The Basque or Euskarian language, in 
particular, which still remains isolated in the North-west of Spain, 
may be called a Celto-Finnish language. In Gaul however and 
in the British Isles the Celtic element predominated over all 
preceding ingredients, and long kept itself free from subsequent 
admixtures. Indeed, Celtic tribes appeared among the Germans 



* Meier's Report to the Brit. Assoc. 1847. p. 301. 

12 



116 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

during the better known historical periods. The Marcomanni, 
a High-German tribe, drove the Celtic Boii from the country, 
which, though since occupied by Sclavonian Czechs (i. e. " those 
farthest in advance ;" Dobrowsky, apud Adelung, Mithrid. II. 
p. 672,) is still called the home or land of its original inhabitants 
(Bohemia=Boien-Heimath). The Gauls conquered from Scla- 
vonian and German tribes the fertile plains of Lombardy, and 
spreading to the South-east sacked Borne and plundered Delphi ; 
and the oldest writing in the New Testament is an epistle ad- 
dressed to a tribe of Galata? or Gauls settled in the North of 
Asia Minor. These migrations, however, are all to be referred 
to retrogressive movements of the unconquered Celtic tribes of 
the West. In general, the Celts do not appear as distinct 
nationalities in Asia or in the East of Europe, where they are 
assimilated to the Sclavonians and German tribes who conquered 
them ; and except in the regions already indicated, the Celts have 
disappeared in the ethnical masses which they immediately pre- 
ceded or followed. The two great dialects of the Celtic — the 
Welsh and the Erse — exhibit differences corresponding to those 
between the High-German and Low-German, and may be dis- 
tinguished by similar epithets as High and Low Celtic. We 
attribute this difference to the early prevalence of High-German 
admixture in the case of the Cymric dialect. 

These are all the European languages which belong to the 
great Indo-Germanic family, with the exception of the Greek 
and Latin, which we have purposely omitted, till after we have 
spoken of the Indian members of the family, which contribute so 
much to the accurate classification of the European idioms. 
Arguing from what we know of the etymology and grammatical 
structure of the languages we have mentioned, we should not 
hesitate to class together with the Low German, in its oldest 
form, the Low Celtic or Erse, the Lithuanian, and the Sclavonic 
languages; and, with the Old High German, the High Celtic 
only. By this we mean, that, though all these languages spring 
from the same Asiatic source, the idioms which we find in the 
extremities of Europe, in the peninsulas, and on the northern 
and western coasts, are due to tribes who entered Europe at an 
earlier period, and were driven onwards by subsequent emigrants ; 
and we are able to ascertain from these languages themselves 
that such is the case. 



Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 117 

80 If we turn to the Eastern members of the family, -we 
shall easily find a rational explanation of this division. It appears, 
then, that the origin of these languages is traceable to Iran, a 
country bounded on the north by the Caspian, on the south 
by the Indian Ocean, on the east by the Indus, and on the west 
by the Euphrates. Within these limits were spoken, so far 
as we can discover, two languages which bore the same rela- 
tion to one another that we recognize as subsisting between 
Low and High German, a language analogous to the former 
being spoken in the North and East of the district, and one 
analogous to the latter in the South. Although the latter ex- 
tended to the sea- coast, yet, as the inhabitants who spoke it 
were mostly mountaineers {Herod. I. 71), we are justified in 
adopting, as applicable to these two languages, the same dis- 
tinctive epithets which use has conferred upon the two great 
divisions of the German languages; and we will call the southern 
High Iranian, the northern and eastern Low Iranian. The sur- 
rounding nations to the North and East belonged to the Tura- 
nian or sporadic family, but, when the mighty people confined 
within these comparatively narrow limits had become too nu- 
merous for the country they lived in, the eastern and northern 
tribes sent off emigrations to the South-east and North-west, 
breaking through or driving before them the tribes by which 
they were hemmed in. Those, however, who went off to the 
North-west were more powerful or more enterprising than the 
emigrants who took a south-easterly course ; for while the former 
carried the Low Iranian dialect over all Asia and Europe to the 
islands of the West, the latter mastered only the northern part 
of Hindostan, and perhaps also, to a certain extent, a few of the 
islands of the Polynesia. The proof of this colonization of Europe 
and Northern India, by the inhabitants of northern and eastern 
Iran, rests upon the agreement of the languages spoken by the 
oldest inhabitants of India and Europe, and on the obvious 
derivation of the names of the earliest tribes in both from the 
country which afterwards became Media. The former of these 
grounds confirms the other : for when we find that the ancient 
Indians spoke the same language with the Low German tribes in 
Europe, and that the names of both are derivable from the same 
district, we are forced to conclude that they are both the off- 
spring of a people who dwelt in the country to which their 



US THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

names point, and spoke a language which was the mother of their 
sister-idioms. 

81 And first, with regard to the Median origin of the old 
name of Northern India, it is to be observed, that, according to 
Herodotus (VII. 62), the Medes were in ancient times called 
Jrians by all the world — 6Ka\eovro ce 7rd\ai 7rpos iravrwv 
"Apioi. Now dry as is a Sanscrit word signifying "noble," 
" splendid," " well-born ;" and the Hindus applied this epithet to 
themselves in contradistinction to the rest of mankind, whom 
they called Mlechch lias*, just as the Hellenes distinguished them- 
selves from the Barbarians {Asiatic Researches, VII. p. 175, and 
Schlegel etudes des langues Asiatiques, p. 70). That this name 
bore the same signification out of India, appears from the fact, 
that those kings of Cappadocia, who boasted of Median ex- 
traction, called themselves Aria-rathes ; this is obviously the 
Sanscrit adjective drya-ratlias, " mounted on a splendid chariot," 
used as an epithet of warriors and kings, as mahd-rathas, 
" mounted on a great chariot," is constantly applied by the 
oldest Indian poets (see e. g. Bhayavad-Gita, I. si. 4, (J, 17, &c). 
Moreover, the name Ariana, in ancient times, undoubtedly in- 
cluded the whole of the northern provinces of the Persian empire : 
even when Strabo wrote it extended over part of Persia, Media. 
Bactria and Sogdiana (p. 72 1, comp. Steph. Byz. s. v. "Apioi). 
This name appears as A i rait nc in the Zend books, and is now 
contracted into Iran, much in the same way as A >/<'»! It >/d, the 
name of the old kingdom of Ramas, is shortened into the 
modern Oude. The same name may be recognized in A 
dvarta, "the country of the Arians," which is the classical 
name for the old country of the Hindus, and which is defined 
as lying between the Yindhya and "snowy" {Himalaya) moun- 
tains, and extending from the Eastern to the Western Ocean f. 
This definition excludes the Deccan, or "country to the right" 
(dakshina), and the language of the country, its geographical 
features, its oldest traditions, and the physical chracteristics of 



* It has been suggested that the name />< looch is the modern represen- 
tative of this epithet. It is written \^y^\ in Abulfeda. 

f Arya-dvartah : punua-bhumir (i. e. " the region of sanctit; 
hyah Vindhya-Ilwuilai/i <h. p. 00. Colebrooke). 



Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 119 

the inhabitants, sufficiently show that the Arians or Iranians 
entered Hindostan by the Panjab, and did not extend them- 
selves far towards the South*. To the present day, though the 
northern tribes of India speak languages more or less corrupted 
from the Low Iranian or Sanscrit, such as the Bengali and Hin- 
dostani, the southern languages are more akin to the Mongul 
idioms, which entered into the languages of middle and northern 
Asia. The scenes of their oldest poems, the Mahd-bhdrata and 
Rdmdyana, are generally confined to the neighbourhood of Delhi 
and Oude. In the latter, the exiled hero travels to the ex- 
treme South, where he finds, among other things, innumerable 
hosts of apes, who do him considerable service. We consider 
this fable as proving that there was a striking physical difference 
between the Hindus and the population of southern India in the 
very earliest times. It appears that the aborigines of India, whom 
the Hindus or Arians invaded and conquered, had most of the 
characteristics of the negro-tribes : at least, the supposed remains 
of these earliest inhabitants, still found in the North of India, 
have woolly-hair, low foreheads, and flat noses. We venture, 
then, to conclude that these "apes, with foreheads villainous 
lowf," were merely the ill-formed natives of the South J, who 
appeared to the handsome and well-proportioned Hindus as 
little better than monkeys, just as the Greeks described the 
negroes of Africa as Pygmies or Cercopes, because they differed 
in form and stature from themselves, or as Virey would class 
the Hottentot with the baboon J. 

82 Secondly, as to the Median origin of the Low German 
tribes, the following examples may suffice. That the Medes 
extended themselves to the North-west appears from the position 
of Media in the historical ages. The names of many of the 



* Schlegel sur VOrigine des Hindous, p. 415. 
t The Tempest, Act IV. Sc. 1. 
I In the Gem, a copy of which Schlegel has prefixed to his edition of 
the Rdmdyana, the attendant apes of Kama appear as men with the faces 
and tails of apes. 

§ Hamaker (Akadem. Voorlezingen, p. 9) considers the Rdmdyana as a 
poetical description of the complete triumph gained by Brahmanism and 
its votaries over the autochthones of India, who had sought a retreat in 
Lanka, or Ceylon. 



120 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

Low German nations point to a derivation from the north of 
Iran. We have seen that the Saxons or Saca-sunu are trace- 
able to Bactria. The Sarmatae or Sauromatse, an old Sclavonian 
nation, are expressly mentioned as descendants of the Medes 
(Plin. Hist. Nat. VI. 7 : Sarmatce Medorum, ut ferunt, soboles. 
Diodor. Sic. IL c. 43, p. 195. Dindorf. : cvo ce ftcyumn 
a7roiKias yeveoOai, ty]v fxev . . . . Tr\v ce e/c tjJ? Mrjdtas 7rapd 
tov Tavcuv KaOicpvdeioav, >}? tovs Xaovs ^avpo/xdra^ ovo/ia- 
aOrjvai) : and their name indicates that they too claimed the 
North of Media as their father-land*. The Sigynna?, whose 
territory extended from the north of the Danube to the country 
of the Heneti or Veneti (Sclavonian Wends), on the Adriatic, in 
dress resembled the Medes, from whom they derived themselves; 
" how they could be colonists of the Medes," adds Herodotus 
(V. 9), " I cannot understand ; but any thing may happen in the 
long course of time I." Now the abode which Herodotus assigns 
to the Sigynna3 falls within the limits of the Sauromata?, who 
were a Sclavonian tribe, and also derived from the Medes. Ac- 
cordingly, the Sigynna? must have been themselves Sclavonians, 
whether they were connected with the Huns, as some suppose, 
or not. Besides, Strabo describes the Sigynna) as living near 
the Caspian, with habits similar to those which Herodotus 
ascribes to them (p. 520). Therefore, we cannot doubt that 
they were a Low Iranian people. In the same manner we might 
point out traces of a North Iranian pedigree in the case of e\ 
nation of the Low German class of which any mention is made 



* Bockh, Corpus Liscript. II. p. 83 : " Sauromata?, Slavorum hau J 
dubio parcntes, .. . c Media immigrarunt ad Tanaim (Diod. II. 43. extr. 
Plin. //. X. VI. 7.), unde Gatterer (/«ft .». T. I. p. 

75.) nomen derivat a Matenis s. Matienis s. Media ct voce Lithuaniea 

ire, quae septentrioncm designat: ut Sauromata sint ntri- 

onalcs. Iidem recto visi sunt § quos Plinius prope Oxyd: 

vicinos collocat (cf. Ritter. VorkaUe d. Gisch. p. 2S3) et eodem nomine 
Scylax ad MaxKidem. Mox vero Sauromatica gentes latius evagata? sunt." 

t yevoiTo §' avnaviv tw paKpop XP° V( ?- Valckenaer OjUOtes Soph. - 
for a similar sentiment. He might have said more aptly that Herodotus 
was almost repeating Philoct. 306: 7roXXa yap rd8e «Vru paicp<p ytvoir *iv 
avOptoirw xp° Vf ?' ari( l yevoir tiv $m is also Sophoelean ; cf. -.oito 

pev rav irav 6eov rexv^pevov. That Herodotus often quoted Sopbock - 
have endeavoured to show elsewhere. (1 the PkSL v 

Vol. I. p. 164.) 



Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 121 

by ancient writers. We consider even the invasions of the 
Scythians by the Persians, mentioned by the Greek historians, 
as traditions of the pressure of the High on the Low Iranians ; 
for the identity of the names Scythians, Getse, Jutes, and Goths, 
has been long recognized. 

The argument from the language is decisive of the whole 
question. The resemblances between the old Low German 
dialects and the Sanscrit, even after a separation for thousands 
of years, are so striking that an eminent philologer has re- 
marked that " when he reads the venerable Ulphilas he could 
believe he was reading Sanscrit*." On the whole, then, we 
consider it as nearly certain that the Hindus in India and the 
Low Germans in Europe are emigrants from the country about 
the southern extremity of the Caspian sea. We do not pretend 
to say when the emigration took place, nor do we suppose that 
it took place at once. As the population became too numerous 
for the country, or as they were pressed upon from without, 
they would naturally send off streams of invaders to the right 
and left in search of other settlements. 

83 The term Sanscrit, by which we distinguish the old 
Iranian idiom that formed the basis of the North Indian and 
Low German dialects, is an epithet used by the Brahmins to 
designate the language in which their books of law and religion 
are written, the depositary of their ancient poetry and philo- 
sophy ; it implies that this language possesses all its flexions and 
grammatical forms, that, in fact, it is removed from the corrupt- 
ing influences of every-day use. The original word Sah-s-krita 
is a compound : the first syllable is the preposition Sam " with" 
(crvv); the second, the passive participle krita (-tas,-ta,-tam), of 
the crude verb kri " to make," (creare, ceremonia, KpaivoS) ; 
and a silent s is interposed ; its literal meaning is " done, made, 
or formed completely" (con/ectus), " perfect," " highly polished," 
"regularly inflected," " classical f." This epithet seems to have 



* Bopp, Conjugations-system der Sanskritsprache, Frank. 1816. Vorrede 
von Windischmann, p. x.: "Der Verfasser sagt (in einem Briefe) er glaube 
Sanskrit zu lesen, wenn er den ehrwiirdigen Ulplrila lese." 

t On the meaning of this term see Pott s. v. Tndogerm. Sprachst. 
p. 34. Hoefer de Prakrita Dialecto, § 1. 



122 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

been applied to the old language of Northern India to distinguish 
it from another class of old languages not so elegant and com- 
plete, called the Pra-krita, a word composed in a similar manner, 
and signifying " low," " vulgar," " common*." In fact, there 
are three divisions of the written languages of India ; these are, 
to use the words of Colebrooke (Asiatic Researches, Vol. VII. 
p. 200, Engl, reprint), " (l) Sanscrit, a polished dialect, the 
inflexions of which, with all its numerous anomalies, are taught 
in grammatical institutes. This the dramatic poe^s put into 
the mouths of Gods and of Holy Personages. (2) Pracrit, con- 
sisting of provincial dialects, which are less refined, and have a 
more imperfect grammar. In dramas it is spoken by women, 
benevolent genii, &c. (3) Magadhi, or Apa-bhranca, a jargon 
destitute of regular grammar. It is used by the vulgar, and 
varies in different districts : the poets accordingly introduce into 
the dialogues of plays a provincial jargon spoken by the lowest 
persons in the drama." The word apa-bhranca, derived from 
bhrag, " to fall down," signifies a word or dialect which has 
fallen off from correct etymology ; the native grammarians use 
it to signify " false grammar," as opposed to Sanscrit, in the 
sense of " duly formed," " regularly inflected." The force of 
the grammatical term Sanscrit as a name for a sacred language 
will be duly appreciated by all who know that the old gram- 
marian Panini was esteemed as a sort of demigod, and was said 
to be grandson of the inspired legislator Devala; and its appli- 
cation from the description of the kind of language to the de- 
signation of a particular ancient language is perfectly analogous 
to the use of the word gramatica by the early Italian writers 
to signify the Latin language : thus Boccacio (Decam. VII. 6) 
describes a good Latin scholar as ua gran valentuomo in gra- 
matica, and Varchi gives the following distinction (Dialogo 
sopra le lingue, p. SS5) : Tutte le lingue, che non sono Latine 
o gramaticali, si chiamavano e si chiamano volgari. In the 
same manner the classical schools in this country are technically 
designated as grammar schools. The meaning of the term 
Sanskrlta is plainly implied in what Dante says (Convito, I. c. 5". 
p. 21): il Latino c perpetuo e non corruttibile, e il Volgare e 
non istabile e corruttibile. 



* Compare Hamakcr Akadcm. Voork;inoai. p. '213. 



Chap. 4 J OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 123 

84 Keverting to the doctrine maintained in the preceding 
chapter, we may be surprised to find that any language laying 
claim to great antiquity and to an early application of the art 
of writing, should deserve the title of Sanskrita, or " regularly 
inflected." Modern inquirers have endeavoured to show that 
the Brahminical people, who spoke this language, were not the 
first of those Arians, who descended into the plains of Delhi 
from the Himalayas or the Panjab : but that, on the contrary, 
the peninsula had long before been occupied by a cognate tribe, 
who adopted the faith of Buddha, and whose language, the Pali, 
is always recognised in the oldest inscriptions. If this was the 
case, it would be a reasonable inference that the Brahminical 
conquerors derived from these Buddhists the Devandgari cha- 
racter in which they recorded their own traditions and mythology. 
But it is inconsistent with the rules of a scientific philology to 
assume that the more perfect Sanscrit has been made by refine- 
ment out of the less regular Pali, or that the language of the 
Brahmins is more recent than that of the Buddhists, because 
the older alphabet does not contain all the letters necessary 
to express the characteristic word-forms and syntax of the 
Sanscrit*. The following appears to us the only sound theory 
derivable from the premises. Every argument, that is adduced 
to prove that the Pracrit, Pali, and other Magadhi dialects 
were connected with literature at an earlier period than Sanscrit, 
tends to show — not that these languages are more ancient, or 
are found in an older condition than the Sanscrit, — but precisely 
the reverse, namely, that these are dialects of the Sanscrit in 
an inferior state as far as their structure is concerned f. And 
though the Buddhist literature may have existed in writing for 
a much longer period than the Brahminical, this is rather in 
favour of the belief that the Sanscrit and Veda poems belong to 
that more ancient species of literature which is preserved in the 
memory of a literary caste long before the invention or applica- 



* This seems to be the view adopted by Colonel Sykes in an elaborate 
paper " On the religious, moral, and political state of Ancient India," which 
appears in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1841. No. XII. pp. 
248—484. See especially pp. 272 and 411 sqq. 

f See Major Rawlinson, Journal of R. As. Soc. X. part I. p. 41. Dr 
Max Muller, Report of Brit. Assoc. 1847. pp. 321, 326. 



124 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

tion of writing. And we are disposed to think that the Alexan- 
drine school of King Vikramaditya's court were engaged in an 
office not unlike that of the learned men of Athens, who, for the 
first time, put together and published the scattered lays of the 
Homerida?. 

But although we have no good reason to doubt the great 
antiquity of the Sanscrit language, and though the writings in 
which it is contained are the modern representatives of a school 
of epic and didactic poetry, probably older than the earliest 
specimens of Greek literature, we must not suppose that it was, 
as we have it now, the same old Iranian idiom which was taken 
into Europe; on the contrary, it bears evident marks of those 
changes which long usage introduces into every language, and 
which have not operated to so great an extent in some of the 
sister-tongues of Europe, for instance, in the Low German, Latin, 
and Greek. However, as we do not possess any memorials of 
the primeval language from which it sprung, although we might 
be able, from a comparison of all the languages of the family, to 
make a probable reproduction of its grammatical system, and as 
the Sanscrit does present most remarkable correspondences with 
the oldest European languages of the Indo- Germanic family, we 
must be content to take it as the representative of the old Low 
Iranian, and therefore in the following pages have made more 
use of it than of any other language of this family, in our en- 
deavours to restore the oldest forms of Greek words. 

85 When history tells us that the Median empire was 
overthrown by the Persian, this is a distinct announcement of 
the fact, which we might derive from philology alone, that the 
High Iranians pressed upon and mastered the Low Iranians. 
The establishment of the kingdom of Cyrus was in fact the final 
development of a tendency which had continued to exhibit itself 
in the same manner for many centuries previously ; and in this 
we must recognize the pressure owing to which, as we conceive, 
the streams of emigration to India and Europe were let off. 
We have stated that the Medians or Low Iranians spoke the 
primeval tongue of which the Indian Sanscrit is an offset, and 
which forms the distinctive element of those European dialects 
which are connected with the Low German. There is reason to 
suppose that the Low Iranian emigration entered Europe by 



Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 125 

the North of the Black Sea. Now when the Persians, a High 
Iranian people, intruded themselves upon the Medes or Low 
Iranians, it is probable that the language of the latter became 
tinged with the peculiarities of the Persian idiom, which was, 
however, nearly related to the Median, and the mixed language 
constituted the speech of those Persians with whom the Greeks 
had so much to do. The connexion of modern Persian with 
modern High German, even after many centuries of Arabian 
rule and the loss of its inflections, was long ago perceived ; and 
it was to one of the tribes of the Persians, the Tep/j.avioi men- 
tioned by Herodotus (I. 125), that the Germans owe their 
name. We assume, therefore, that the High German dialects of 
Europe are due to a final Iranian emigration connected with the 
early expansion of the Persian race. And thus if all the Euro- 
pean members of the family can be assigned to the two divisions 
of Low and High German, the former derived from that old 
Iranian stock which gave to India its sacred language, the 
latter from the great race of Persians or Germanians, the name 
Indo-Germanic, which has been given to the family, is doubly 
appropriate. 

86 It will be proper to make some remarks here on the 
language of the religious books which Anquetil du Perron ob- 
tained from the Parsis of Gujarat, and which are supposed by 
some to contain a genuine specimen of the old language of 
Media. Most English orientalists are still of opinion that the Zend 
and Pehlvi, the languages in which these books are composed, 
are not genuine dialects, and all of them are agreed that the writ- 
ings are at least of no very high antiquity : Colonel Vans Ken- 
nedy, indeed, goes so far as to assert that the Zend and Pehlvi 
are mere jargons made up of other languages (Asiat. Journ. Vol. 
XXVI. Part i. p. 109). Foreign writers, on the contrary, are 
generally disposed to consider the genuineness of the languages 
and the authenticity of the Parsi writings as incontrovertibly 
established : Rask was the first to undertake a serious philo- 
logical defence of the Zend in particular, and Bopp and Bur- 
nouf have subsequently made a minute application of it to the 
purposes of comparative grammar. There are some who have 
held an intermediate opinion ; for instance, the late Dr Leyden, 
Mr Erskine, and Professor von Bohlen, of Konigsberg, have 



126 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

supposed that the Zend is genuine indeed, but only a dialect of 
the Sanscrit, like the Pracrit, or Pali (the sacred language of 
the Buddhists); and Mr Ptomer, in a paper read before the 
Asiatic Society {Journal, IV. p. 363), says " it appears to him 
far from improbable, that the Sanscrit supplied the framework 
upon which the Zend has been constructed ; whilst it is evident 
that, in the formation of Pehlvi, it is from the Arabic that 
assistance has been sought and applied, but following, particu- 
larly in the infinitives, the form of the Persian verb." A. W. 
von Schlegel, who is more sceptical on the subject than most of 
his countrymen, is rather inclined to give the Zend an interme- 
diate place between the language of Darius Ilystaspes and the 
Persian of Firdousi (Etudes des langues Aslatiques, p. 71). It 
would be highly presumptuous to pronounce a decision upon a 
question with regard to which the most eminent orientalists have 
held such discordant opinions. At the same time, we n 
express our conviction that a language like the Zend could not 
possibly have been invented. As far as its vocabulary and 
grammatical structure have been investigated, it tallies exactly 
with what we know of the old Persian, from the proper names 
and stray words mentioned incidentally by the classical writers : 
all these words show that the Persian must have been very 
near akin to the Sanscrit ; and, from the fact mentioned by 
Herodotus (I. 139), that all Persian names ended in t, we may 
conclude that the inflections of the language were more complete 
even than the Greek or Sanscrit (see Schlegel. lndisclic Bib- 
Hot hole, II. p. 308, and below, Book III. § 242). Now the 
fragments of the Zend language present us with explanations of 
many of these old names ; its structure is very like that of the 
Sanscrit ; and though in some points it exhibits a more modern 
type, as in the substitution of h for an initial 9, it generally 
agrees in all its features with the oldest languages of the Indo- 
Germanic family. It is just such a language as we might 
expect to result from the oldest form of Low Iranian after it 
had been infected to a certain extent with the Persian idiom ; 
and we believe, that, though miserably corrupted by the ig 
rant Destours, who did not understand the books for which 
they were persecuted, the Vendidad nevertheless contains the 
remnant of an old language spoken by the Persians in very 
early times, and exhibiting some strongly-marked features of 



Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 127 

the Median dialect. The name simply means " Holy Book," 
or " Scripture." In this language the letter z generally appears 
like the Greek £, as the representative of the softened guttural 
j. Accordingly, in the preface to the Sanscrit translation of the 
Yacna, we find Ijisni Janda, and Pahalavi Janda, signifying 
"the Zend or book Ijisni," and "the Pehlvi book" (see Burnouf, 
Yacna, p. xvi. note) ; Zend is also obviously the same word as 
the Sanscrit Ctihandas, a common name for the Vedas or scrip- 
ture of the Hindus {Am. Cosh. p. 359, Colebrooke*). 

87 We now come to the Latin and Greek languages, and 
trust to be able to show, that the former is entirely referable to 
the Low-German class, whereas some of the most distinguishing 
features of the latter are High German. That the Latin is the 
older language of the two was recognised even by those who 
wished to derive Latin from Greek ; for they sought a connexion 
between the Latin as it stood and the oldest or iEolian dialect 
of the Greek. The fact appears still more clearly from the 
structure of the language. It is the tendency of all languages 
built upon a system of inflexions to lose these inflexions and 
substitute for them a system of auxiliaries and particles. Now 
the Greek shows a much stronger bias to this than the Latin ; 
indeed the mere use of the definite article and the particle av 
in Greek would be sufficient to decide the question of their re- 
lative antiquity. But this not only appears from the gramma- 
tical structure, but may be established from the words themselves, 
in consequence of a law, which Grimm has derived from an ex- 
amination of the German dialects and the old classical languages 
{Deutsche Grammatik, I. p. 584), and which has been extended 
to the Zend and Lithuanian by Bopp ( Vergleich. Gramm. p. 78), 
and placed in a very striking light by Mr Winning {Manual, 
p. 36). As we shall have occasion to recur to the subject in 
the following chapter, we shall only say here, that according to 
this law High German uses tenues, where the Gothic has medials, 
and the Sanscrit, Latin, and Zend, have aspirates ; it has aspi- 
rates where the Gothic has tenues, and the last three languages 
medials ; and medials where there are aspirates in Gothic, and 



* See Dr Max M tiller, Brit. Assoc. 1847. p. 330. Hamaker, Akad. 
VoorJez. p. 219. 



128 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

tenues in the rest. The Zend sometimes corresponds to the 
Gothic ; the Lithuanian agrees entirely with the Latin and San- 
scrit, except that it has no aspirates. The Greek sometimes 
agrees with the Sanscrit, Latin, &c, at other times with the old 
High German (Winning, p. 40 foil.). In addition to this, the 
Greek and High German have prefixes where the other languages 
have the same word without a prefix (Winning, p. 35). Now there 
can be no doubt that old High German stands lower down in 
the scale of these languages than the Sanscrit and Lithuanian. 
Therefore the Greek must have at least an important element 
belonging to the younger or High German class of languages. 

88 This is fully borne out by all that tradition has told us 
of the early population of Greece. It is distinctly stated that 
the Pelasgians, as they were called, that is, the oldest inhabit- 
ants of the country, spoke a language which was not Greek 
(Herod. I. 57). But we must recollect that this does not imply 
a radical difference of language. People, who, like the an<. 
Greeks, never learn any language but their own, grow wonder- 
fully susceptible of the slightest differences of writing or pro- 
nunciation. Of this wc have a striking instance in the cx\ 
sions which the Greeks used in speaking of the different dialects 
of their own tongue. It is well known that the different petty 
tribes of Greece, in consequence of the numerous mountains and 
rivers which kept them separate, used to speak a ejreat many 
varieties of the same language even in the age of history. Now, 
in mentioning these provincialisms, an Athenian would not hesi- 
tate to call them all (pwiai*, and even fidpfiapoi <pw\al\ ; so 
that even the epithet fiapfiapoepwvos is not to be understo< 
implying that the difference of idiom is great or striking, but 
only that there is a difference. But, what is of most import.; 
with regard to the Pelasgian languages, it appears that the old 
inhabitants of Italy were also Pelasgians, and there is certainly 
no radical difference between Latin and Greek. We are led, 
then, to the conclusion that these Pelasgians were simply an old 



* Sec Plato, Pka r, p. 346 D. 

t Prot'.i-jor. p. 341c: are A l m & iM u>v rat h $0)17/ ^a^daptoTf^pafji^vos. 
According to Pindar (hthm. V. [VI.], 24), naXiyyXoxrcros is a stronger term 
than jSdp^apos. 



Chap. 4.J OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 129 

or Low Iranian tribe who formed the basis of the population in 
Italy and Greece. If it were necessary to fix upon some par- 
ticular branch of the Low Iranian, we should be inclined to 
select the Sclavonian. It must, however, be understood, that in 
calling the common element of Latin and Greek a Sclavonic 
language, we mean only that as the Sclavonians, the children of 
the Sauromatae*, and the most widely-extended branch of the 
Low Iranian family, may be traced to the immediate neighbour- 
hood of Greece and Italy ; as there are singular coincidences 
between Latin and the oldest Greek on the one hand, and even 
the modern Sclavonian languages on the other; and as the Greek 
traditions point to the Hyperborean regions |, we may safely 
call the Pelasgians by a name which, though now restricted, 
properly describes all those Low Iranian tribes that came into 
immediate contact with the people of whom we are speaking. 
We do not exclude the claims of the Goths (or Getse), Scythians J, 
or Thracians, but we consider all these tribes as more or less 
affected by admixture or contact with members of the Sclavonian 
stock. The names of the Massa-Getae, Moeso-Goths, and My- 
sians, are only various corruptions of one and the same original 
designation. Now it appears probable that the Sclavonians in- 
habited Mysia from the very earliest times. We are told by 
Nestor, the oldest historian of Russia, that the ancient Sclavo- 
nians were driven out of Moesia and Pannonia by the Bulgarians : 
he is perhaps wrong in placing this event so late as the fourth 
or fifth century of the Christian era, but his testimony is valuable 



* See Bockh, Corpus Inscript. II. p. 83 : Sauromatce, Slavorwm haud 
dubie parentes (above p. 120). 

t Diodorus Sic. (II. 47, p. 198, Dindorf) : i'xtiv ^ T °vs 'YnepPopeovs 
18 Lav Tiva. diaXeKTov ko\ npos rovs "EXkrjvas olKeLorara biaKelo-dai Clem. Alex. 
Strom. I. p. 225: el 8e tis ttjv <pa>vr]v SiafidWet tu>v fiapfidpov, " epol Se," 
(pr}a\v 6 'Avdxapo-Ls, " navres "EWrjves o-KvOLgovai." 

I When we identify the Sclavonians with the Scythians, we are speak- 
ing only of those Scythians who were immediately known to the Greeks, 
and were therefore Sauromatse or Sclavonians. The original Scythians, 
who were no doubt of the Mongolian race (Niebuhr, Kl. Schr. p. 361), 
were invaded and conquered by the Getse and Sauromatse, that is, by the 
Low Iranians, just as the old Mongolian population of India were subdued 
by the Hindus : and it is these Sclavonians with whom the Greeks had so 
much intercourse ; see below § 93. 

K 



ISO THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

as a tradition of the fact, that the Moesians, and therefore of 
course the Asiatic Mysians, belonged to the Sclavonian stock. If, 
however, the old Mysians and Sclavonians were the same people, 
it is pretty clear that the Pelasgians were also of Sclavonic 
origin, for the inhabitants of Mysia were evidently of the Pelas- 
gian race*, and the Pelasgian traditions of Rome all point to 
that country. The argument from the agreement of even modern 
Sclavonic with Latin and the oldest element of Greek, is still 
more conclusive. The resemblance of the Russian to the Latin 
is so striking that a modern traveller has not hesitated to assert, 
that the founders of Rome spoke the Russian language j\ It is 
only in the most ancient monuments of the Greek language that 
we can find the same coincidences, and then they are sufficiently 
striking. Professor Dankovsky, of Posen, has shown this, in a 
loose and unsatisfactory way, it is true, by an interlinear ap- 
proximate translation of Homer into modern Sclavonic^:, and a 
more extensive and formal comparison of Russian and Greek has 
been instituted by Constantini§. There are, indeed, some archa- 
isms in Greek which are hardly explicable, otherwise than by a 
comparison with Sclavonic and the oldest Low German. We 
allude to the arbitrary insertion of i in some words in Gothic, 
Sclavonic, and the Boeotian and Thcssalian varieties of the J^o- 
lian or oldest dialect of Greek. 

The resemblance of Sclavonian to Latin and the oldest ele- 
ment of Greek is not more remarkable than its dissimilarity, in 
certain points, to the Greek of the dan L For instance, 

there is a total absence of the article in the Latin and Russian, 
although this part of speech has generally become indispensable 



* Nicbuhr, Hist, of Rome, I. p. 33. 

| Italy and its inhabitants: an Account of a Tour in that Country, in 
1816 and 1817, by J. A. Galiffe, of Geneva. Vol. I. p. 356, foil. The con- 
victions of this author on the identity of Russian and Latin are valuable, 
not because he is, but because he is not, a philologer. Mr Galiffe had no 
ethnographical theory to maintain, but, with only a superficial knowl. 
of the two languages, could not help recognizing a strong family likeness 
between them. 

J Homcrus Slavicis dialectis cognata lingua scripsit : tM ipsius II 
Carmine ostendit Gregorius Dankovsky. Vindub. l v 

§ AoKL/xiov TT(p\ rrjs Tr\j](ri€crTaTT}s (Ttyyeveias ttjs iXajSovo-PaxTO'iKris yXaxr- 
cny? irpbs rijv 'EWr/viKijv. tv TlsTpovirokci. 1828 



Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 131 

to those languages which have obtained a full literary develope- 
ment, and is especially prominent in the Greek. This is the 
more singular as the Russians have never used the Roman law 
or ritual, or, in fact, brought themselves into any immediate 
contact with the Latin language, whereas the forms of the 
Greek church have been long established in Russia (Winning, 
p. 121). With regard to the breaking up of the case-endings in 
the Sclavonic declension, in which particular this branch differs 
entirely from the other members of the family, we must refer 
the reader to some good remarks by Bopp (Vergl. Gramm. 
Vorr. II. Abth. p. iv. foil.). 

89 It appears then, that the common or Pelasgian element 
of Greek and Latin was allied to the Sclavonian, or Low Iranian 
branch of the Indo-Germanic family. The additional or Hel- 
lenic element of the Greek, which afterwards pervaded the 
whole language, and gave a High German character to its 
entire structure, seems to have come from the East by Asia 
Minor ; at any rate, we find that the Hellenes make their first 
appearance in the North-east of Greece. For reasons, which 
we have already mentioned, we believe that this new element 
was High Iranian or Persian. A question might be raised, 
whether it belonged to the High Celtic or Welsh, or to the 
High German, which both seem to have entered Europe from 
the same quarter. This question cannot be answered with any 
great plausibility. Our own opinion, drawn purely from philo- 
logical and geographical considerations, is, that the first popu- 
lation of both Italy and Greece was Erse or Low Celtic. After 
them came the Sclavonian element in each country, and then 
a Lithuanian or Gothic element was superadded in Italy (see 
Varronian. p. 42. sqq.), and a Persian, High German, High 
Celtic, or to speak generally, High Iranian, in Greece. We 
think the only difference between the Welsh or High Celts, 
and the High Germans was, that the Welsh pushed farther 
towards the West and lost much of the German type by 
mixing with the uncivilized and unadulterated Erse tribes set- 
tled in that part of Europe. It would be absurd to attempt 
any precise solution of all these ethnographical difficulties, but 
as much as we have stated seems to be sound in theory. 
We do not pretend to say which of the numerous early tribes 

K2 



132 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

mentioned by the Greek historians was Celtic, which Sclavonian, 
and which High German*: but we may venture to affirm the 
general fact, that there was first a Celtic, then a Sclavonian, 
element: and that the original language, in which the Scla- 
vonian preponderated, was subsequently infected and pervaded 
by a High German dialect, to which the Greek language owes 
the most remarkable points in its wonderful structure. 

90 The striking similarity between High German on the 
one hand and the ancient Greek and modern Persian on the other, 
was pointed out in the infancy of comparative philology f. The 
resemblance which Greek bore to the Persian in particular must 
have been much greater formerly ; so much so indeed, that a 
Greek could learn Persian without any difficulty ; Democedes 
makes a witty remark in Persian before he has been long at 
SusaJ , and Themistocles, an elderly man, who had never learned 
a foreign tongue in his life, made himself a proficient in the 
language within a ycar$. 

91 With the Teutonic race the ancient Greeks had many 
points in common. The same love of freedom, the same martial 
qualities, the same tendency to the formation of a considerable 
number of small independent states, and the same prevalence of 
federalism, characterizes both of these races. The Germans and 
the Greeks alone have been distinguished among Europeans by 
a fearlessness and subtlety of metaphysical speculation. Colonial 
enterprise is a feature which marked the ancient Greeks, and it 
is so conspicuous in the modern Germans that the whole world 
is filled with scattered members of one familv. Even in their 



* We might guess that the Arcadians were Celtic, and, as we have said, 
the Pelasgians were Sclavonic, and the Hellenes High German; but to what 
class the Leleges, Caucones, &c. are to be referred it is useless to inquire. 

f See above § 33. 

X Herod. III. 130. 

§ Plutarch. Thctnistocl. XXIX.: Iviavrov alrqaapcvoi koi ttjv UepalSa 
yk&TTav awoxptoVTctis (Kpadoiv. Cornel. Xepos surely exaggerates when he 
says: ille omnc Mud tern pus (annum) Uteris sennoniqw Persarum dedit, 
quibus adco eruditus est, ut multo commodius dicaiur 
fccisse, quam hi poterant, qui in rant nati. Thueydides 

merely: Ttjs Ilepo-idos yXuao-rjs oaa i]8vvaro Karcvorjac (I. 138). 



Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 133 

literary tendencies we observe the same agreement. It has been 
well said by an eminent philologer*, that "the drama, or the 
combination of the lyric and epic elements, and the complete 
representation of the eternal laws of human destiny in political 
society, is entirely unknown to the Semite. It is exclusively the 
creation of the Hellenic mind, feebly imitated by the Roman, 
reproduced with originality by the Germanic race. Nor is 
Iranian India entirely wanting in this last of the three species 
of poetical composition ." If we turn to the languages themselves, 
we shall see that it is only the Greek and the German which 
have combined a perfectly refined syntax with an etymological 
structure more or less complete, and a living power of derivation 
and composition. And even in the details of articulation we 
observe striking coincidences. The evanescence of n and s is 
particularly observable in German and Greek ; and the Dorian 
or peculiarly Hellenic Greek especially affects the final r, which 
is so marked a characteristic of new High German-)-. But per- 
haps the most decisive correspondence of articulation is found 
in the consistent repudiation by both languages of all the soft 
palatal sounds suggested by the Sclavonic and Pelasgian idioms, 
with which the Greek and German languages were thrown into 
contact at a very early period. 

92 These resemblances are still farther confirmed by the 
appellations in which the Greeks and Germans equally delighted. 
We have seen above that the titles Mann, Herr-mann, Ger- 
mann, adopted by the eastern Teutons, indicated a predominance 
of the manly character, or that this race adopted a name par- 
ticularly significant of their warlike temper. The same is the 
meaning of the word ^EW^iJ. Another special designation 
of the Eastern or High Germans is Thur-ing, which signifies 
"Highlander" or "mountaineer." We have found it combined 
with the former appellation in the name of the Her-mun-duri : 
and it appears by itself in the words Tyr-ol, Taur-us, Duro- 



* Bunsen, Report to the Brit. Assoc, for 1847, p. 270. 

t See the instances in Matthise's Gr. Gr. p. 46. Ahrens de dialecto 
Dorica, p. 71 sqq. 

J "EXkrjves, "the warriors;" comp. the name of their god 'An&Xavs 
Miiller, Dor. II. 6. § 6. 



134 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

triges, Dor-set, and Taur-ini. Now this name again is a dis- 
tinctive title of the genuine northern Greeks, as opposed to 
the Pelasgians: for the Awp-teTs or " highlanders" are repre- 
sented as descended from Awpos the son of 'EWrjv, as well 
as their brethren the AloXels or " mixed men," and the 'Lcovcs 
or " coast-men." We can trace back this correspondence of eth- 
nical nomenclature to the original seats of the Greek and Ger- 
man race in Asia. Immediately to the north of Greece, in the 
highest mountain-land of Epirus, we recognize in the Tpai-oi 
or Tpai-Koi* about Dodona the element ger- of the word Ger- 
mann; and in the Qpq-K€$ to the west we have again the 
element Tor or Dor. It has been already mentioned that the 
Yep-fxavioi were a tribe of the ancient Persians. We find the 
other element in the proper name Darius or Darayawush. And 
we may, with a fair amount of probability, maintain that the 
stream of High German or Greek emigration entered Europe 
by way of Asia Minor, and that its course may still be traced 
through the dry bed of obsolete proper names and shadowy 
tradition. Thus, to begin with the Hellespont, where Asia 
Minor and Europe are divided by a narrow strait, we find the 
well-known name of Tpoia, in which the element Tor is still 
conspicuous, and in connexion with the same region we have the 
hero Dar-danus. Then again the Teutonic name appears in 
Teuta-mus, Teuthras, and the like. And Priamus and Paris, 
whose common name is best explained from the Persian, appear 
as the leaders of a confederacy which extended throughout the 
whole of Asia Minor, and gave a hand to the western borderers 
of Iran. "Priamus," says a modern philologerf, "is simply a 
vassal of the Assyrian King Teutamus, who sends him a body 
of auxiliary troops out of the heart of Persia." The evidence 
for this chain of ethnographic connexions is necessarily of a cumu- 
lative nature. Language, tradition, history, mythology, and, 
as far as this is applicable, those features in descriptive geo- 
graphy which influence the spread of population, enable us to 
trace the Grseco-German race from the mountains of Karmania 
and Kurdistan through the north of Asia Minor and across the 



* See Niebuhr, //. B. I. note 162, p. 55. Tr. 
t Hamaker, Akadcmische VoorUxin <nn, p. 14. 



Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 135 

Hellespont into Thrace and Illyria. Nor do we stop here : for 
we may see how, in a strong but narrow stream *, this warrior- 
band forced its way through the Sclavonian and Low German 
tribes into the march-land of Vienna, and from thence gradually 
expanded itself along the Danube until it had peopled or con- 
quered the whole of the central plateau. 

93 There are two ancient names of constant occurrence, 
which seem to mix themselves up with the traditions from 
which we derive the theory respecting the origin and progress 
of the Helleno-Teutones. We refer to the Scythians and 
Pelasgi. It appears to us certain that the Pelasgians were the 
great southern branch of the Sclavonian stock, which, starting 
from Khorassan in an age long anterior to chronology, spread 
itself over the whole of Sarmatia, and eventually furnished a 
large substratum of population to Thrace, Illyria, Greece, and 
Italy. It is also pretty clear that these Pelasgi recrossed into 
Asia by the Hellespont, and colonized the Western coasts of 
Asia Minor and the islands of the Archipelago long before the 
Helleno-Teutones appeared on the stage. We conceive that the 
Scythians, properly known under this name, were the great 
Low German tribe of Getce, Guths, or Goths, The prefix de- 
notes that they were Asa- Goths, or points to their Asiatic origin ; 
and we conclude that they were identical with the Sacae-f, 
who gave their name to the other great subdivision of the low 
German family — the Saxons. We trace them to an ori- 
ginal settlement a little to the East of the Sclavonian cr Sar- 
in atian Pelasgi, namely, to Bokkara, or Hindu-kuh; and we 
entertain no doubt that it was the same branch of the Iranian 



* The systematic and military form which characterized the emigra- 
tions of the High German and High Celtic tribes, may be seen in the 
accounts given of the movements of the Teutonic and Cimbrian tribes 
conquered by Marius little more than 100 years B.C. 

1* The term Sacce was used by the Persians to include all the Scy- 
thians : oi yap Hepaai navras tovs Suvdas KaXeovai 2clkcis (Herod. VII. 64), 
and similarly Greece in general was the land of the lonians Qlaovav yrj, 
iEsch. Pers. 182). It is remarkable that the Indians also included under 
the same names of Sacce and Iavani all the nations living to the north and 
west of their neighbours the Pahlavi or Persians. See Rdmdyana, Lib. I. 
e. 54, cl. 20. and Schlegel's note on his Latin version, p. 168. 



136 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

race which invaded the Panjab and Hindostan, and established 
there the Sanscrit language and the Brahminical religion. In 
Europe we find the Getae or Scythae occupying the lower 
Danube, and stretching in a North-westerly direction to the 
Baltic and German ocean. It is easy, therefore, to distinguish 
between the Getae and the Helleno-Teutones. But we have 
to guard ourselves against the risk of vagueness in regard 
to other tribes, which is likely to be produced by the very 
lax and general manner in which the ancients employed the 
name Scythian. It is made to include all the tribes to the 
North of the Euxine and Caspian, and may therefore point to 
branches of the Turanian, Celtic, and Sclavonian stocks, as well 
as to the Low Germans, whom it strictly and appropriately in- 
dicates. We ought therefore to adopt a classification which 
would distinguish between the Scythians properly so called, 
namely, the Getae and Sacae, whom we may term the Teutono- 
Scythians ; and the pseudo-Scythians, i.e. (l) the Mongols or 
Turano-Scythians ; (2) the Cimmerii or Celto- Scythians ; and 
(3) the Sauromatce or Slavo-Scythians. In the great country 
of Thrace we must admit the presence of both Getae and Sar- 
matae; and as the name Qpa% involves the root Tor or Dor, we 
must also recognise an admixture of the Helleno-Teutones. In 
fact, in all countries, which have been the highway of migration, 
we must expect that ethnical elements will be fused together 
in an entanglement which no modern knowledge can be expected 
to unravel. 

94 Although we entertain no doubt whatever as to the 
ethnical affinities of the ancient Greeks and old High Germans, 
we do not overlook the fact that the inhabitants of Hellas 
owed their early civilization and some very peculiar features of 
their literary culture to a source with which the Teutonic races 
had no connexion except through a Greek medium. While the 
Indo-Germanic tribes were spreading to the Ganges on the one 
side, and to the Atlantic and North Sea on the other, the Svro- 
Arabian or Semitic family was gradually diffusing the primitive 
civilization of our race from the river-lands of Mesopotamia and 
Egypt along the whole of the south coast of the Mediterranean. 
Under the name of Phoenicians they were the earliest navigators 
and colonists of that great inland sea. In some of the islands 



Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 137 

they constituted the largest part of the population. But every- 
where they communicated the cognate arts of architecture and 
writing, and imparted not a few of the religious and philo- 
sophical dogmas which form the basis of European mythology. 
Indeed, when, at a later period, Pythagoras and Plato sought 
instruction from the fountain-head of Asiatic wisdom, they did 
but confirm the belief which was floating vaguely on the surface 
of Hellenic tradition. The influences of Phoenician culture must, 
however, be traced back to a time when the Thuringian Greeks 
had not begun to descend upon Thessaly and the rest of the 
peninsula, and when the Sclavonian Pelasgians were still the 
ruling caste. In fact, it was in the islands of Crete, Rhodes, and 
Cyprus, and on the West coast of Asia Minor, that the Phoeni- 
cians first taught the Thraco-Pelasgians those arts which made 
the tower-builders of Argos and Italy look back to Lydia with 
mysterious reverence, or which the Greeks themselves subse- 
quently derived from the Southern Islands of their narrow sea. 

95 We are not however to suppose with Dr Roth*, who 
has ably advocated the claims of the Phoenicians to a large 
share in the early cultivation of Greece, that the name lleXaa-- 
70s is therefore of Phoenician origin. He maintains that this 
word is merely another form of the designation of the Philis- 
tines, namely, Vlttfrs PJishti ; and that, as this is a deriva- 
tion from fytibs, PJesheth, the last letter of which is a servile, 
the original form of the ethnical name must have been ^wbB, 
PJdshi, " the wanderer," which is analogous to the JEthiopic 
falasi, " peregrinator." Consequently, the Kari, Xrethi, Plelhi, 
and P,ldshi, were synonymous names for the Phoenician rovers 
who colonized the islands of the Mediterranean. Now to omit 
all strictures on the details of this etymology, which is faulty in 
itself, we remark that, with the fullest admission of the many 
contacts between the Phoenicians and Pelasgians, we are bound 
to conclude that the name given to the foreigners by the 
Greeks, who spoke about them, would more probably be a term 
significant in their own language, than a foreign word which 
conveyed no meaning to those who used it. Besides, this ety- 



* Geschichte unserer abendlandischen Philosophie (Mannheim, 1846), 
notes 25, 28. 



138 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

mology does not explain the cognate term IleAov//, which is 
synonymous with TleXaayos, and points to an emigration from 
Asia Minor to Argolis, indisputably connected with the progress 
of Phoenician civilization. All nouns sending in -o\// refer to 
the colour or shape of a substance, in fact, to that which most 
strikes the eye in its outward appearance. TleXoxjs is therefore 
like At0/o\|/, an epithet descriptive of the complexion*. We 
have shown elsewhere that it signifies " swarthy of face," and 
that ITeX-ac^os- means "the swarthy Asgian, or ¥ Asiatic f." 



* Although no one will deny this position in the case of AlOl-oty, al6- 
o^, and olv-o^r, it is not thought so obvious that the same mode of interpre- 
tation applies to t^v-o^, p-ip-o^, vcop-o^ and ortp-oty. Heschyius renders 
rjvoyjs, ndw evrjxos, \ap,7rpos } dia^avrjs. As the word is an epithet of ^aXxoy, 
ovpavos, and nvpos, it can only imply a bright, yellow, golden colour, and 
the word must be the Hellenized form of the original jaa-ops or SLav-oty, 
referring to the light of day. Na>p-o-^ is also an epithet of x«X<co'y, and is 
considered by Plutarch, who makes some bad jokes on the subject, as 
equivalent to Xap-npos and dtavyrjs (Conviv. Disput. 659. D. 692. F, = III. 689, 
847.Wyttenb.). We believe that the root vap- is simply vr\p- with the usual 
change of weight, (Gr. Or. 22), and that the latter, found in 'Srjpfvs, mjpi- 
tos, implies a perpetually floating motion, as of waves or leaves, and is 
therefore applicable to the flashing and flickering da-TpaTzr) of polished 
metal. We have the same combination of meanings in the Latin micare 
and coruscare: see Doderlein, Etym. u. Syn. II. 79 sqq. It has generally 
been thought that pfp-oyj/ refers to speech, and means "having an articulate 
utterance." We have no hesitation in recognising in this compound the 
root p.ap- of fiap-p.aip u> pAp-p,apos, p,opoets "bright," " shining;'' and we 
think, that, as an epithet of men, it implies a fair as opposed to a dark 
complexion : so that the Mcpones (of Cos and elsewhere) were opposed to 
the neXones. According to the usual interpretation of artp-oyj/ it is syno- 
nymous with rfvo^ and vcoposp- (cf. Soph. Antin. 1114. Eurip. Phunis. 235, c. 
schol.) : so that it will be connected with a-rfpoTrr], d<rrpa7nj, and ultimately 
with dcrnjp, d-arep-os. Lobeck, prjp.aTi.K6v, p. 41. say?: ^aripo-^ arbitror a 
orepoo sive a-Tpeco ductum cum significatione torti et volubilis ; certe <rrfpo\lr 
Xiyvvs apud Sophoclem nihil diftert a \iyvvs arpo&iXos in Dosiada? Ara I. v. 
5, quod epitheton pluribus verbis explanat Apollonius I. 43S : Xiyp fti 
7rop(pvp€ais fkUeo-o-iv dt<r<rovo-a id est ayros agen t, wmrhtktdtr Ranch, curling 
smoke)." If so, arepoyJA is a synonym of *aXavpo\^ = Kpaipo^; Doderlein, 
Etym. u. Syn. I. p. 21. 

t Varronianns, p, 24. Kenrick, Ph&. Hits. II. 353. We may add that 
7reXo? is translated vnocpaios in a gloss on a Fragment of Sophocles. 122 
Dind. : kvvos 7re\r)s re prjKados fioos pivov. It is somewhat comical that 
with theso evidences in favour of an appellation significant of a dark and 



Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 139 

The last part of this name is clearly connected with the ethnical 
designation D2ttW, 'hashk,naz, " Ascanius," which the book of 
Genesis assigns to one of the sons of Gomer ; and as we find 
the Anglians by the side of the English, (pronounced Ing-lish) 
and Ing-cevones, so we may recognize this name in the Frankish 
Isc-cevones (above p. Ill note, and p. 114 note). But there 
is not the same objection to a Semitic etymology for the name 
of the Telchines, who introduced the useful arts among the 
Cretans, Cyprians, and Rhodians, and who gave to the city 
of Sicyon one of its most ancient names; and we feel dis- 
posed to accept Dr Roth's suggestion that Tel-chin, the son 
of Europs, was another form of Tubal-qain, and that the 
same word appears in the name of the Tibareni or Chalybes. 
Consequently, the Tel-chines were merely the " copper- smelt- 
ers;" and though the name of the Dak-tyli is formally grecized, 
we can with him recognise in this a Semitic compound con- 
taining the same root b& or b)F\, and signifying the "copper- 



swarthy hue, Dr Hitzig should have been led to suppose that the Pelasgi 
owed these names to their fair and white complexion. He says ( Urge- 
schichte u. Myihologie der Philist'der, p. 44): "I consider 7rikacry6s identical 
with the Sanscrit word valahsha or balaksha, * white.'" This etymology 
does not seem to us to need refutation. Its intrinsic improbability is a 
sufficient obstacle to its reception. Dr Karl Meyer proposes a Celtic 
etymology. He says (Gel. Anzeig. d. bayer. Akad. d. Wiss. 1843. p. 
709) : " I refer this name TleXaayos, with perfect certainty, to the Celto- 
Sanscrit (also Hebrew) root beh, ' high,' * proud/ S. balh, valh (' eximium 
esse, excellere') Cymr. batch, gwalch, Irish balach, bale, a derivation which, 
besides its obvious propriety as expressing the race of Niobe, is rendered 
more probable because by its double reference in Celtic to bodily and 
mental elevation, especially the flight of birds — Cymric gwalch ' soaring/ 
aar 'Falke' — it gives a natural explanation of the assumed connexion 
between IleXaa-yos and 7reXapyoi." We are quite unable to adopt this 
ingenious suggestion, and not only adhere to the derivation, which con- 
nects the IleXao-yot with the TleXoTves, but also recognise a confirmation 
of this view respecting the first syllable in the word neXapyos. Dr Hitzig's 
objection (p. 46) that 7reX-apy6y could not signify a juxtaposition of two 
distinct colours in the plumage, but must signify a blackish white, i. e. 
"grey," does not appear to us at all valid. The main colour of the bird is 
white, which seems to be superinduced upon a lower coat of black, so that 
neXapyos "the black but whitened bird" is quite analogous to nvyapyos, "the 
white-backed eagle," which iEschylus, Ag. 114, describes thus in opposition 
to an eagle entirely black : oleovoov (3a<riXevs, 6 KcXaivos o r egomv apyas. 



140 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

miners." So that the two names occur in a very natural juxta- 
position. We think there are also good grounds for a belief 
in the Phoenician origin of the names of the Cares, Cretes, 
Plethi, Idsei and Corybantes, names more or less connected -with 
the Phoenician traffick with the islands of the Mediterranean. 
It may be remarked that Cretan and Phoenician legends are 
usually commutable. 

96 The difference, therefore, between the old or Pelasgian 
and the classical or Hellenic language, must have been the same 
in kind with that which constitutes the distinction of the whole 
Indo-Germanic family into two great branches ; and in investi- 
gating the origin of the Hellenic forms our problem is, from the 
given Greek, to reproduce the Pelasgian, word, — to pass from a 
language, which in its known state gravitates towards the High 
German or Persian, to one which was entirely Low Iranian in 
its structure. Although we shall be careful to point out in the 
following pages the peculiarities which distinguish the Greek 
words, as we have them, from their original type, as it may be 
restored from a comparison of the oldest languages of the family, 
it may be convenient to state here, briefly and generally, what 
are the laws regulating the use of the consonants in the Hellenic 
idiom, as contrasted with what we can infer with respect to the 
Pelasgian or older state of this language. The Hellenic or 
classical Greek tolerates only four consonants at the end of 
words, — r, r, p, 9. The first of these forms the termination of 
two words only — owe, and en ; in the former it is a mutilation of 
ice, in the latter of «?. It will be observed, too, that ovk never 
occurs before a consonant, and e« never before a vowel. Of the 
other three consonants which may be finals, v is often a repre- 
sentative of s, as in tv7tto/ul€i'. Moreover, when ? is the final 
letter it must not be preceded by a dental or a liquid. An 
analysis of the Greek language, and a comparison with other 
members of the Indo-Germanic family, assure us that in the 
more perfect form of the inflexions these rules could not come 
into application: for in the old language no consonant would 
ever be required to stand at the end of a word, or before another 
consonant, because no consonant is ever articulated in the primi- 
tive state of a language without a vowel following it. With a 
liquid, as we shall see, the case is somewhat different : the arti- 



Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 1 41 

dilating vowel may be placed either before or after it ; and this 
is the reason why the only three consonants in common use as 
finals are liquids. The Greek language first cast away its final 
vowels, and then the consonant of the suffix yielded to the laws 
of euphony. Besides these rules touching the final consonants, 
there are also others respecting initial consonants, and those in 
the middle of a word, which are just as distinctive of Hellenism 
as the others. One of the most remarkable of these appearances 
is the tendency to reject the digamma or aspirated labial, whether 
at the beginning or in the middle of a word. This sound has 
completely vanished from the Greek with which we are most 
conversant, though traces of it still remain in the poems attri- 
buted to Homer. The w-sound seems frequently to have ap- 
peared in the ante-Hellenic language preceded by 8, /c, a, r. 
In these cases either the first letter has been dropped, and the 
w somewhat modified, as in (piv from a(plv ; or what is more 
common, the w has been omitted, as in le for Sue. In Hellenic 
the initial a is almost always changed into h, a principle also 
observed in Zend as compared with Sanscrit, and in Welsh as 
compared with Erse : similarly j is either changed into £ or 
h, vocalized into i, or assimilated, and this also takes place in 
Zend as compared with Sanscrit : in Sclavonic the j appears 
under the form sch, which, we shall see, is a step towards z, 
though still a step from it. Finally, the following combinations 
of consonants cannot take place in the Hellenic language — 
Mp, fx\, /3j>, S\ 9 p\ ; but wherever they appeared in the older 
language we have fifip or ftp, /a/3X or fi\ 9 fxv and XX. It is 
unnecessary to add, that these prohibitions against the use of 
certain consonants and combinations of consonants interfered 
materially with the discrimination of the root and termination, 
and, by ruining the inflexions, gave occasion to some of the 
most remarkable peculiarities of Greek syntax, such as the use 
of the article and of the prepositions. 

97 After what has been said, it is scarcely necessary to 
mention that the different degrees in which the old Pelasgian or 
Slavo-Phcenician language of the South was affected by the 
Hellenic or Teutono-Persic language of the North, constitute the 
differences of dialect about which Grammarians have written so 
voluminously. Consequently, all dialectical distinctions in the 



J 42 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. 

Greek language must resolve themselves into one or other of 
two great classes ; and the ancient Greeks were well aware of 
this when they regularly opposed the Dorians to the Ionians*. 
The former, as we have seen, were the representatives of the 
High German warriors, who gradually forced their way, in an 
united and distinct body, from the North of Thessaly to the 
promontory of Taenarus. In Greece as in Germany these 
Thuringians were remarkable for the military concentration 
which kept them from being absorbed by the populations of 
the invaded countries. They formed every where a distinct 
caste, an aristocracy of conquest. But as every army, however 
well organized, has its train of undisciplined followers, and 
leaves crowds of stragglers on its line of march, so we find the 
Dorians, in their progress through Thessaly, leaving behind 
them similar detachments of their forces ; and these stragglers, 
having combined themselves with the Pelasgians of that district, 
were called AioAeT? or "mixed menf," a name which was 
retained by the Thcssalians and Bceotians long after the op] 
tion of Dorian and Ionian had established itself in other parts 
of Greece. The ethnographical fact is preserved in the legend^ 
that " Hellen left his kingdom to .Eolus, his eldest son, while 
he sent forth Dorus, and Xuthus the father of Ion, to make 
conquests in distant lands." This mythical genealogy makes 
Ion not the son, but the grandson of Hellen ; and it has been 
shown by Mr Kenrick J, that the name of Xuthus, which is inter- 
posed, is simply an epithet of the Dorian God Apollo, who 
the Oeo^ Trarpipos of the Ionians. From all the circumstances 
known to us, we are entitled to infer, that the Ionians. wherever 
they retained their independence, were only partially influenced 
by the Dorians : the Pclasgian clement in their composition 
remained for a long while in full force, though they adopted 
the religious tenets of the Dorians, and paid homage to the 
conquering God under whose auspices the invaders marched 



* This opposition was not D Ogl c cte d by the author of Gen. x. 4. who 
makes 'lldishih or HtUat the eldest son of Javan or *!■». 

t Grimm supposes that the name AloXch refers to their ihirti-colo%tr*d 
Clothing! Gesch. d. deutsch. Spr.\\296: "FaioX f ??d. h _'.eich 

Britten und Fieten fiihrton JEolier den Namen der buntgekleideten." 
I Apollodor. I. 7, 3, 1. Thirlwall. I. p. 101. 
$ The Egypt of Herodotus, p. ltx. not. 



Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 143 

and fought. We have shown above that the Dorians, accord- 
ing to the primitive meaning of their name, were called " High- 
landers or mountaineers," and Mr Kenrick, who has derived the 
same result from a Greek etymology of the name, has shown 
that the Ionians were emphatically "the men of the coast" 
(H'iovia), and that they were also called the "Beach-men'' 
(AiyiaXels), or " Sea-men" ('A^a:o/) : and he remarks also that 
" the distinction between Doric and Ionic in later times an- 
swered very well to that which has been observed to prevail 
between the speech of mountaineers and of littoral nations, — 
one being harsh and broad, the other smooth and liquid*." 
We must not forget, however, that there were other differences 
of a more important and extensive nature ; and that the Doric, 
or purely Hellenic element, at length so completely asserted 
itself, that we can only by a laborious process succeed in par- 
tially reproducing the articulation and structure of the old 
Pelasgian speech. The broad distinctions therefore are not to 
be expected in the four dialects, which, at a later period, were 
rather names of different branches of literature, than four 
varieties of spoken language. The iEolic dialect (>/ Alo\i$), in 
this sense, referred to the lyric poetry cultivated at an early 
period by the ^Eolians of Lesbos ; the Doric (^ Awpis), to the 
choral poetry of the Dorians ; the Ionic (>; 'la'?), to the epic 
poetry of the Ionians ; and the Attic (>) !At0/s), to the universal 
literature of that branch of the Ionian race which had settled in 
the "Promontory-land" {rj 'ArTiKrj, or 'Aktiki]). The conquests of 
Alexander carried this last, in a less pure and vigorous form, 
into Asia and Egypt, where it incurred various corruptions, and 
became Hellenistic rather than Hellenic. An investigation of 
this Koivy] $ia\€KTo<s, as it has been called, does not belong to 
our present purpose, which is rather to reproduce the more 
perfect and complete state of the Greek language than to scru- 
tinize its decayed and feeble condition. 



Ibid. p. lxi. 



CHAPTER V. 
THE THEORY OF THE GREEK ALPHABET. 

98 Difficulty of the subject. 99 Every alphabet originally a syllabarium ; so that 
the distinction between vowels and consonants is quite arbitrary. 100 (1) Se- 
mitic origin of the Greek Alphabet. Semitic alphabet consisted originally of 16 
letters organically arranged. 101 These 1C letters formed the original Greek 
alphabet. 102 Subsequent additions to the Greek alphabet. 1/03 Poverty of 
the Egyptian hieroglyphic alphabet. 104 Artificial arrangement of the Arabic 
characters. 105 (2) Analysis of the Greek Alphabet. Preliminary examination 
of the Dcva-Nuga/i. 100 Inferences deducible from the shape of the Sanscrit 
characters. 107 Formation of the vowel-signs and origin of the liquids. l<>f{ 
Theory of the aspirates, sibilants, and secondary vowels. 100 Main difficulties 
in regard to the Greek alphabet. 110 The Greek digamma. Ill The Latin F. 
112 The dental sibilant £. 113 The Greek aspirate. 114 Evanescence of » 
and ?. 115 Double value of 5- UC Etymological analysis of t; and a>. 117 
General review of the Greek Alphabet. )Ui (3) Interchange of mutes in the 
Gnd: and cognate Ian _ I I -mini's law. Lift Exemplification*. 1 M In- 

ceptions in the case of the (rr.ek language. 121 Combinations represented by 
their separate elements. 1_ nding consonants in Sanscrit, Cireek, and 

Latin. Appendix to \ 110, 1 1\ tracts t'roi; ^ a the digamma. 

98 FTUIE necessary prelude to an attempt to increase our know- 
1 ledge of a dead language is, an inquiry into the value of 
the symbols or letters which have preserved and transmitted to 
us its written remains. All languages are made up of sounds, 
and of these sounds the letters are the only representatives in 
the case of a language no longer spoken ; unless, therefore, we 
can to a certain extent ascertain to what sounds these symbols 
corresponded, we shall hardly be able to draw a profitable 
comparison between the language in question and the others to 
which it is related ; nor will it be possible to explain and ju- 
those regular permutations of letters, which time and use have 
occasioned in languages of the same family, if we do not discover 
what was the value of this notation in the first instance. To 
obtain this knowledge, the great philologers ol' the present day 
have laboured diligently ; but though they have collected an 
immense mass of facts, and have heaped up materials for the 
future labourer to work upon, they have left so much room for 
arrangement and construction, that this subject is the most 
difficult part of our task. The Greek alphabet presents pecu- 
liarities of a most embarrassing nature. It derives its cha 



Chap. 5.] THEORY OF THE GREEK ALPHABET. 145 

ters and their arrangement from a family of languages with 
which it has no immediate connexion, and the whole develop- 
ment of its system of writing is at variance with the notation 
on which it is based. We must, therefore, consider as inde- 
pendent questions (l) the Semitic origin of the Greek alphabet, 
(2) the actual value of the different letters as used by the 
Greeks, and (3) the changes which take place in consonants of 
words as represented in the different idioms of the Indo- Ger- 
manic family. It will, however, be as well to begin with a few 
remarks on alphabetical writing in general. 

99 According to the grammatical system which has de- 
scended to us from the Greeks, we are taught from our earliest 
years to distinguish between vowels and consonants, and to re- 
gard them as necessarily having a separate existence. This is 
a notion which must be at once discarded by every one who 
would make any progress in philology. Language is a transfer 
of the thoughts to the outward world of sense : when this is 
effected by sounds, it is speech ; when by symbols, it is writing ; 
but as men speak before they write, every symbol is a repre- 
sentative of some sound : it is in itself an element of language. 
There are some languages in which each symbol represents a 
whole word ; such is the case in the Chinese. But in all lan- 
guages every symbol must have been significant in the first in- 
stance. Consequently, there could not be any distinction into 
vowels and consonants, but the alphabet must have been a 
syllabarium, the elements of which might or might not be in- 
dependent words. " By words," says W. von Humboldt (iiber d. 
Versch. d. menschl. Sprachb. p. 74), " we understand the signs 
of individual conceptions. A syllable forms an unity of sound, 
and becomes a word when it obtains an independent signification ; 
but for this a combination of several syllables is sometimes 
necessary. A doubled unity — of sound and conception — meets 
in a word." The distinction of these syllables into consonants 
and vowels is perfectly arbitrary. Neither a vowel nor a con- 
sonant can have any separate existence in spoken language : the 
consonant always requires a vowel-appendage in order to be 
pronounced ; the vowel cannot be pronounced without an initial 
breathing, which is sometimes so strong as to become a definite 
consonant. In either case the vowel can be regarded only as a 

L 



146 THE THEORY OF [Book I. 

modification of its fulcrum. Hence, in all ancient alphabets, we 
find that the vowels are not in the first instance expressed by 
separate symbols, but, as the indistinct a or e, which originally- 
accompanied every consonant, was in process of time developed 
into distinct vowel-sounds, these were denoted by various hooks 
or points attached to or written under the consonants to which 
they referred, or, at the beginning of the word, to the mark 
denoting the breathing with which they were pronounced. At 
first, then, there were only two sorts of letters, — breathings and 
consonants, — both of them accompanied by short vowels which 
were not expressed, or by modifications of these vowels expressed 
by certain marks pertaining to the original symbol. The first 
deviation from this original state would take place in those 
languages, which, like the Indo-Germanic, did not use many or 
very various breathings, and in which the vowels assumed to 
themselves at an early period important functions in the gram- 
matical organization. But even then no new symbols were 
invented for the vowels. It was thought sufficient to adopt for 
their expression more or less mutilated forms of those breathings 
or consonants with which they were found most constantly com- 
bined. We shall presently show, from a paheographical exami- 
nation of the Greek and Sanscrit alphabets, in what manner this 
was effected. 

100 (l) & 

The traditionary history of the Greek alphabet is well known. It 
is said to have originally I of only 1(J letters, which were 

brought from Tyre by Cadmu-. and to whieh -4- were added by Tala- 
medea at the time of the Trojan war, and subsequently 4 othen 
Simonides of Ceos (.Plin. It <\ Other invent* i- 

importers of the alphabet are also mentioned (ScAoL Dionj/*. Thr. 
Bckk. Anted, p. 78S), perhaps with as nmeh reason u I rhou 

it is ordinarily attributed ; for all that we are to understand by | 
traditions is, that the alphabet \\a< o( Semitic origin, and this we can 
discover for ourselves from an examination of the characters and their 
arrangement. A knowledge of this fact, however, is of the nt: 
importance, for the chief difficulties occasioned by the Greek alpha 
have arisen from the circumstance, that its whole organization is 
adapted to a language as widely different as possible bom the Greek, 
and that while the names and shape of the letters have been retained, 
their value has been materially altered. It will be instructive w 



Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 147 

inquire what were the original 16 letters which the Greeks derived 
from their intercourse with the Phoenicians, and how they came to 
adopt in the first instance a part only of the Semitic syllabarium ; for 
there are certainly more than 16 of the Greek letters which agree in 
name and shape with the Phoenician and Hebrew as they are known 
to us. The fact is, in our opinion, that the original Semitic alphabet 
contained only 16 letters. This appears from the organic arrangement 
of the characters*. The fundamental elements of a syllabarium are 
the mutes, the breathings, and the liquids. Of these the most neces- 
sary are the first two ; after these would come combinations of strong 
breathings with mutes, or aspirated mutes ; and the liquids, which are 
always secondary sounds, would be introduced last of all. In most 
alphabets we find the mutes divided into three classes : tenues p, k, t ; 
aspirates ph (/), kh (A), th ; medials 6, </, d. The first and third 
orders do not, however, necessarily coexist. There are some nations, 
as for instance our own Highlanders in Wales and Scotland, who can 
never, even in English words, pronounce the medials, and even in those 
languages which have both orders in constant use, as in the Greek, if a 
tenuis becomes a medial, an adjoining tenuis is also changed into a 
medial, as eirra^ e/3Bo/^o?. The old Italian and Runish alphabets had 
no medials, and the Semitic nations seem to have little need of tenues ; 
there is no p in the Arabic language, and, at the present day, most of 
the Arabs pronounce their Cl> caf as ga (Lepsius, Abhandl. p. 16). 
Some European nations have adopted a set of vacillating middle 
sounds, which sometimes approach to the tenues, at other times to the 
medials: for example, it requires a very practised ear to distinguish 
whether a Saxon says Leibsig or LeipsiJc. If, therefore, the tenues 
were so little used by the Semitic nations, we may presume that the 
signs for them, as distinguished from the medials, were of later intro- 
duction, and that they would take up the remaining order of mutes, 
the aspirates, and even the liquids, before they introduced the tenues. 
Besides the mutes and breathings, the Hebrew alphabet, as it now 
stands, has four sibilants |, p, ^, $}. Now it is quite clear that all 
these four sibilants could not have existed in the oldest state of the 
alphabet. Indeed we have positive evidence that the Ephraimites 
could not pronounce ^, but substituted for it the articulation D 



* This organic arrangement of the alphabet has been more or less noticed by several 
philologers, of whom the earliest seems to have been the acute and learned Dr Richard 
Lepsius, in his essay uberdie Anordnung und Verwandschaft des Semitischen, Indischen, 
Athiopischen, Alt-Persischen,undAlt-AgypUschen Alphabets (Zwei AbhandlBerl. 1836). 
It is rather surprising that so obvious a phenomenon should have escaped the notice 
of any observing grammarian. The deductions, however, in the text do not appear to 
have been anticipated by any former writer. See Latham, English Language, p. 200. 

L2 



148 THE THEORY OF [Book I. 

{Judges xii. 6). We consider it quite certain, that at the first there 
was only one sibilant, namely, this o or samech. Finally, to reduce 
the Semitic alphabet to its oldest form, we must omit caph, which is 
only a softened form of copk, the liquid resh, and the semivowel /W, 
which are of more recent introduction, as will be shown by and by. 
The remaining 16 letters appear in the following order: tf, 2, J, -j, ,-f» 
V n> D? b> D> 3> U> V? 2> p» n* If we examine this order more 
minutely, we shall see that it is not arbitrary or accidental, but strictly 
organic according to the Semitic articulation. We have four rlinrm 
each consisting of 4 letters : the first and second classes consist each 
of 3 mutes preceded by a breathing, the third of the 3 liquids and 
the sibilant, which perhaps closed the oldest alphabet of all, and the 
fourth contains the three supernumerary mutes, preceded by a breath- 
ing. The tf, which heads the first class, is a simple breathing corre- 
sponding to the splrttiis lenis of the Greeks, the J7 which is placed 
before the second is a hard aspirate, the q of the Gr 

It has been found difficult to determine the precise value of », which 
precedes the third order of mutes : it appears, however, to have been 
a kind of nasal breathing, of less frequent use, even in the Semitic 
languages, than either of the others, and therefore more easily corrupted 
in the pronunciation*. The principle! of the arrangement will 1 
appear if we place the characters first vertically, and then in horizontal 
classes. According to the first system we have : 



* Speaking of the changes which have taken place in the pronunciation of the He- 
brew gutturals, Ewald writes thus (Krit. Gramm. § 30. 3): "The guttural* have had 
their pronunciation most strikingly altered. In the progressive development of the 
language, these hard, and to a certain extent, rough sounds, have been more and more 
softened, till at last in the most corrupt Semitic dialects, the Samaritan for instance, 
every thing was mixed up, and they were resolved or formally changed into mere weak 
breathings. Thus even Jerome calls them, according to the Latin pronunciation, 
els (Michaelis Orient. Bibl. IX. p. 71, 2). This gradual softening took place in an 
especial manner in the rough sound y, which, as the language grew more corrupt, be- 
came softer and more like the n. Yet the Hebrew accidence shows, that, in the older 
language, it was generally stronger than p. In some words the old hard pronunciation 
was more faithfully retained, e. g. in ,1»V LXX, [*«{«, }y^ Payav, Gen. xi. 19. 
")DU To^ep, x. 2, just as in some words n was gradually softened down, in others 
retained its harder pronunciation, e. g. *?n™l P a X'A> J113n~l> Pua-^cof.*' We cannot 

think that y could ever have been harder than n, wliich retained its value as an aspirate 
to the very last: in all the Semitic dialects, y appears to have lost its pronunciat: 
a very early period : in the Greek transcriptions of Punic words, it is hardly ever repre- 
sented by g (Gesenraa, Script. Lingucvque Phoen. Monumenta, p. 430 foil.). Tl. 
appears to be, that it was properly a breathing intermediate to 4 and i, peculiar to the 
Semitic organ, but repudiated by the more recent articulation. In Coptic, a nasal 
prefixed to p and t converts them into medials (§ 103). The nasal y seems to have 
produced the converse effect in Hebrew. 



Chap. 5.] 



Aleph, 


N 


v& 


Beth, 


1 


B 


Gimel, 


3 


G 


Daleth, 


1 


D 


He, 


n 


h 


Vav, 


i 


BH 


Cheth, 


n 


GH 


Teth, 


& 


DH 


Lamed, 


b 


L 


Mem, 


D 


M 


Nun, 


3 


N 


Samech, 


D 


S 


Am, 


J 


"h 


Pe, 


a 


P 


Koph, 


P 


Q 


Tav, 


n 


T 



THE GREEK ALPHABET. 149 

First breathing (mere exspiration). 

Mediae. 

Second breathing (guttural aspiration). 



Liquids. 

The sibilant. 

Third breathing (nasal aspiration). 

Tenues- 



In the horizontal arrangement we shall, for the sake of greater sim- 
plicity, omit the liquids and the sibilant, and then we have : 



Breathings. 


Labials. 


Palatals. 


Linguals. 


K 


1 


3 


1 


n 


1 


n 


P 


V 


S 


P 


n 



In this we see, that, while the horizontal lines give us the arrangement 
of the mutes according to the breathings, the vertical columns exhibit 
them arranged according to the organ by which they are produced. 
Such a classification is obviously artificial ; it is entirely Semitic, and 
if, as we shall now proceed to show, these sixteen letters constituted 
the original Greek alphabet, and were so arranged in that alphabet, it 
is an additional proof of the Semitic origin of the Greek characters ; 
for, although it would be perfectly natural for a Phoenician to arrange 



150 THE THEORY OF [Book I. 

his letters in such an order, no Greek could have thought of placing 
the tenues, of which he made the most constant use in his primary 
articulations, in the third order of mutes, and after the liquids. 

Before we proceed to the Greek alphabet, it will be proper to men- 
tion an objection which might be raised to the completeness of the 
classification which w T e have pointed out. It may be said that £ has 
no right to be considered as an aspirate of -7, and that, therefore, there 
is at least one objection to our systematic arrangement of the alphabet. 
The Greeks considered their 6 as an aspirate, not of but of t*, be- 
cause, in their system, the tenues were antecedent to the medials ; but 
there is every reason to believe that 6 differed from 3 only by the 
difference of Greek and Semitic articulation, and that ;■*. corresponded 
in value as in name to t. This view has been warmly advocated by 
Ewald. The arguments which he has advanced in support of it are as 
follows {Krit. Gramm. der Sebraitek. 8pr. §30, 1). "(1) In all 
Semitic languages ]$ is pronounced with a hard guttural utterance, like 
n, while ji is the ordinary t. (2) In the Greek alphabet 6 represents 
the figure, the name, and the sound of £, but t that of j*y And how 
could we account for an interchange of the two sounds in the Greek 
alphabet, which is throughout the genuine daughter of the Semitic ? 
Even in [the words which were of late introduction into the Greek 
language, J-| is always represented by r, as /3>7t«, cc\ra, Tavpo*;, vdrpovy 
from jvi, rhl* "Tifi» ")JH3 5 on tne contrary, g^g makes txd\6a. (3) 
Accordingly, the only thing which opposes itself to this obvious relation 
of the j^, and £ is that the Septuagint generally (not al\\ lont- 

faucon, He.rapl Tom. II. p. 396, and others ■ooort : comp. adftftmrov fur 
J% and for £, II. Sam. v. 16) expr — *j by t and ry by 0. But the 
authors of the Septuagint falsified the pronunciation of the c 
as they did that of the vowels ; they uttered ry with a lisp, like the 
Jews of the present day, and in their rerson placed as its representa- 
tive the 0, which tolerably corresponds to their pronunciation of it." 
These arguments of the great Semitic scholar have been violently com- 
bated by one of his countrymen. Redalob, in a very angry review of 
Ewald's Grammar (Seebode's nmu Ju/wbiicher, Vol. XX. p. 7*2), calls 
this opinion about the letter £ a disgusting error, running contrary to 
every authority: he says the tcth is rather the hai und, and 

corresponds to the hardest sibilant ^ ; accordingly it is represented by 
t in the Septuagint : whereas, j-| is a r\ or rather, sometimes 0, and 



• In pronunciation, however, 6 corresponded rather to <? and p than to r: M 
Grammar 13 f. note. Some important etymological facts result from this observation, as 
will be shown in the proper place. 



Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 151 

sometimes t, according as it is raphatum or dagessatum. We do not 
wish to make any remarks on the improper tone which Redslob has 
adopted, but we are convinced that Ewald is right : and for the follow- 
ing reasons. In the first place, neither the Jews of the present day, 
nor the Septuagint translators, are a valid authority for the original 
pronunciation of the Semitic letters. Again, at the time when the 
sixteen letters mentioned above constituted the whole Hebrew alphabet, 
there was only one sibilant. Now all aspirates are approximate assibi- 
lations, and the aspirated dental, in particular, often degenerates into a 
sibilant. There are reasons, therefore, for supposing that JQ assumed 
eventually a hard sound, its original functions being discharged by 
some one of the newly-introduced sibilants. Again, nothing is more 
common than for th to be supplanted by t : this substitution has taken 
place in every language of Europe except our own and that of Greece ; 
and any one who has read Lucian's joke about the usurpations of t 
will be aware that even the Greek language was not altogether exempt 
from it {Judicium Vocalium, § 10, p. 95, 6). The occasional assibila- 
tion of the proper t, Ji, is well accounted for by Ewald. But, besides 
these arguments, the very analogy of the arrangement, the correspond- 
ence of name, and the identity of the oldest Greek and Phoenician 
forms of JO and d, _ft and r (Gesenius, Script. Linguceque Phoenic. Mo- 
numenta, pp. SO, 74, and plate I.), are a proof to us that d corresponded 
to JO and t to ,n, although ft was rather an aspirate of d than of t. 

101 It must now be shown that these 16 letters which constituted 
the basis of the Semitic alphabet were the same which were in the first 
instance introduced into Greece. At first no doubt they wrote from 
right to left, like their Phoenician instructors and other oriental nations, 
and we have still inscriptions in proof of this ; afterwards they wrote 
(3ova-rpo(j)r]l6v, or as the oxen plough the field, first to the right, and 
then, to the left ; and ultimately they wrote consistently from left to right. 
As they adopted one or the other method they turned their letters round 
in the direction of the writing; thus they wrote ^.BTA^^OM^BH 
in the earlier times, and subsequently, H E^ MOK^ATE^ (Lepsius, 
Palaographie, p. 11). Otherwise the letters differed very little from 
the Phoenician, as may be seen from a comparison of the 1st and 2d 
plates in Gesenius. But of course, as the Greeks made very little use 
of rough breathings, and a great use of vowels, they would at an early 
period consider the signs of the three primary breathings in the Semitic 
alphabet, as marks for the vowels with which they w T ere pronounced, 
just as they subsequently vocalized another, the digamma. In the 
original syllabarium of the Semitic nations, each symbol represented 



152 THE THEORY OF [Book I. 

some consonant or breathing with a short vowel-sound attached to it. 
According to the weight of the consonant or breathing, would be the 
weight of this vowel-sound. Now it is a philological fact, which will 
be developed in its proper place, that there are three varieties of the 
primitive vowel-sound, differing only in weight. The heaviest is a, the 
lightest e, and 6 is intermediate in point of weight. Therefore as He 
was the heaviest, Ain the next, and Aleph the lightest of the three 
breathings, they would be uttered by the vowels e, 6, a respectively, 
and, when the breathings were omitted, as would very soon be the case, 
these three vowels would stand in their place. The alterations which 
the Greeks introduced at an early period in the letters which they bor- 
rowed from the Phoenicians are distinctly alluded to by ancient writers; 
Herodotus says (V. 58) : ol 6e 4>ou/<ices ovtoi ol <rvv K-dc/xw drriKOfxevot — 
eatjyayov — e? TOi^'EW^i/a? — ypdfXfxaTa — irpwra fxev, toTcti kci\ diravre*; 
ypeiavTCLi Oom/jkc?" fXCTCt. ce, ypouov TrpoftaivovTOS, d/xa -rtj (p<avrj /xerepct- 
Xou Kcxi tov pud/xov toov ypafXfxciTcov — jrepiotneov ce (repeat tci 7ro\\a twv 
ycoptav tovtov tov xpovov Icoi/e?, o? Trapa\ctf3ovT€<; ctca^tj irapd twv 
(poiviKcov tgc ypd/x/xaTCi /xeTappvOfxla-avTes a-cpewv o\iya eypecovro. Simi- 
larly, Diodorus (III. c. 67, p. 297 Dindorf) : (ptja\ romt* (AiowVioc) 
irap "E/\A»/(7i TrpwTOv evpeTt]v yeveaBai Alvov pvd/xuiv na\ neXovs, rri ce 
Kdhfxov KOfxiaavTos ex. (frotrfiCfp TO KuXovfxeva ypd/xixara irpQiTov c<<? tt\v 
*E.\\tiviKi]v [xeTCtdeTvai ciaXenTov, ko\ ra? irpo<n}yopla<i endcrTu) TciEai koi 
tovs xapaKTtjpas ctaTvirucrai. It is obvious that these authors allude 
neither to any change in the order of the letters, nor to any difference 
in the way of writing them, as from left to right, instead of from right 
to left, but to a slight alteration in the form (J>v&/xd<:, Herod, com p. A 
narns, III. p. 125 f. ctarvTrwaai, Diodor.) and pronunciation (c,Wr/) of 
some few of them (ircpewv oXiya). With regard to the change of form, it 
must be supposed that these authors rather spoke from a comparison of 
the Greek letters of their own time, with those of the Phoenicians, than 
from any minute antiquarian researches on the subject. But of course 
the change of pronunciation principally refers to the substitution of 
vowels for breathings. 

The grammarians tell us that the original 1 6 letters of the Greek 
alphabet were «, p, 7, d, <?, 1, k, X, p, v, o, 7r, p, <r, t, v (Scfrol. Dion. 
T/tr. p. 7S1). That this was not the case will appear from the follow- 
ing considerations. It is well known that the sixth letter of the old 
Greek alphabet was not t, but F, fiaS t ran, or the di<j<wwu7, as it j 
indifferently termed, which, under the form r, was used to the hv. 
period as a mark for the number 6 ; therefore v, which is said to have 
been a sort of substitute for this letter (Maruu Picforuiaiftj pp. 
68), could not have been included in the old alphabet. We shall show 



Chap. 5.] 



THE GREEK ALPHABET. 



153 



presently that * like the Hebrew jo d was a secondary and derived letter, 
as was also the letter />. The oldest k, which was koppa, 9, stood next 
to ir, and there could hardly have been two k's in a primeval alphabet. 
We assert, then, that «, p, and v did not form a part of the old Greek 
alphabet of 16 letters, and that k or rather 9 stood after ir. Omitting 
/, p, w, and k from the letters mentioned by the grammarians, we have 
with F and 9 only fourteen. "Which were the remaining two ? The 
letters which stood next to e in the complete Greek alphabet were rj 
and 0, and we are convinced that they followed F in the original 16, 
though the former had subsequently a very different value from that 
which it originally possessed. In old written monuments which have 
come down to us, rj or H is used as the common mark of aspiration ; 
and therefore corresponded to the Hebrew j-j ° r he*, i. e. the double was 
used for the single aspirate after the latter had become a mere e \\/i\6v' 3 but 
this is sufficient to prove the antiquity of the character ; 6 also occurs 
in very old inscriptions. A further confirmation of the opinion that F, 
17, 0, occupied the same places in the original Greek alphabet, that vav, 
cheth, and teth did in the old Semitic, is furnished by the fact, that, 
when the Greeks left off writing the F and employed H to represent a 
long e, they added to r, the last letter of their old alphabet, v and (p as 
approximate representations of F, and % to replace H. The two corre- 
sponding alphabets of 1 6 letters were, then, as follows : 

2 p n 
n ot 



K 


2)1 


n 


1 n d 


b D 3 


D 


V 


'A 


BTA 


'E 


FH0 


AMN 


2 






102 In the Greek alphabet, as it is now given in the grammars, 
F and 9 are omitted, and 10 other characters added to these. When 
and by whom they were invented or introduced is of little importance 
in regard to our present purpose. Thus much may be conjectured with 
safety. As soon as the Greeks ceased to employ F, and H (as an aspirated 
consonant), which was very early, v, <p, and x-> must have come into 
use ; they all occur in the oldest inscriptions ; indeed it is only on the 
columna Naniana that the two latter are written PH, KH, and the 
genuineness of that tablet has been doubted ; at all events they were 
antecedent to f and \|/, which are written X2, 02 in old inscriptions t. 



* Thiersch supposes that H corresponded to the Hebrew n, cheth ; he says (p. 24 
Sandf.): "thus the liver is named in Hebrew chapar (nSll) Greek r\irap, which was 
written HEnAP (HAnAP)." Can he have mistaken the daleth for resh, the beth for 
pe, and the capli for cheth in the Hebrew "723 hdved ? 

'• T 

f The reason of this combination appears to be, that <r was considered as a sort of 
aspirate, and therefore like other aspirated letters communicated its rough breathing to 



154 THE THEORY OF [Book I. 

The Semitic Tsade {-£) and Caph (3) of course suggested £ and k ; and 
it is also clear that t and p were derived from their Semitic equivalents 
Iod (>) and Besh (-)). Besides Tsade the Hebrew alphabet had an- 
other dental sibilant Zain (f), and the Greeks borrowed this under the 
name 2eti/. It is not known what was the shape or value of this letter 
as used by the Greeks. It seems to have represented a modified arti- 
culation of 2/7/jia, for which the Dorians used it as a substitute (Herod. 
I. 139). Pindar, in speaking of the aar/fxoi tica\ of Lasus, says, 
{Fragm. 47), that in these artificially constructed and longspun Dithy- 
rambs the <rdv was falsified (k//5c>?\oi/) ; by which he means merely 
that the sibilant in general was intentionally omitted or slurred over*. 
But whatever may have been the distinction between crav and tyra or 
criytxa, it is obvious that it very soon fell out of use, and as fr^a stands 
in the place occupied by the Hebrew Zain, it may be inferred that 
Zain and Tsade were borrowed at the same time, and placed side by 
side in the gap occasioned by the loss of Van or F. As in the Hebrew 
alphabet Iod and Kaph arc placed in the interval between the Mpi] 
and the liquids, so in Greek their representatives 1 and k stand between 
6 and \ : and p stands in the gap left by the OmiflriOB of 9, which cor- 
responds to the place of Rcsh in the Hebrew alphabet It appears to us 
that <ny/jia is a pure Greek word, derived from o-'fto, and cxpr 
hissing articulation of the sibilant. Although it- place in the <> 
alphabet after p corresponds to that of Shin in the Hebrew alphabet after 
Beth, this is not to be taken as any evidence of the derivation of alyna 
from {p, which is represented in name, form, and, originally, in pronun- 
ciation by f T, whereas the shape of o- and the use of aiyf.ia as the oldest 
and simplest sibilant should induce us to derive it from Samech. When 
first imported it was undoubtedly called rap : but as the Hellenic arti- 
culation changed the final n to r, it became identified with m, from 
Zain ; and while it assumed this name among the Dorians, the Ionians 
substituted the Greek term (rly^xa. If, however, trtjfta was originally 
<ra/ji, or Sameek, it must have formed a part of the Cadmean syllaba- 
rium of 16 letters, and therefore, as we have seen, must have stood 
immediately after v. This place is now occupied by £?, the representa- 
tive of S/tin, and conversely alyna has taken the plate oi Skm after p. 
The only reason for this interchange, which occurs to us. is the follow- 
ing. It appears that a-dp was called o-?, before it got the name of triyiia. 
Thus, the combinations <x-7r and 77-0- are called cr«u--: and -- 



the preceding letter : thus we have EIIIAEX^ONl for t-ri Lti£m .. KM" VMOV fort*. 
"Eduov, rPT*2 for -)>h'»//, fa. The same is the case with o : thus we hu 
for aTapaKToi. (Hesych.) ami <Ppoi/miov for 7t a h>ch'u«oj', &C 

* See///f Theatre of the C I. p. [8(7], 



Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 155 

tively. Now Shin] with the point on the left corner (jtf), is pro- 
nounced o-T; and when this letter was introduced into the Greek alpha- 
bet, it is conceivable that f ?, with the original power of *}}, i. e. sh, took 
the place of <n, which was transferred, with its new name a-typa, to the 
place of Shin, which in its second value j#, no less than its first value 
#), stood in the Hebrew alphabet between Resh and Tau. We have 
already mentioned that v and (p were added to the original alphabet, 
i. e. placed after r, to represent approximately the obsolete digamma, 
and that % followed them when the double aspirate was used as a 
simple h. The three remaining letters \^, w, and \ probably stand 
in the order of their invention, as mere matters of convenience, at a 
comparatively late period. In fact they are ligatures or contractions 
rather than letters ; and the last soon went out of use again except as a 
numeral sign. 

103 Some interesting deductions may be made from the later or 
phonetic hieroglyphs of the ancient Egyptians, which must be con- 
sidered as a form or application of the Semitic alphabet. The pho- 
netic syllabarium of Champollion and Lepsius may be reduced ulti- 
mately to the representatives of 15 different articulations. The Coptic 
language, which is taken as the standard of pronunciation, has, strictly 
speaking, no medial mutes, b and d for instance being expressed by mp 
and nt. But it does not follow from this that the ancient Egyptian 
abandoned the genuine Semitic preference for the medial articulation. 
As it stands, the hieroglyphic alphabet comprises (a) 3 original mutes ; 
in Coptic 7r, k, t ; (b) 3 liquids, X or p, /*, v ; (c) 3 sibilants and 
an aspirate, s, ch, sch, h; (d) 2 ultimate breathings or vocalized gut- 
turals, a and i ; (e) 3 supplementary labials, v, f, u. It seems pro- 
bable that a represented the ain as well as the aleph of the Hebrews, 
and that it sometimes approximated even to he, which however has 
a representative of its own. The Hebrew alphabet, in its original fornix 
is a complete expression of the necessary sounds of the language. We 
see in this hieroglyphic alphabet, on the other hand, an ambiguity as to 
the original mutes, and also as to the liquids I, r ; and while it is 
almost redundantly supplied with secondary labials and sibilants, it 
has only two vowels, a and i ; and as the former is expressed by one 
and the latter by two reeds, it is clear that the derivation of jod or 
chirek from aleph, which is so common in Hebrew, is fully recognized 
in old Egyptian. All this shows us how fortunate the Indo- Germanic 
races have been in the possession of a complete alphabet, which the 
Egyptians with all their combinations of ideographic, determinative, and 
phonetic signs, were never able to realise in a satisfactory manner. 



156 THE THEORY OF [Book I. 

104 The Arabic syllabarium, on the other hand, is one of the 
most complete and systematic collections of phonetic signs which the 
ingenuity of man has hitherto collected. Originating in mutilations 
or corruptions of the Cufic, and ultimately of the Syriac characters, 
it has received a new and highly artificial arrangement, depending 
rather on the shapes of the letters than on the organic connexion of 
the sounds which they represent. And a distinction by means of points 
placed above or below the character has taken the place of an original 
difference in the form of the character itself. Thus, l and t, which 
belong to different organs, are placed side by side, and represented by 
the same character, the former having a point below, the latter a 
point above. In the middle of a word, ??, f, th, b, and y are discri- 
minated only by means of the punctuation. The addition of points 
above the line converts the liquid ^ h, into the mutes UZJ = t and 
Cl> = th, and by similar additions we can aspirate or assibilate - = h 
into ^ = kh t J = d into j dz, = r into j = z and J = zh, ,-, = t 
into y* = sh, l/3 = 9 into ^ = dh, \s = t into 1? = ~, c = ain into 
c = gha\n y ■ = w into immm j = hr =/, and • = hhc = k\ whereas an 
addition of points below the line converts the sonant ^r = j into the 
surd £ = ch in the Persian use of this alphabet. It is worthy of 
remark, too, that in the Syriac alphabet the cognate r and d ari 
tinguished only by points placed above and below the sign respccth 
and in an ancient inscription belonging to the 11 tic Society, in 
which the name of Sapor seems to occur, the mute d is distingu: 

by a point from the liquid r*. 

105 (2) Analysis of th, 

"We have now seen in what state the Semitic syllabarium was 
imported into Greece. Before we proceed to consider, how the Greeks 
modified and adapted to their own language a notation, which, though 
organically perfect in respect to the Semitic articulation, was but a 
poor instrument for the expression of the language of Homer, and 
what value they put on the different characters, it will be as well 
to examine with some minuteness the Sanscrit alphabet, which was 
unconnected with the Semitic, and, at the same time, was a most suitable 
and complete exponent of a language the same in kind with that of 



• For this observation we are indebted to Mr Edwin Norris, Assistant- Secretary 
to the Kov. - ciety. 



Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 157 

ancient Greece. The Sanscrit alphabet, called by the native gramma- 
rians Deva-nagari or " the writing of the Gods' city," consists of forty- 
eight characters, which are arranged according to an admirable system. 
First of all are placed the simple vowels, then the diphthongs, and 
the marks representing the final sounds of n and h. After these 
come the consonants divided into three classes, mutes, semivowels, 
and sibilants. The mutes are subdivided into five orders, according 
to the organs by which they are uttered. Besides these divisions 
the whole alphabet forms two great classes, surds and sonants*. 
"The term surd" says Wilkins (Grammar, p. 15), "is applicable 
to such letters as, in the first effort to form them, admit of no vocal 
sound: and the term sonant to such letters as are attended by an 
audible murmuring, as it were, of the voice." The surds are the first 
two letters of each of the five orders of mutes, one being aspirated 
and the other unaspirated, together with the sibilants, and the aspirate 
which is classed with them. All the rest of the consonants, and all 
the vowels and diphthongs, are sonants. The table which follows gives 
the Sanscrit letters with the transcription in English which we have 
adopted in this work. 

Vowels ; all sonant. 

Simple vowels W a, ^JTT a ; \i, %i; ^ u, sRw; ^Jri or r, 

^f£r£ or rr ; 7£ Iri or lr 3 ^^Iri or Irr. 

Diphthongs TJ e, T^ai; ^U 6 ; ?5TT au. 

* h : : o h. 





s 


Consonants. 
(1) Mutes. 

urd. 


Sonant. 




Gutturals 




*u 


^gk; 


3?W0T| 


Palatals 


^ ck, 


^ ch'h ; 


^Ti> 


%?h; 


^f ny J 


Linguals 


?>, 


Z't'h; 


5'* 


<S'd'h ; 


Wn. 


Dentals 


fT*, 


^th; 


\d, 


^d'k; 


^ n. 


Labials 


*A 


T*\ph; 


W* 


*{b'k; 


T m. 



}, 



■ Sir Graves Haughton distinguishes them also as sharps and flats (Beng. Gram. p. 151). 



158 THE THEORY OF [Book I. 

(2) Semivowels; all sonant. 

(3) Sibilants; all surd. 

^c*, ^sh, ^s, f J. 

T£T ksh. 

^ r 

Colebrooke in his Grammar gives the value of these letters as follows: 
a is pronounced as e in her, i in sir, a in tun; a as // in ball; i as in 
fit; i as ee m feet; u as in pull; u as oo in pool ; rl as in merrily; 
ri the same long; W as in revelry; Iri the same prolonged; £ 
in there; ai as i inyZw?, or y in my; d as on in tV/oh ; 

& as c in came, or k in &t9i ; X7e as in ink-horn, or as e'h in codl 
^r as in gain; <jli as in log-houte; ng as in .W/w; eh as in <•/ 
c/t'A the same aspirated; / as in judge; Jh the same aspirat 
in onyou, and as n in ttfty< ; I as in ft*** fll as in nut-hook, or as 
te-Ain White-hall; d as in dm/; ttt m b 

^? as in pen; ph as in hop-hazard; o as in W/; Ih as in abhor; 
in as in man; y as in y< 7 ; r M in raw; / as in hall; v as in 
ralue ; c is a palatal; "the pi I of this lottei h produ 

says Wilkins, "by applying the tip of the t'the 

palate, and passing the voice, as in pronouncing <>nr s ;' at is pro- 
nounced as in shoe, except in the West of India, when it is needy 
equivalent to /•//, and it i.-> a Ungual; I i> prononnced aa in tin, and i- 
reckoned as a dental; h as in hair; ksh as cti in fiction. The Un- 
guals 't, 'th, 'J, \lh, 'n, are Bounds peculiar to the Indian articuL 
"This series of consonant-.'' >ays Wilkins "i- pronounced by tui 
and applying the tip of the tongue far back against the palate; which, 
producing a hollow sound as if proceeding from the bead, it u 
tinguished bv the term miirdJhanya, which Mr Ilalhed. in his ell B 
grammar of the Bengal language-, baa translated c ereb r a l . " 

The marks * (n) and : (//) are called anu-snira. u after-sound," 
or "after-vowel," and "leaving out," tCthliptit ; the former 

is an abbreviation of nasal consonants at the end of a syllable, the 



" Wo adopt this transcription because ^T so frequently corresponds to a Greek *, 

and we are desirous of pointing out that it is but a softened guttural. If what we have 
said in this chapter with regard to the real value tt z in Greek and Zend were M 
known as we could wish it to be, we should not hesitate to adopt r instead of c as a 
representative of the first Sanscrit sibilant. 



Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 159 

latter a substitute for the letters s or r at the end of a word. The 
process by which the diphthongs are formed from the simple vowels is 
of the most extensive application in Sanscrit, and is also of importance 
in Greek. When a short a is placed before either of the vowels i, u, 
we have the diphthongs e=di and o = aii; this change is called guha 
or le strengthening ; " when, again, the a is placed before the diph- 
thongs e, 6, we have the other diphthongs ai=aai, and au = aaii; this 
change is called vriddhi or " increment." It must be remarked that 
a is also a guha of a, and the other vowels, r, Ir become ar, at by 
guna, and ar, at by vriddhi. " The vowel Iri is only found in the 
verb klrip and its derivatives. We remember no instances of the 
long Iri in any Sanscrit word: Bhattoji, in commenting on Panini, 
I. 1, 9, says that it is not used. Siddhantakaumudi, fol. 1. h" 
(Rosen, Journal of Education, VIII. p. 340 note). 

106 An examination of the figures, which compose this wonder- 
fully systematic alphabet, will lead to very important conclusions with 
regard to the subject now before us. It is by this means alone that 
we can ascend from the very artificial order in which the Hindu gram- 
marians have arranged it to its primitive state, and to the order of its 
formation. In the first place, it must be remarked, that, like the 
Semitic alphabet, it was originally a syllabarium; in other words, it had 
no vowels, and was written from the right to the left. A proof of 
the latter is afforded by the fact, pointed out by Lepsius (Palaograp/iie, 
p. 10), that with few exceptions all Sanscrit letters have a frame which 
opens towards the left; and of those too which have no frame, the 
vowels i, i, u, u, the guttural ng, and the lingual d' are all turned 
towards the left ; so that the ancient order of writing must have been 
in that direction. The Greeks, and other nations who have borrowed 
the Semitic alphabet, turned round the letters when they altered the 
direction of their writing, whereas the Indians have left unaltered 
those letters which were invented or introduced before they changed 
their manner of writing. The only letters which were turned towards 
the right were the diphthongs e, ai, three of the Unguals 't, 'th, 'dk, 
the aspiration h, the semivowel r, and the suffixes, which form the 
vowels r, rr from the sign generally used to denote «, and the vowels 
lr, Irr, from the sign for I. This is at least prima facie evidence 
for the conclusion that these last characters are of more recent intro- 
duction. It may seem strange that the lingual 'd should be older than 
the dental d, while the other letters of the dental class are older than 
the rest of the Unguals. Perhaps 5 and <^ have interchanged their 



160 



THE THEORY OF 



[Book I. 

pronunciation like the Hebrew £ and f\. It seems probable that 
S , V and 5* were the corresponding characters in the dental class 
for d, dh and w, and that *\ was originally the n of the guttural 
class: 3* differs from 5 only by a kind of anuszara mark, and *T 
is only a reversed *T" 

107 After what has been said on the origin of alphabets in 
general, no one will suppose that the vowels were from the first dis- 
tinguished from the consonants inthe Dezanayan alphabet. Palaeo- 
graphy enables us to point out their origin. The characters which we 
have given for the vowels are used only at the beginnings of words ; 
for their expression in the middle of words, a number of marks, 
analogous to the Hebrew points, are substituted as follows: 



5T« 


*!} 


a 


}}' 


* 






^ 


< 


1}" 






^ 


1}- 




6 





?< 



/•/' 



The short original vowel, with which every consonant is articulated, 
is not written when it follows a consonant, because in the primitive syl- 
labarium that vowel was always presumed in the first instance, and the 
vowel-marks were subsequently invented to point out that a different 
vowel-sound was intended in the particular case. The bar which A 
nates the long a is merely a fulcrum to show that the voice must dwell 
on the syllable. It cannot be a representation of the vowel a, for it is 

written in cases where no a is implied, as in T, 6 = uu. The figure 
which appears in the complete signs of <?, <7, r, rr, 6 and au, is obviously 
a mark of the gentle breathing with which all initial vowels were pro- 
nounced, and probably corresponded as nearly as possible to the Hebrew 
Aleph. From this it appears that r, rr, were originally indistinct 
vowel-sounds of r preceded by a breathing. Bopp considers r . 
mutilation of ar (Vocal ism us, p. 137), and Lepsius thinks that the con- 
sonant r was formed from this vowel (PaUi^rrnph'ic. p. 4p). In Zend 
there is no character answering to the Sanscrit r, but in corresponding 
w r ords the Sanscrit r is represented by 2r& (Burnouf, Yaani, p. l.). It 
matters very little whether we place the vowel before or after a liquid, 
and we constantly find the same root with the vowel soinetii: 



Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 161 

and sometimes behind the liquid. It is remarkable, that, in our own 
alphabet for instance, while we articulate the consonants by means of 
vowels placed after them, we always utter the necessary vowel before 
the liquids and s : thus we say be, ce, &c. but em, en, &c. To adduce 
another very familiar instance, the sign of our plural is -ne as well as 
-en, -se (written -ce) as well as -es : thus we have breth'r-en, child' r-en, 
ox-en, but ki-ne, swi-ne; and church-es, speech-es, but dice, pence. The 
letter r is altogether a secondary one. In the articulations of some 
provinces among ourselves, it is still unpronounceable, and in almost 
every language it stands for some earlier letter ; most generally for /, as 
in the Sanscrit surya, comp. sol, rj\io<;, Goth, sau'il; Sanscrit pur, 
comp. 7rAeo9, plenus, full; and even in modern languages, as in the 
words apotre from apostolus, epitre from epistola, titre from titulus, &c. ; 
it stands for s, as in the Laconian <ri6p for 0eo's, and in the words Vale- 
rius, Furius, arbor, labor, vapor, clamor and lares, which Quintilian 
tells us (I. 4. §13) were originally written Valesius, Fusius, arbos, labos, 
vapos, clamos and loses. For other changes see Lepsius (Abhandlungen, 
p. 12) and Grimm {Deutsche Gramm. I. p. 581). It is a proof of the 
more recent state of the Zend in the monuments which have come 
down to us, that the r has entirely superseded the I in that language 
(Burnouf, Ya$na, p. lxxviii.) ; and in the Behistun Inscription r and s 
are represented by the same character turned in different directions, for 
JE| is r, but ]£E is s. We believe with Lepsius, that the vowel r was 
anterior to the consonant r, and that the superfix, which marks this r 
in the middle of words before consonants, was the same as that which, 
joined to the frame by a line of connexion, constitutes the distinct con- 
sonant T. . Lepsius thinks that the initial- vowels are all formed from 
the vowel-marks affixed to the consonants, and that the four nasals 
3* > ^T, vj, H, were pronounced ung, ang, eng, ing respectively, 
and derived from the vowels and diphthong u, a, e, and i (Paldogra- 
phie, p. 16). The former assertion appears to be justified by his palseo- 
graphical comparisons, but the latter opinion is unquestionably errone- 
ous in principle : it is contrary to all analogy to derive consonants from 
the vowels with which they are articulated ; but if these nasals were 
pronounced, as he supposes, it is possible that the initial- vowel signs 
may have been derived from them, though of course this could not be 
the case if they were formed, as he has himself shown, from the vowel- 
marks appended to the consonants. The nasal liquids m and n are in 
fact modifications of the medials b and d, to which they sometimes 
revert ; a person who has a cold in his head, or a country actor trying 
to be impressive, will always pronounce his m's as b's and his n's as d's. 

M 



162 THE THEORY OF [Book I. 

We should, therefore, expect that the m would be derived from the I, 
and the n from the d, if the principle of association held. This ap- 
pears to have been the case in Sanscrit, as will be seen by comparing 
n Ih with *T 9n, and ? d with 5*. It seems that / was a vowel 
in Sanscrit before it became a consonant ; how this could be may be 
inferred from the use of the I monillc in French. It was in fact the 
first form of the r, or rather they were both produced from a sound 
between the two (like the Chinese eul), which was the more like a 
vowel the older the language was (Lepsins, Abhandl. pp. 9, 10). We 
have mentioned above that the ancient Egyptians had only one sound 
for X and p. 

108 The first thing which strikes us in the Dffaan&gari conso- 
nants is the contrast which they present to those of the Semitic alpha- 
bet. Omitting the palatals and Unguals, the former of which are imme- 
diately derived from the gutturals, and the latter peculiar to the Indian 
organs of speech, we have the same three sets of fundamental mutes 
as in the Hebrew alphabet. We remark, however, this striking differ- 
ence : in the DHan&gari alphabet the tenues, which arc most suited to 
the pronunciation of those who speak the Indo-Germanic idioms, are 
placed first, the medials last. Besides, the Hindu grammarians have 
begun with those letters which are pronounced in the back part of the 
mouth, namely the throat, and have gone on through the others in 
order, ending with those letters pronounced by the lips. This is of 
course very good as a technical arrangement; i that 

the order of creation is that given by the Hebrew alphabet, nanuly 
labials first, then gutturals, and lastly dental-. Again, it is observable 
that there arc two orders of aspirates in this alphabet, sonants as well 
as surds, whereas the Greek and Hebrew have the latter only. At 
probably, the Hebrew aspirates were, as we have shown, modifications 
of the medials, but, if we are to place any reliance on the assertions of 
modern Hebraists, they all approximate to the tenues, and one of them, 
the Tct/i, has actually become a dental tenuis. It is very certain that the 
Creek aspirates were ultimately modifications of the tenues and not of the 
medials; nevertheless, in words of the same origin, the Sanscrit W, <///, 
are represented by the Greek and Latin <p, f, and : thus the Sanscrit 
root bhr corresponds to the Greek and Latin (pepu\ faro, and madku to 
jue'Pu : ph seldom occurs, and th is consistently represented by r. This 
indicates in our opinion a change in the value of the Derail agar i cha- 
racters, analogous to that which we have hinted in the case of </ and d\ 
n and ng ; for there can be no doubt, that, if the tenues were really 
anterior to the medials in this alphabet, their aspirates would be first 



Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 163 

employed : besides, we find in these secondary aspirates a continnal shift- 
ing and interchange as well in form as in usage, which shows that they 
had not a distinct independent existence from the first ; V which is in 
form only a modification of ^T, is often represented by the same letter 
in cognate languages, thus dadhami=r'Sr\\xi, gharma=Qepixrj ; «4 and *1 
are also interchanged ; thus dhr and bhr both signify " to carry." If we 
revert to general principles we can hardly doubt that the aspirate must 
have been prefixed in the first instance to the articulations which it 
modified. Thus, if we compare the first and second lines of the original 
syllabarium (above, § 100), we shall conclude that as tf differs from j-f hy 
the h prefixed to the latter, so •) must have been originally hv, or hb, n 
must have been hg, and ^ hd. We shall see that in the Greek /3av the 
aspirate always preceded the labial ; and there is no reason why 6 should 
not have been originally lid, just as />, the cognate dental liquid, was 
undoubtedly hr as well as rh. In fact, as we shall see, the metathesis 
of aspirates and sibilants is common in all languages. The aspirates 
of the guttural class are very seldom used, but, when they are, kh, not 
gh, corresponds to the Greek x, as m K °7X^ compared with cankha; 
ow^-s (oi/u^o?) compared with nakha, &c. We think that th must 
have been originally an assibilation rather than an aspirate of t. It will 
be shown in another place that the Greek f or assibilated S is a repre- 
sentative of a sound resembling sh or the French ch, produced by com- 
bining a guttural or a dental with y. Such a sound is the Sanscrit c, 
for this is almost always a representative, under a softer form, of the 
Greek k, and of the Lithuanian sz, which is pronounced in the same 
way as the Sanscrit letter. It is the tendency of all languages to soften 
or assibilate their hard sounds. We have plenty of instances of this 
even in the modern languages of Europe ; in French it is particularly 
common ; thus, from camera we have chambre, from audere, oser, from 
canis, chien, &c. ; in England we have in the North, where the older 
Saxon is rife, kirk, wick {Alnwick), brigg, dyke, &c, which in the 
South are softened to church, wich, {Greenwich, Brom-wich-ham), 
bridge, ditch, &c. In the ancient languages the same thing is observ- 
able : thus the older forms preserved in lanpv, lacryma ; 'ikkos, JWo?, 
equus ; Sena, decern ; &c. are softened into the Sanscrit acru, acva, daca, 
and the Lithuanian aszara, aszwa, deszimtis, &c. This change of the 
hard pronunciation of c has taken place without a corresponding change 
of form in the modern Italian, and is regulated by the appearance of the 
vowels e or i after it. The same is the case with the g in English, 
Italian, and French. A good instance of the change in the pronuncia- 
tion of a dental caused by the addition of i or y is furnished by our 

M2 



164 THE THEORY OF [Book I. 

way of pronouncing such words as nation, revolution. Different lan- 
guages have various methods of expressing the sound sk, as resulting 
from an aspiration or assibilation of the gutturals and dentals: and 
sometimes the same language has several symbols for it. The Sanscrit, 
for instance, has a direct representation, or rather, two distinct signs for 
it ; in other alphabets it is represented by z, j, y, or, in the case of the 
dental, by 0. The symbol j often degenerates into the simple vowel 
i, just as the symbol v, which represents the labial aspirate, degenerates 
into the vowel u : in fact, this is the way in which these vowels are 
formed, and in this case it may be said, that all that part of the soft- 
ened consonant, which bore any relation to the original consonant, is 
lost; a phenomenon which often presents itself in language, and which is 
also an explanation of the change of aspirated consonants into h, and 
of their interchange with one another. TVe may take this opportunity 
of correcting a theory which has been brought forward by two of the 
most distinguished philologers of the present day, and which, th 
highly ingenious, appears to us to rest upon a false principle. Grimm 
{Deutsche Gramm. I. p. 187) justly remarks that j : i = r : ■, and that 
the row of labials p, b t f, r, u IE parallel to the row of guttural- 
ch,j, i; but then he supposes that each of these scr: iTed from 

the vowel which forms the basis of it, w], are convinced that 

no mute was ever derived from a vowel, still less the original mu: 
and k. He asks (1) why the dental- do not al-o re-t upon some vowel 
as a basis ? and (2) how we are to reconcile with the above parallelism, 
the obvious analogy of the row of dentals r, </, th, s, to the row of 
gutturals /•, //, c//, //, and to that of the hbials p, A, j\ r ; in other words, 
why do the gutturals double support, j and h \ Uurnouf 

(Fopta, p. cxiv. Note 46) ha- attempted to remove the former diffi- 
culty by establishing from the Zend language an ana" MO a and 
h, so that the dentals are derived from a through //, according to the 
following table : 

k — a t—a p — / 

g — a d — a I — a 

^ — a $ — a <p—a 

a — (/ e — i r — a 

h—a 
i a u 

To derive h from a is somewhat difficult ; it is certain, on the con- 
trary, that the character for (7 is derived in all alphabets from that 
denoting a weak breathing not amounting to h. The vowels i and u 
are formed from consonants, but it is in vain to attempt the establish- 
ment of a parallelism throughout the three orders of mutes in 



Chat. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. ] 65 

to the formation of the three fundamental vowels a, i, u. The vowel 
a is presumed in the existence of every letter, and, as we have shown, 
assumes the two lighter forms of e, o in heavier combinations. The 
vowels i, u are of totally different origin ; they are derived from the 
ultimate vocalization of weakened consonants. The latter results from 
the vocalization of v, the weakest form of the labial ; the former is the 
common offspring of the dentals and gutturals, the softened dental 
(=ty) and the softened guttural (=gy) being equally represented by z or 
j, and equivalent to sh. The dental aspirate th passes at once into s ; 
conversely we meet with people every day whose articulation does not 
admit of their pronouncing a final s otherwise than as th. This view 
of the connexion between th, $, sh, y, j is borne out in a remarkable 
manner by the corresponding characters of the Devanagari alphabet. 

That ^3f, the sign for /, was originally the same as T, y> is clear from 

^J, the older sign for jh : ^, th, differs from ^T, f, only by the tail, 
which seems to be the distinguishing mark of the s : this tail is clearly 
seen in ^, and that ^ , sh, originally had it, may be inferred from 
<5j , Jc-sk. The same confusion, which we have before pointed out in 
the gutturals, linguals, and dentals, seems to have converted into a 
simple d of the dental class the figure ^, which appears from its tail 
to have been the assibilated d of the lingual class ; in fact, the lower 

part of TJJ, which includes sh, the sibilant of the lingual class, is 
merely this same 7^. "We have already pointed out the similarity of TJ 
and H ; there is an equally striking resemblance between ^, b, and 
^, v, which are similarly connected. The vowels i and u which are 
derived from j and v, are designated in the Devanagari by derived 
symbols. The initials ^f, i, and nJ, u, are composed of the tail ^and 
the hook 3 joined to the bar at the top by an unmeaning line of con- 
nexion (see Lepsius, Palaographie, p. 16). The latter is the essential 
part of ^ reversed, and the former is that tail which distinguishes the 
sibilants and ^ . With regard to Grimm's second question, it is to be 
observed that not only from the analogy of all languages, but also 
from a consideration of the form in Sanscrit (for |? has no frame and 
is turned towards the right), the aspirate must be considered of subse- 
quent formation. In Greek it resulted from the digamma, from the 
gutturals, and from s. In Zend it is generally derivable from the 
sibilant. In German it mostly comes from gutturals, and we may 



166 THE THEORY OF [Book I. 

consider it as more particularly attached to that class of consonants. 
As all sounds are of two primitive kinds, breathings or consonants, 
from a combination of which the aspirated consonants are produced, 
we may consider the aspirate as the final state of an aspirated conso- 
nant. In fact, consonants may be reduced to four ultimate states 
without becoming vowels ; a dental or a guttural may become j (y) or 
s (Ji), a labial may become v ; vocalization is effected in the former case 
by converting s into h, and then omitting the aspirate, or by turning j 
into i ; in the latter, by simple conversion of v into u. When a dental 
or guttural is reduced to _;, it may always become i ; when to s, it may 
always become h by xisarga ; when a labial is reduced to r, it may 
always become u ; and when a consonant is composed of s and r, it 
may become indifferently either h or j (y) from the one element, or ■ 
from the other. 

109 We are now prepared to discuss the various difficult points 
connected with the Greek alphabet, and to estimate the real value of 
those characters about which so much has been said. It will be found 
that in this as in other questions people have fruitlessly perplexed 
themselves with details, when a proper consideration of the principles 
would have disentangled all the confusion, and left no real ground for 
doubt or uncertainty. The pronunciation of the unaspirated mutes 
and liquids may fairly be presumed to be the same as that which all 
nations have adopted for those letters ; for there is no reason whatever 
to suppose the contrary. The only characters which we have to con- 
sider are those representing, either in their earliest or in their si. 
quent state, breathings, or aspirated, or assibilated consonants. These 
are a, e, f, F, »/, 0, i, f, v, </>, ^, ta. Of the first we have air 
spoken: it is simply the Aleph k v}, or A-k<u\ih ^3T, stript of its breath- 
ing, and is therefore the fundamental vowel with which every con- 
sonant in the old syllabarium was articulated. The Greek u 1 
pronounced with a considerable opening of the mouth, and with an 
approximation to the same curvature of the tongue which accompanied 
the articulation of I, 6, A, p, and v, it is generally found to take or 
keep its place after the first four of these letter-, and it habitually 
replaces the last in those cases where u becomes evanescent. Similarly 
u, which is so often inserted before / in old French, is the only repre- 
sentative of that liquid in the modern spelling; thus ffZfWj through 
aultre, passes into autre (Varron. p. 210). That e and v were origi- 
nally pronounced with an aspiration is clear from their UUDflG 
v yj/iXov. The former is, as we have seen, derived from the Hebrew 



Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 167 

He n> the sign of the aspirate, which, as the hardest breathing, is 
articulated with the lightest form of the fundamental vowel: this 
aspirate being omitted, the vowel becomes e -sj/iXov, or the He without 
aspiration. We must consider v y^i\6v, which always retains its 
original aspirate at the beginning of a word, in connexion with F, the 
most troublesome letter of the old Greek alphabet. Indeed, a full dis- 
cussion of this obsolete character will exhaust nearly all that remains 
to be said respecting the Greek alphabet. 

110 It has been shown, that, in name and form, F, the mu or 
digamma, corresponds to the Hebrew Vav, as H does to Cheth and G to 
Teth. It also appears that these three Hebrew characters were ori- 
ginally the aspirated medials, though subsequently they approached 
nearer to the tenues. The Greek organs of speech were, from the first, 
more favorable to the tenues, and therefore we must consider their 
aspirated mutes as belonging to that order ; for they had not two orders 
of aspirates like the Indians. In general, as we have before stated, 
the Greeks had no great predilection for rough breathings ; and as the 
language advanced from its oldest to its most classical written state, it 
lost most of those which it originally possessed. When e, which was 
the mark of aspiration in the Semitic alphabet, was converted into the 
symbol of a vowel, H, which in the same alphabet was the aspirate of 
the guttural order, was used for the simple aspirate, and a new symbol 
X was introduced as the aspirate of the guttural tenuis k or p. The 
F, too, must have been originally the aspirate of the labials, namely bk 
or lib; but it assumed a different value, fell out of use, degenerated into 
a breathing, or was vocalized into t>, and therefore <p was introduced 
as the proper aspirate of the labial tenuis. It is not our intention to 
tire the readers patience with an enumeration of the various opinions 
which have been entertained repecting the digamma: the scholars, 
who have written about it, have for the most part been unable to 
avail themselves of the resources of comparative philology, by the 
aid of which alone we can hope to solve the problem; and there- 
fore our knowledge of the subject has advanced but little since 
the point was first mooted by Bentley*. It will be far better in 



* This great scholar was the first to discover the traces of a lost digamma in the 
frequent recurrence of an hiatus in Homer. It has been made a matter of complaint by 
continental scholars that so little is known of Bentley's opinion about the digamma. A 
copy of the Poetce Grceci, fol. 1566, with his marginal notes, was lent to Heyne by 
Trinity College, Cambridge, but not the copy-book in which he had written his views 
on the subject more at length. This manuscript is not, as Thiersch calls it (Gr. Gr. § 
clxii.), "a full and elaborate treatise, in which he goes through the digammated 



168 THE THEORY OF [Book I. 

this place to state plainly and at once what are the results to -which 
a comparison with the cognate languages has enabled us to arrive, 
results consistent not only with themselves, but also with all that the 
ancient writers have told us in regard to the power and functions of 
this letter, and with the phenomena which it presents in the Greek 
language. In all the languages of the Indo-Germanic family we find 
in some of the most common and important words, as well at the 
beginning as in the middle, traces more or less distinct of a letter com- 
pounded of the two consonants, one of which represents the guttural, 
the other the labial, in its ultimate state. These two consonants are 8 
(sometimes reduced to h), and v ; and from their combination, and the 
different changes which they separately and together admit of, a 
that great variety of letters which are etymologically traced to an 
original identity. In by far the greater number of cases this sc or ho 
represents an union of the original guttural and labial kp ; in ibooe 
cases where a dental makes its appearance, it must be considers 
having arisen, by a fault of articulation, from the sibilant. The regular 
series of transitions, which such a combination of the guttural and 
labial would present, may easily be described : the guttural may be 
represented by &, q, g, j, 8, h ; the labial by />, &, ■ ; and tl) 
letters may be permuted with one another to any extent. Then, either 
the one or the other may be dropt, and the remaining one vocalized 
into i (j/) or u, according as the one retained is the guttural or labial. 
This process will be best shown by numerous examples*. The root of 
the reflexive or relative pronoun (which we shall show to be the same 



words in alphabetical order, and overthrows all apparent objections to his doctrine :'' 
it is merely a set of rough notes, in which the words supposed to have had the digamma 
are enumerated, the passages in which they appear copied out, and, in some cases, 
the necessary emendations are suggested. But there is a total absence of order or 
arrangement, and it is not fit for publication. We have given, in an Appendix to this 
Chapter, all of it that appears to be of any value or interest, as well to show how little 
could be done for the doctrine of the Greek alphabet without the aid of comparative 
philology, as to afford another proof how far Bentley was in advance of his age in this 
as in other points. On Bentley's Homeric studies the reader may now refer to Dr 
Wordsworth's note on his Correspondence, p crimen of the vague and un- 

satisfactory manner in which modern scholars have spoken of the digamma, may be 
seen in Hermann's Opuscuhi, I. p. 131, where he treats this letter as the single repre- 
sentative of three distinct sounds. 

* Many additional instances will be found in Mr Garnett's valuable paper " On cer- 
tain initial letter-changes in the Indo-European Languages," Proc. Phil. Soc. II. 
sqq. 2,">7 sqq. Mr Garnett mentions that Iloefer ■ has taken pretty nearly the same 
view of the subject" with that propounded in the text, in his Beitr'dge zur Etymologik, 
a work which we have not seen, but which was published shortly after the first appear- 
ance of the present book. On the Latin Q or Qv, and its relation to i^aud V, we may 
refer the reader to what is said in the Yarronianus, p. 190 seqq. 



Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 169 

in a future chapter) is properly kpa or km in all the Indo-Germanic 
languages. This appears as pwy in Breton, as qvis, qvi, svus (suus) in 
Latin, as sva in Sanscrit, as <r$e* in Greek, as hvas in Gothic, as quhay 
in Old Scotch, and, by a transposition of the letters, as who in modern 
English. By an omission of the labial element, this becomes sd, 
softened into yd or hardened into kit, in Sanscrit ; 6'<?, ko?, e, ", in Greek ; 
se in Latin; in English who (when pronounced hoo); and in French que 
(pronounced ke), &c. By an omission of the guttural element it 
becomes in Greek irk, ttov 9 &c, in German wer, in English what (pro- 
nounced wat), &c. Similar changes are the following; Sanscrit cvd 
{cvan), Zend cpan, old Persian cpakaf, Russian sabac, Greek kuwi/, 
Latin, with a loss of the labial, canis ; French, with a softening of the 
guttural, chien ; German, with a substitution of the aspirate (the labial 
being only retained in the vowel u) hind: Latin eqvus, Zend acpa, 
Lithuanian aszwa; iEolic Greek, by assimilation to the guttural, 'Ikkos; 
common Greek, by assimilation to the labial, <Wos ; by omission of 
the labial, Scandinavian oek; by softening the guttural, Erse each: 
Sanscrit svddu, Latin suavis, (the dental being omitted as helium from 
duellum) ; by omission of the labial and substitution of the aspirate 
for s, tihv? : Sanscrit cvacura, Gothic swaihra, Russian svekor, German 
schwager, "Welsh chwegrwn ; by omission of the labial socer, by substi- 
tution of the aspirate iicvpos : Sanscrit svapna ; by aspiration of the s 
and vocalization of the v, virvo<: ; by omission of the labial somnus : 
Sanscrit svid, Gothic hweits, English sweat; by vocalization of the 
labial sudor; by aspiration and vocalization vhtap; by aspiration and 
omission of the labial llpws ; Sanscrit svana-s " a tone," Latin sonus 
for svonus, Greek (jxavrj for <r(pu>vt], &c. In comparing the Romance lan- 
guages with the Teutonic, we find the labial w represented either by a 
combination of the guttural and vocalized labial gu, or by the guttural 
g only: thus from wer, war, we have guerra, guerre; from ward, 



* This word alone might have sufficed to teach our Greek scholars that the di- 
gamma was occasionally something more than a mere labial breathing. In such lines 
as IltjXeWTjs £e o-ct/cos ct7ro Fe'o (hve'o or <rcpio) X €l P L Tax 6 '!? {Iliad xx. 260) it is clear 
that the digamma represents a double consonant. It is, however, generally true that 
in the Hellenismus, with which alone we are acquainted, the digamma very seldom 
makes its appearance as a double letter, yet the guttural element is as often retained as 
the labial, as we may see, among other things, in the number of words originally digam- 
mated which are written with a y in Hellenic. To look for the digamma in its full 
form we must go back to the old Pelasgian language. 

■j- Herod. I. 110: ovvo/xa de Trj yvvaiKL rjv tt} cvvoiKee, Kvvoo, Kctxa Tfjf 'E\X»j- 
vwv yXwacrav' /ca-ra Be ti}v MriBiKijv, S7ra/ca)' ti)v yap Kvva KaXeovari trTrdica MijBoi. 
Justin. I. 4 : Nutrici Spaco postea nomen fuit, quia canem Per see sic vocant, Gramm. 
ajpud Hermann, de Emend, gr. Gr. rat. p. 434 : <nrd£, 6 kuwv irapd Ile'paats. 



170 THE THEORY OF [Book I. 

guardire, guarder ; from warrant, guarantir ; from Wil/ielm, William, 
Guillaume; from icehr-wolf, loup-garou=lupus-gar-ulphus ; from weise, 
guise ; from <r(prig, xespa, tcespe, guepe, &c. " The French writing," 
says Grimm (Gesch. d. deutsck. Spr. p. 296), "still retains GU before 
E, I, as in guerre, guise, but lets it pass over into a simple G before A, 
as in garder, gant. So Galli seems to be placed for Gualli, O. H. G. 
Walah. In Welsh I find the pi. Gwalicys ' the Gauls.' What was 
the sing.? The Irish substitute F for the Welsh GW, as Jion, gic'tn, 
vinum; fear, gicyrdd, xiridis, &c." It is also remarked tfiat Xerio- 
sengh, who translated into Sanscrit the Pehlvi version of the Y 
represents the Zend v by the Sanscrit gltv or gc; thus for vohumano, 
hdram, tfvangh he writes, g/icahmana, hdguana, (;dguamgha (Burnouf 
apud Lepsium, Abhandlungen, p. 100, Note). Similarly the old Per- 
sian name Ifystaspes, which is probably the Greek representative of 
the sound Ilcistaspcs, appears as Gushtatp in the more modern Persian 
historians, but as Visttifpa in the Zend books (Burnouf, Y<" na, p. cvi.), 
and Vathtdtpa in the Bchistun inscription. Major Bawlinsoo has 
clearly established the fact that the cuneiform letter <YY, u : had an 

inherent power of aspiration (Journal of the 7?. .-is. Sue. X. 2. p. 69, 
sqq). Indeed, an examination of his alphabet will enable us to remark, 
that all the letters into which the elemental sign ^ enters, are more or 
less affected by aspiration; and we should be inclined to infer that 
whenever /YY appears alone it is a real combination of a strong guttu- 
ral witli the vocalized labial, u ; but that when it is combined with 
other letters the guttural alone is retained. Thus, — as Major lvaw- 
linson says, (p. ?(>), there are numerous cases in which <^Y rej ' 

the Sanscrit ^, fit, and ^YY^jE is the substitute for <<| , sra, — the 

former ought to be expressed 'An and the latter by l kva. For this 
reason, and because the Greek transcriptions must be allowed to famish 
a certain amount of evidence, we should write ' Jlrah/mtara, not 
*Uwa hAat m% and 'Hwupa, not T< the Bchistun forms of 

Kvafotffp and Xoa<nnj<;. The following are instances of the improper 
substitution of dentals for combinations of this sort: the Rube 
srera, Lettish src//rs, old Prussian srirs becomes j\ra in Latin by the 
omission of the guttural clement, unless, as Mr Winning supposes 
{Manual, p. S3), the Latin / had a pronunciation approximate, 
this compound: in the Greek Otj t \ the guttural sibilant has passed into 
the dental, by a false articulation such as we often hear in English, and 
similar to that by which ad\aacra (from &«, to/) has become taXacro-a, 



Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 171 

&c. : this becomes the tenuis-dental in the German thier (pronounced 
teer), and the medial-dental in the English deer, Anglo-Saxon deor : 
other instances of the same corruption are furnished by t/?, te &c, 
compared with kc, ttou, os, sa, qvis, &c, and i-ia-aape^ compared with 
TT/Vi/pe?, chatur, qvatvor, &c. This is also the right way of accounting 
for such double forms as <p\av, 6\av ; (pxlfiw, dXtfiw ; <p\id, 0Xid ; which 
Thiersch (Gr. Gr. §. clii. 9) supposes to have arisen from the union of 
(p and 0, on the analogy of cpdjp ; this form, however, has no real exist- 
ence, but is only assumed by the author of the Etymologicum Magnum 
(p. 451, 13) to be the original form of Qrip, as deduced from (pdeipw, 
according to the second derivation which he proposes. It appears, 
then, that where there has been at the first a combination of two 
letters, one of the guttural, the other of the labial class, this compound 
is represented in the cognate languages by any letter which can serve 
as a substitute for either of the elements, or by a combination of any 
two of such substitutes. Now, those words, which are said to be 
affected with the digamma, present continual variations from the guttu- 
ral to the labial and vice versa, and also in very many cases exhibit a 
combination of letters belonging to both orders. We may therefore 
infer conversely, that this digamma was originally a compound of the 
guttural and labial, presenting, however, one at least of the elements in 
its ultimate state, or in the nearest approach to vocalization. Compa- 
rative philology has shown us how such a combination may stand in 
one language for a simple labial or guttural in another, generally for a 
labial ; and the examination of the Greek alphabet, in its relation to 
the Semitic, has enabled us to perceive that the Greek digamma 
occupied the same place as the aspirated labial ) in the Hebrew syllaba- 
rium. We must, then, conclude that the articulation of the Pelasgians 
necessitated a substitution of this compound sound for the Hebrew 
vau, just as the Sanscrit translator Neriosengh substituted gv for the 
Zend v. The Persian or Higli German element, which prevailed over 
the Sclavonian in the Greek language, expelled this hard sound and 
the sibilants from the beginnings of words, and substituted a simple 
aspirate, just as we see in the Zend language as compared with the 
Sanscrit, and in this way the real digamma vanished from the pronun- 
ciation of the Greek language, and was consequently omitted in the 
writing. The letters, which most generally represent a lost digamma 
in Greek, are /5, (p, and v from the labial class, the sibilant, aspirate, 
and 7 from the gutturals, and the combination o-<£. If t ever stood in 
its place it must be as a substitute for 7, as in the Prussian pronuncia- 
tion of yott for Gott, &c; and if we are to consider /3aAAw, BaK^o? as 
identical with ta'AAco, TaV^o? (Thiersch, §. clii. 9), the only way of 



172 THE THEORY OF [Book I. 

explaining the transition is, by supposing that these words originally 
began with a digamma, or a sound composed of guttural and labial, 
and that ft is the representative of the labial, i of the guttural ele- 
ment. There are traces of such a compound sound in "Iock^o?, as we 
see from the fact, that the cognate words lax a i ta X^ are ■Iwayi digam- 
mated when they appear in Homer. And with regard to laXXm like- 
wise, we see traces of the labial, which in ftdWut appears by itself, in 
the form <pid\\uy (see Aristoph. Vesp. 1348. Pax. 434 Hesych. e<pl- 
aWev. iirexeiprio-eu, i\(pia\ev); compare also the German qual, qualm. 
In £d\r] the guttural is represented by f, as is often the case. The 
vowel o occasionally stands for the digamma, just as o has the force of 
w in our " one," or the French oiscau. Thus the name of the town 
Oaxus, in Crete, is spelt Fa'fo? on the old coins (Mionnet, Vol. II. 
p. 263) ; and we find Favf lav in an inscription from the neighbourhood 
of Teos (Bockh, Corpus Inscript. II. p. 638). The name is said to 
point to the ruggedness of the place, and to be derived from fdywfxt 
(Steph.Byz. V. "Oa£o<? — Tti/es ce Cid to KdTaytjvai rov rcmov na\ Kpt]ixvwct] 
VTrdpyeiv' Ka\ov<ri yap tou? tojoo'touc toVou? a^ovs, Ka.6d.irep na\ tjfufit 
dyixov^). So also in "Oa<ri?, oiVrpoc, and other words, the must have 
represented the sound of ic ( VtirronhinH*, p. 37). The initial o in the 
digammated words oinos, o7i/o<? does not appear to be a representative 
of the digamma which was prefixed to the whole word as it stands. 
By comparing FoScot with the Sanscrit ptipOM, Latin ricus, and Fo?i><k 
with the Latin r'ntiun. we infer that tlie o is merely f the root- 

vowel in each word. The same is probably the MM with olla also ; 
it appears, from a comparison with the Latin r/</j, Sanscrit rrJa (root 
rid); 2nd per. sing, oiada, Sanscrit rcttha, Zend (Burnouf, 

Varna, p. ccccli, note 315); 1st per. plur. \cue\\ Sanscrit ehlubis, that 
the diphthong in the singular is a </una of the root, and that the 
initial r, which belongs to the root, is absorbed (see Pott, Ett/mol. 
Forsch. I. p. 246 foil.). When the dental sibilant 6 appears as a 
substitute for the digamma, it results from false articulation, a- 
have shown above. 

Ill The Latin language, in which the Sclavonian element was 
not, as in the Greek, overpowered by the introduction of High German 
ingredients, retained the digamma sound to the last, though the Greek 
figure was not introduced until the reign of Claudius, and then again 
disused (Quintil. I. 7. § 26. XII. 10. § 20. comp. Tacitus Annal. 
XL 14). This digamma sound is attributed by the ancient writers, 
not to the letter F, which so nearly resembles the Greek digamma 
in form (the only difference in the digamma introduced by Claudius 



Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 173 

being, that it was inverted), but to the letter u or v, when used as 
a consonant, in which case it seems to have had the sound of our to, 
as appears from the following passages. Dionysius of Halicarnassus 
I. C. XX. p. 52 Reiske) ' koa tttoacrtv avroTs ^oopta — to irept Tt]v lepav 
Xifxvrjv, ev ok v\v rot 7roAAa e A 0)8*7, a i/ui/, Kara tov dpyaiov Trjs 8*a- 
XenTov tooVoi/, Ov-eXta ovofxa^erat. avvrjdes yap tjv toi? a'o^cuot? 
''EAA*7<n, oj<? Ta 7ro/\A.a, irpoTtQevat toou oi/OjUartoi/, ottoctoov at ap^at airo 
(ptavrjevTtav eylvovro, ty)v ov avXXafirjv iv\ <tto foetus ypatpofxevtjv. tovto 
8' rjv uxrirep ydp.fxa 8tTTa?<? eiri Lttav opdrjv eTrt^evyvv/jLcvov ra?s irXaytat<;, 
a)? p-eXevrj, ko\ pdva£, na\ Fo?ko<z koi Favrjp, na\ iroXXa TOtavra. Julian 
(Orat. XI. p. 71 j edit. Spanheim) : "Everot 8e oJ/jlvi to TrpoaQev 
(avofxd^ovTO^ vvv he 17817, 'Pw/uauoi/ to? iroXets c^oi/toji/, to /jiei/ e^ap-yt}^ 
ovoiia (rootyvat fipayeta. Trpoa-drJKrj ypaiip.aTos ev dp^rj t^<? eTrcovv/jiias. 
ecTTt 8e oJtou crvfi^oXov yapaKTrjp ek. ovo/jLafyvcri 8e avrov OY, koi 
Xpttivrai dvTt tov BHTA, 7roAAa*a? Trpoairvevaetos olfxai tivos 'tveKa ko\ 
iSioVi/To? 7.\wtt»/?. Priscian (p. 560): Habebat autem hcec F /itera 
hunc sonum quern nunc habet U loco consonantis posita. Quintilian 
(I. 4. § 7) : Desintne aliquce nobis necessarian literal — ut in his, Seruus 
et Uulgus, JEolicum digamma desideratur. (XII. 10. § 29): iEoLKLE 
quoque literce qua seruum, ceruum-^w dicimus, etiamsi forma a nobis 
repudiata est, vis tamen nos ipsa persequitur. From these passages we 
see that the later writers considered the digamma only in its labial 
element. It appears, however, from Quintilian, that there w T as another 
Latin letter, F, which represented the digamma in form and name, 
which occupied the same place in the Roman alphabet, and which 
corresponded to the older power of the Greek digamma, in combining, 
as it would seem, a sibilant with the labial. Quintilian says (I. 4. § 14), 
that fordeum and fcedus were written instead of hordeum and ha?dus 
in old Latin : quin fordeum, FCEVUsque {dicebant), pro aspiratione vav 
velut simili litera utentes : nam contra Groeci aspirare solent (<f>), ut 
pro Fundanio Cicero testem, qui primam ejus literam dicere non posset, 
irridet. Again he says (XII. 10. § 27, 29), that it was a great disad- 
vantage to the Romans to have only V and F instead of the Greek Y 
and O, quibus nullce apud eos {Grcecos) dulcius spirant. — Nam et ilia 
qua? est sexta nostrarum, pcene non humana voce, vel omnino non voce 
potius, inter discrimina dentium efflanda est : quce etiam cum vocalem 
proxima accessit quassa quodammodo, utique quoties aliquam conso- 
nantem frangit, ut in hoc ipso frangit, multo jit horridior. From 
these passages Mr Winning has inferred, as we have already mentioned, 
that the Latin / corresponded to the Lithuanian or Sclavonian double 
consonant sv or zw. He is also inclined to suppose that two distinct 
sounds were represented by the Latin/; one corresponded to the Greek 



174 THE THEORY OF [Book I. 

<p, and was used in words connected with the Greek, such as fero, 
fama, &c. : the other, this double sound, appears only in words to 
which the Greeks have no corresponding forms, as in fariolus, fmena, 
&c, in which the / was subsequently changed to h (Manual, p. 9.Q6). 
"We are willing to adopt the former opinion, that / was, at least 
originally, a double sound, consisting of a sibilant and a labial : from 
the manner in which Quintilian speaks of it, there must have been 
something very peculiar about the Latin /, and the description which 
he gives of its pronunciation would of itself lead us to suppose a sort of 
sibilation. But we are sure that it never approximated to the Greek 
<p ; Quintilian most expressly tells us so, and the fact is clear from the 
following phenomena which are applicable to words connected with the 
Greek, as well as to the other words in which / appears. That the 
Greek <p is a distinct////, as in shepherd, and that it is not equivalent in 
sound to the Sanscrit bit, which, as well as the Latin /, ctymologically 
corresponds to it (compare the Greek and Latin roots (pv./tt, with the 
Sanscrit equivalent hhii), appears from reduplications like neipvua, and 
from contacts like ILairipto. That the Latin • and/ are cognate sounds, 
and have nothing in common with the Latin /',/', or with the Greek 
ft, ir, tp, is clear from the fact that t and / may be immediately 
ceded by n ; which is always changed into m before the other let: 
compare con/cnr, conrirn, with 

ftdWeiv, efXTras, d/x(pl (Pott, Etymol. Forsch. I. p. 79)- In our opinion, 
the letters/ and c in Latin corresponded, in the time of Quintilian, to 
he and w respectively; at all events, the former was an originally 
compound sound made up of a guttural (whether under the form of 
a sibilant or an aspirate) and a labial; for we hold that no labial can 
pass directly into a guttural, but that, in every instance where thi- 
apparently occurred, the labial ha- ith a gut- 

tural : thvajlreui must have been hriryuits or srirauus (Sanscrit n 
Zend rchrfras) before it could become hircus or hirp>ts; and we think 
that the change of a permanent/, at the beginning of Latin words, into 
h in the Romance languages, is a proof, that, to the la*t, / contained 
some guttural element ; thus the Norman hawk stands for faleo ; /tort, 
in French, represents the Latin j'.>ris. which is fuori in modern Italian 
(compare <}inrra and guerre) ; and the Spanish haeer, hambre, hado, 
hhjo, hi'/o, hllo, hermoso, humo, hoja, hongo, huesa (hresa), hurto. are the 
modern substitutes for the Latin r'aeere, fmm**, Jatmm, JBtm> J&**i 
Jiluin, formosus.fumus, fo!iuni s fundus, fossa, fart urn. Grimm, we are 
aware, thinks that there is a real connexion b et w e e n the labial r and 
the sibilant and aspirate .<?, //. "I in. nrn. 

I. p. 581) "the intimate connexion of the three breat h, s, 



Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 175 

partly from the change of ei into e (p. 91), of au into 6 (p. 94), 
which takes place before them, partly from the interchange of h and 
v, w (p. 148, 403), h and s (p. 318, 41 6), and the contact of the 
aspiration with the assibilation (tk, ts, z) ; between v, w, and s, there is 
no immediate interchange; h and #, the softest of all consonants, 
occasionally fall off without substitution, even when they stand at the 
beginning, and especially before liquids." It is strange that this great 
philologer should not have perceived that the arguments, which he has 
drawn from the vocalization of the German languages, rather prove the 
original union of a guttural and labial in v, h, s, than the identity of the 
guttural and labial elements : the change of ei into e = ee before v, h, s y 
is an absorption of », the guttural element of the diphthong, into the 
following guttural element h, s, or into the guttural element combined 
with and presumed in the v; and it is for this reason that the guttural 
part of the w is often dropt in this case, the change of the diphthong 
remaining as a trace of the guttural part of the compound sound : 
conversely, the change of au into 6 = oo before the same letters, shows a 
corresponding loss of the labial in /j, s, the guttural part being alone 
retained. Grimm admits that there is no immediate interchange 
between the v(w) and s, and that v and h (which is only a further 
reduction of s) sometimes fall off without leaving any traces : this is a 
proof that a compound like hv = sv might become either h, s, or v, not 
that these letters are themselves identical. The fact is, as we have 
before mentioned, that Grimm has not a proper notion of the origin and 
value of the vowels *, u, which, we have shown, are the vocalization of 
j and v, the ultimate forms of the mutes, the former being the point of 
convergence to the gutturals and dentals, the latter to the labials. The 
name v \^tAoV, and the fact that this letter never appears at the be- 
ginning of a word without a rough breathing, show how natural the 
union of the aspirate and labial are to some articulations ; this vowel is 
to the present day pronounced like v by the Greeks even before conso- 
nants ; and the analogy of the Sanscrit language, in which i and u are 
always pronounced as the consonants y, v before vowels, even when 
they form part of the diphthongs e, 6, as well as the testimony of the 
old Grammarians, assures us that the Greek v was v 9 or rather hv, 
before it was u, and that i was y orj before it was i. 

112 We may now leave the digamma, or rather its labial element, 
and direct our attention to the sibilants, the aspirate, the guttural ^, 
and the vowel t considered as the ultimate state of the gutturals and 
dentals. The gutturals are softened as follows — k into ch, sh, s; g into 
jf, sh : the dentals thus — t into th, sh, s; d into sh. These changes may 
also be produced by subjoining to each guttural and dental the letter 



176 THE THEORY OF [Book I. 

y(i), and pronouncing the combined letters as one: the sound which 
results in each case is sh. As, then, this softening might have been 
effected by the addition of i, if that vowel had existed, conversely the 
vowel i not having existed previously, naturally sprung from this 
change of the aspirates of the dental and guttural orders, the aspirated 
dental or guttural element being omitted ; just as the vowel u arose 
from a similar softening of the aspirate of the labial order, the aspirated 
labial element being omitted. The Greek f remains as a representative 
of the guttural or dental combined with i(y), as will hereafter be shown. 
In the mean time it is sufficient to state that it appears, from the forms 
of the comparative* and of the verb conjugation t, and from other 
phenomena in Greek J, that f was equivalent to kjt, yy t ry, cy : we 
know from the analogy of modern languages that these sounds may be 
equivalent to sk, and it is clear from the words of Dionysius of Halicar- 
nassus {de Compos, c. 14. p. 81, Reiske) that £ must have been some- 
times pronounced like sh = dy=gy. He says: rpiuv ci r<av dWwv 

ypaiifxaTiav^ a ct] cnr\d KaXerrat, to £ fxaWou tjcuvei rtjv aKOtjv rtov 
€Tepu)v. to fxeu ydp £", ctd tov k, to ce "v//-, oa tou it, tov <rvpiyuov 
aVoCjCa)(Tt, \//j\a>i/ ovrutv aLKpoTeptov. tovio c' tjav^t] tvo irvevpiaTi caav- 
i/£Tat, na\ €<tti twi/ dfxoyeviav yevvaioTaTov. In the Doric dialect §, £ is 
written <rc, whicli is merely a result of Hellenic euphony ; for the place 
of f in the alphabet shows that it must have been considered originally 
as a modification of c ; and as f represents both k<t and <tk, so there is 
reason to think that <tc is a transposition of an original c<r, which cor- 
responds to the Hebrew Tsade, and also indicates a sound nearly con- 
nected with ti, yi or i=j. Conversely, in the Ea-?t-Anglian dialect of 
our own language, ds becomes ilje =j, as is shown by the Suffolk proper 
names Etheredge, Cocksedge. Arc, which represent the original genitives 
Etkmndt, Cocktkmit, &c. The vowel < is placed next to c\ the simple 
aspirate of t or c, because it is the last result of the softening of those 
letters. In some cases a Greek represents a Sanscrit y, as in \ 
hyas. 

When the Greek f stands as a representative of the guttural in 
its softened state (thus, £atu corresponds to the Sanscrit jiccimi. Scla- 
von. schieii, Lithuanian oytcs=ciru^ gy*ccnu = rho .'.) it is equivalent 



• Book II. Chap. 2. f Book IV. Chap. 4. t Book III. Chap. 1. 

§ So say the Grammarians ^Scholl. Dion. Thr. 7 SO, 16. Etym. M. 412 & 
Ahrens (de dialect. Dorica, p. 95) considers this as an occasional imitation of the Les- 
bian dialect by the lyric and bucolic poets. 

|| Bopp has not seen the true analysis of this root, although he has furnished the 
materials for it (Yergl. Gramm. p. 12S^. A comparison of the Gothic qvirs = virus, 
with the O. N. qcikr, O. S. quic, Engl, quick, and the perfect M ^Schneider, 
Elementarlehre I. p. 243), shows that the root originally invoked a reduplication of 
the digamma or qv : so that the Latin vivus stands for qviqvus (Varronian. p 



Chap. 5.] 



THE GREEK ALPHABET. 



177 



to the Zend #, which was nearly our j, as appears from the circum- 
stance that Neriosengh uses the Sanscrit j as a transcription of this 
letter : thus he writes Ahuramajdasya, " of Ormuzd," and Ijisnijanda, 
"the Zend, or book called Yacna," Majdaiasnyah, " the Mazdaiasnas" 
(Burnouf, Yaqna, p. xv.). In related words this Zend letter stands for 
the Greek k, 7, or %, or for a Latin and .Sanscrit h when that letter 
represents a strong guttural breathing: the following instances are 
given by Burnouf ( Yacna, p. lxxxi.) : 



Sanscrit. 




Greek. 


Zend. 


Lith. 


mih, 


Latin, mingo, 


oVi'x<»j 


miz, 


myzu 


hima, 


hiems, 


X e? M«, 


zydo, 


ziema 


hansa, 


Gothic, gans, 


x*s 




zasis 


b-humi, 


[ Latin, humus, ) 
I Gothic, gau'i, ) 


X a f xal -> 


zem, 


zeme 










hrdaya, 


{ Latin, cor, 
I Gothic, hairlo, 


KapVia, 




szirdii 










aham, 


( Latin, ego, 
1 Gothic, ik, 


eyw, 


azem, 


isz 










hasta, 


( hand, 

I Latin, pre-hend-ere, 


X el P-> 


zasta, 












mahat, 


/ magnus, ) 

\ Gothic, mikels, ) 


fxeyas, 


maz, 












hari, 


Latin, viridis, 


<»XP°h 


zairi, 





113 The reader will be careful to distinguish from this appearance 
of the h in Sanscrit and Latin those cases in which the initial aspira- 
tion appears in Greek as the representative of a sibilant in those lan- 
guages. We have already shown, from the form of the character in the 
Devanagari alphabet, that h is not an original letter. It has, how- 
ever, two sounds. According to one it is a hard guttural breathing, 
and appears as the representative either of an original guttural conso- 
nant or of the digamma. In this use it may stand either at the begin- 
ning or in the middle of a word in Latin, Sanscrit, or Low German, and 
it frequently resumes its original form in certain combinations. It is 
this h which corresponds to the Zend z =j. To the instances given 
above we may add the following : Sanscrit root vah, Latin veh-it, vec- 
sit, vec-tus, vac-ca, F°'x-o?, fo-^eveiv, av^-t]v } Zend vaz-aiti, Sclavonian 
vezeti, Lithuanian vezu, vessti; Latin trah-ere, trac-si, German trag-en, 
Lithuanian traulcti; Latin hostis from fostis (=svostis or hvostis), 
German gosts ; Gothic haupit, Latin caput, K€(p-a\tj; Latin homin 
{homo), Gothic guma, old High German homo, Lithuanian zmones, old 
Prussian smunents; Latin hortus, Gothic gards, Old High German 

N 



178 



THE THEORY OF 



[Book I. 



karti, -y^6p ro ^ '> Gothic taikun, Seta, Sanscrit daqa, &c. From this it is 
clear that the strong h is the immediate representative of the digamma 
or of a primitive guttural; that it is harder and more original than j= z 
(Zend) appears from the use of the latter in reduplications from roots 
beginning with the hard It, as in jahami, ju/tdva, &c. ; compare cha- 
hara, lilharmi, &c. The other sound of h is merely a weakening of 
the sibilant, similar to the visarga at the end of a word, and generally 
makes its appearance as an initial. This breathing, as a substitute 
for s, is consistently found in those languages of the Indo-Germanic 
family, which we infer from other reasons to be more recent than 
those of the same family in which the corresponding words, begin with 
s : its appearance may, therefore, be used as an argument to prove that 
languages, of which we do not know the age from other sources, are 
recent in comparison with those which present the initial s. We have 
h for s in Greek as compared with Latin and Sanscrit, in Welsh as 
compared with Erse, and in Zend as compared with Sanscrit : now wc 
have reason to believe, independently of this, that Greek (in one element 
at least) and Welsh are younger than Latin or Sanscrit and Erse respec- 
tively : we therefore conclude that Zend is younger than Sanscrit, or be- 
longs, at least in one element, to the High Iranian class. The following 
are a few instances out of a great number which might be collected. 



More ancient languages with s. More reeeiit languages with //. 



Sanscrit. 
sd, 



Latin or 
Gothic. 



Erse. 



tft. 



Zend. 



sap tan, f sib an, \ scc/it. 

i sam, \ simul, 
1 sakrt, J 

sal. salan. 



ha, 



Greek. Welsh. 
eirra. 



1 hak\ I 

«\c, 

vttvos, hvn. 



svapnas, f somnus, I suan. 
\ steps, J 
sol, i said. \ hrare, (»'/\i<k). 

I sornean. J \h\< 

j MM*, \ 

\ suit, J 



srar, 



santi 



henti. 



114 In general it is to be remarked that the letters i and *, which 

are of more frequent occurrence than any other consonants at the end of 
words, are peculiarly liable to become evanescent not only at the end of 



Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 179 

a word, but also at the beginning or end of any syllable. This is an 
extension of the principle of anusvdra and visarga, and some of the 
most remarkable phenomena of Greek etymology are explicable only 
with reference to this tendency. The evanescence of a-, or its subsi- 
dence into an aspirate at the commencement of a word, has been suffi- 
ciently exemplified above. It may be considered as almost a rule of the 
Greek language when a vowel follows. Thus, the s of sylva is always 
represented by the aspirate of v'aF»7, except in the old compound 
^KCLTTTti-crvKri = Wald-gerode, the name of a place in Thrace. 2J? is 
found by the side of u?, and 6 sometimes stands for <r by the side of the 
aspirate, as in ddxacrcra for <rd\a<raa by the side of «A? ; 0eAw, from the 
root eA- ; &c. Similarly, the Greek 'JLppi}*;, 'Eppeias, and the Tuscan 
Turms, are equally connected with the Sanscrit Sarameya (Dr Trithen, 
Proc. Phil. iSoc. III. No. 71> p. 201 sqq.) : compare tjpepa, o-tipepov, 
Ttjfxepov; eTTTa, TeVra ; epp'u, reppk, &c. ( Varron ianns, p. 112). The 
medial 8 appears also as an occasional representative of the sibilant; com- 
pare heiXr] with el\r] y <re\-as, rjXiosj &c. The absolute and total evanes- 
cence of ? and v is most conspicuous in the cases in which they were 
originally flanked on both sides by short vowels. They are then changed 
into the rough or nasal breathing respectively, and thus they pass off 
from the want of characters to express them. Compare ti/Vt»/, TuVrea*, 
with Ttdea-ai, and /ieifoue, peityes, with pei^pves. The simple a, which 
the Hebrew grammarians appropriately call pathcfh or "opening," 
seems to have been peculiarly fitted to serve as the vehicle of the 
residuary nasal breathing. Thus when v is followed by r, 0, or stands 
by itself at the end of a word, it is very often represented by a. Hence 
we have Tervcparai for TervQvrai, a-w^oiaro for <ra)£ozi/TO, irdrepa for 
•naTepv, or 7rdrpev y &c. The plural e^op-eda by the side of the dual 
e 'x°V e ^ OI/ ) ^Eol. exopeQev, is an instance of the frequency of this inter- 
change, and some roots are regularly affected by it; compare flevdos 
with/3a'0os; Trevdos with 7ra'0os, ireiaropai^ on the analogy of j(cipi€i<i from 
^ct|o/evT?, for irevd-copai ; ireirovQa as the perfect of Trda-^w for irevQ- 
o-kw; yeyova by the side of jeyaa; the roots pa- and pev-, Sec. A simi- 
lar principle, namely the affinity of the aspirate and sibilant, will 
explain a remarkable phenomenon in regard to the vanishing letter, <?. 
Although the Greeks particularly delighted in the combination o-0-, 
which is partly shown by the purely Hellenic change of the more an- 
cient f = So- into c-3; and though there are many structures, as we shall 
see in the course of the following pages, which are really due to this 
predilection, yet we find on the other hand some cases in which the o- of 
the combination <rd becomes absolutely evanescent when it is preceded 
by an aspirate; thus, we find rervcp-Qe for Ttrvty-o-de, \e\ex-Qai for 

N2 



180 THE THEORY OF [Book I. 

AeAe'x-o-flat, &c. If the combination vt is left at the end of a word it 
regularly becomes a. All neuter plurals are examples of this, and we 
shall see below that lUa must have been originally cpe-new. The loss 
of the v is very common in the separative particle dvd or dw, signifying 
remoteness in space or time, and used with nouns as a negative prefix, 
and with verbs as a temporal augment. In the former case dva or va 
always becomes d- in Attic Greek when prefixed to a word beginning 
with a consonant. When prefixed to a word beginning with a vowel 
the v is retained, and the form is aV- or dvt]-. In Homeric Greek the 
form vr\- appears whether the word begins with a vowel or a consonant. 
In the other case referred to — that of the temporal augment — dva is 
invariably softened into e-. There is a curious analogy in this case 
to the Hebrew *ON, 'hani, which is always curtailed into 1*, 7te, when 
it appears as the personal prefix of the continuous tense : and in the same 
way t£Otf 'hhicsh, "a man," is usually shortened into W& '/tis/t, and 
the n is omitted in ^N 'haph, from ^JN 'hencph, just as in aw by the 
side of ai/e/xo? and animus. 

115 The letter f, which is generally a direct union of the guttural 
k or 7 witli the sibilant, does not require much notice ; in Sanscrit it is 
often represented by the softer form $h, just as k is almost consistently 
represented by f. The explanation of this is not difficult. AVe shall 
show immediately that, when an aspirate or sibilant is combined with 
a consonant, it very often changes its place, that is, it may stand either 
before or after the consonant. Thus the root of the relative pronoun, 
which is sv in Sanscrit and Greek, is gv in Latin, hr in Gothic, but tch 
in English; so p = hr becomes rh in Latin; and we have already seen 
that f was both la- and <rd. Similarly f was both k? and <tk, just as 
the sound, which is hs in Gothic, became ■! in Sanscrit, so that f 
occasionally corresponded in power to the Semitic Shin, the name of 
which its common denomination f ? seems to represent. Thus £i<po<: 
was written <TK'«po<; (Hesych. s.v.), and perhaps even n'«po<; (Pausan. III. 
26, 9) ; and in the same way the Eastern subjects of Alexander seem to 
have transposed the elements of the f in his name, if we may judge from 
the forms of A\e'£ai/fyo? and 'AAcfowSpca, e.g. Iscambr, Scanderon. i 
dahar. The same has been the case with \U (BeH\ A need. p. SI 5), and 
the pronominal forms \//e, \//ji/, -pse, must be considered as transpositions 
of <r(p€. It has been mentioned above, that ft seems to have come in as 
a substitute for the Doric *ar, the older representative of Skim. The 
Latin x seems frequently to have lost the A-solind altogether, as in 
Ulyxes compared with 'OSw <rev<;, rum compared with e-p«?-<?, e'-f i'£m, 



Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 181 

&c. In the Doric dialect f appears for <r in the fut. and 1 aor. of 
verbs in -fw (Ahrens, dial. Dor. p. 89 sqq.). It can hardly be doubted 
that it is here, like <r<r-, a representative of the sound sh resulting 
from <ri. 

116 We must now show how H, the old mark of the aspiration 
in Greek, came to be used as a sign for the long e, the first half of it 
being alone retained to denote the rough breathing. It is an etymo- 
logical principle of great importance, that an aspirated short vowel 
is equivalent to an unaspirated long one. To this may be added 
another principle of equal importance and fundamentally the same, that 
an initial digamma or aspirated labial, represented by the secondary 
vowels i or u, may be placed behind the initial vowel so as to form a 
diphthong, or even be transferred to the second syllable of the word. 
We have a simple exemplification of the first principle in the word 
w/xo? "a shoulder," which is clearly another form of opo? from the 
pronominal compound o-/a- (Jjuou, &c.), expressing the equilibrium 
of the shoulders : so that w/jlos = opo? is related to humerus, as v6fxo<; 
is to numerus. Of both principles we have the following instances 
in the Greek language itself, and from one root — cAk in eAfcw, which 
begins properly with the digamma, and of which we shall speak more 
at length in a subsequent chapter. From this root we have rJAeicrpov 
for eAKT^oi/, ti\a.Ka.Ta and tiXctKOLTti for eXura and i\KTt], and oi>\a£ for 
6'/\f according to the first principle, and auAaf for the same word, 
according to the second*. We recognise the same etymological fact in 
the comparison of ae-quus with Ukci-vos, which has nearly the same 
meaning. In compounds we see that ae, originally ai, is equivalent to 
I. Thus from ws-timo we have ex-istxmo, from ce-quus, in-iquus, &c. 
(see Varronianus, p. 213). Consequently ae-qua-nus = i-Jca-nus 
= /-Ka-i/o'<?. So that we ought not to connect 'ncavo? with <k«, 'ucavco, as 
Passow does in his Lexicon, but with the pronominal compound ki-c 
found in the affix -i-ko?, &c. : and thus iica-vos corresponds in origin as 
well as meaning to idoneus = ideo-neus (cf. Buttmann, Lexil. I. 46. 
Doderlein, Etym. u. Syn. III. 276). The second principle is very 
frequently applied in transitions from Greek to Sanscrit : thus we have 
in Sanscrit devas = 0eFo5 (dkevos) ; ekataras (aikataras) = eKaTepos ; 
the Sanscrit eka = aika is yak in modern Persian, and the Sanscrit 
vedmi (= vaidmi), pkena (=phaina), gveta (= $vaita) correspond to the 
Sclavonic vjemi, pjena, svjet. But it is not at all uncommon in Greek : 



* See Buttmann, Mythol. II. p. 355 foil., which we hare translated in our notes on 
the Antigone of Sophocles, p. 213-219. 



182 THE THEORY OF [Book I. 

thus from the last-mentioned root (cuas, Sanscrit ekas, Latin ceqaut 
and secus), we have evKrjXos for e'fc^Xo?, a change which it is certainly 
not necessary to account for by the supposition of two digammas, 
as Thiersch and Buttmann have supposed. The gloss in Hesychius 
{yeyicaXov, rjav^ov), which would seem to point to a form Fe'FuaXos, 
is evidently wrong from its position between yawpa? and yenadd (1. ye- 
Kovara) in that vocabulary : we should read yexaXov with Pearson and 
Guyet. Sometimes the digamma, which should have begun the word, 
was transferred not only to a place behind the first vowel, but even to 
the beginning of the second syllable, as in the following instance : 
oA.o<? = F0A.09, u full, " became first ovXo^ = oFAo?, then o,\Fo<r, as we see 
in oxftw; and oXftaytjiou (as it should be read in Hesychius, &. v. ev- 
ttXovtov) from ovXrj and ^fu. The same principle explains the shifting 
of the aspirate in such cases as e\i>i ('ek-ho), e£a> (/tck-so), Tpeyja 
(trek-ho), 6pegu) (thrck-so), &c. We conceive then that the adoption 
of II as the sign for the long vowel »; = ?, is due to the fact that 
he was actually considered as equivalent to c. The vowel »/ really 
contains, in many 0*868, not merely the common rough breathing, but 
also the digamma 7/r, and even the softened dental or guttural d 
as in €Tv7rt]v for erv«yav, or, when aspirated at the beginning of the 
word, as in ijnepo<; for W/iepot, &c. This j or >/ is also represented 
by e in the middle of a word, as in roAciM = *&jnh ; and we often 
find that te presumes a single e preceded by some guttural breathing 
(Buttmann, Ausfuhvl. 8pri. § 112, 17- A urn. 23). Compare eepo-tj 
with the Sanscrit rar.*//<t. We shall not be Mirprw/d, therefore, to find 
that »7 is also in many cases the representative of ee : thus ceeXos is 
another form of <?»}\o<? and ycee, of tjctj ; — aYaWraj 701% to tj c$i cvo 
ee, to? Trapct to? -rrott]7tj cceXov ?' eVi atjua t e^evav not avvaipeiTat 
iraXiv ra dvo ee eU to »/, a>'<? to ijcee, fjct] (ScAol. Di>>nv$. Thr. p. 797). 
The form of u> shows that it is a similar combination of 00, and th 
every reason to believe that this was its real value. As the Sanscrit 
a — a +a regularly corresponds to « as well as to a, and as the Sanscrit 
a represents the lighter o no less than the heavier a, we may fairly 
conclude that w is the reduplication of o just as a is of a, or that in the 
longer as well as in the shorter vowels the Greek alphabet da 
those differences of weight, which the Sanscrit neglects. In this scale of 
weights e is the lightest vowel. But »/ is heavier than <u, which is sub- 
stituted for it in derivative forms or heavier words ; thus from va-nip 
we have dtraTtop, from £09*, a-wepptau ; and we have the heavier words 
'IroXiWTf/?, ffToaT<a)T»/c by the side of iroXitj-rtjs. The statement, there- 
fore, that ri - et, requires the explanation given above, namely that ee in 
this case must be regarded as a fainter articulation of the n to which »/ 



Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 183 

is etymologically equivalent. The pronunciation of y\ takes it out of the 
category of the mere articulation vowels a, e, o. It corresponded to 
the Hebrew tsere, i. e. to our long a as in mate, or to our long e as in 
there. The passage from ia to this sound may be seen in a comparison 
of the German ja with our yea. The act of utterance in o, w, no less than 
in a, a, e, is consistent with a fully-opened mouth, and this is indicated 
by the Hebrew names patha% qametz, and c kolem, and by the relation 
between o and the nasal y ; while the narrower opening, and the for- 
mation of the lips into a mere fissure, by which the tsere and the cog- 
nate or included c hirik are articulated, are sufficiently expressed by 
these names. This difference is recognised by the Greek grammarians, 
who give the following description of the sound of rj : he? to pev tj 
CKcboovovvra fj.r]Kvveiv to o-to/jlo. oj? etri ra cora eKCtTepaiuev, to oe w 
in(pu)vovvTa }Xr]K\)v€iv rd X €l ^ t 1 w ' 9 * 7r * T W V i^ va Kai TO!/ fwycoi/a (Bekkeri 
Anecd. p. 797), and is confirmed by the fact that Cratinus and Ari- 
stophanes represented the bleating of the sheep by the syllable f3fj (see 
Meineke, Fragm. Com. Ant. p. 40. Hesych. s. v. ftfj Xeyei. Etym. M. 
196, 7. and Bekker. Anecd. p. 86). 

117 Although we must reserve for subsequent chapters some 
further discussion of certain letters, we shall perhaps consult the con- 
venience of the student by stating briefly in this place the results at 
which we have arrived respecting the Greek Alphabet in general. We 
enumerate in the established order all the characters at any time 
employed by the ancient Greeks. The original syllabarium is distin- 
guished by the employment of capitals and Roman numerals, and we 
have added the Hebrew letter when the character is of Semitic origin. 

(1) I. A, N, at first a mere breathing, afterwards a broad, 

open sound, frequently used as a representative 
of the nasal breathing, just as y passes through 
H into N. 

(2) II. B, 2, generally like our b, but sometimes, as it seems, 

employed as a ». 

(3) III. T, J), a hard g, sometimes accompanied by a nasal 

breathing. 

(4) IV. A, 1, often pronounced w T ith a lisp, and then approxi- 

mating to 6 and p. 

(5) Y. E, H, at first an aspirate, afterwards the residuary 

light vowel with which that aspirate was ar- 
ticulated ; often pronounced like y when followed 
by another vowel. 



(10) 


'> 


S 


(11) 


K > 


3, 


(12) 


IX. A, 


b, 


(13) 


X. M, 


», 


(14) 


XI. N, 


3, 



184j THE THEORY OF [Book I. 

(6") VI. F, i, a combination of the guttural breathing with the 
labial, most usually under the form hv or hu; in 
its original value the labial predominated. 

(7) f, 2> originally ds, transposed in some dialects to sd, 

and softened generally into the souud j or sh, 
which is equivalent to di or gi. 

(8) VII. H, n> a hard aspirated guttural, pronounced hg or gh, 

afterwards a long vowel like the Hebrew tsere 
and our a in ale, but always implying some ety- 
mological absorption, especially the syllable «*. 

(9) VIII. G, D, originally hd or dh, afterwards softened through 

th into an approximate sibilant, and always 
closely allied to e. 
a vocalized guttural. 

a substitution for 9 : occurs twice as a final letter, 
sometimes approximated to the soft French /. 
did not usually differ from their representatives in 
other languages ; they came nearer to the > 
than to the tcnucs ; thus \x delights in contacts 
with ft, i' with c j and in later applications of the 
alphabet, \xir represents /?, and vt, c ; the same 
appetency for a quasi- medial articulation is ob- 
servable in the other dental liquids X, p, which 
often represent r, c, or 6 ; v is one of the most 
frequently used of the final consonants ; and in 
this employment it has often taken the place of an 
originally final p, or of p which by apocope has 
become final ; both p and v may approximate to 
the nasal breathing. 

originally <xk from o-^ or s/t ; afterwards transposed 
to k$; in some dialects it retained its softer sound, 
at first a mere nasal breathing ; afterwards an in- 
termediate value of the articulation vowel ; some- 
times pronounced as w before another vowel, 
did not differ from its modern equivalent, 
properly a combination of guttural and labial, like 
F; the guttural however predominated in thifl 
approximated to 2 and ; and is occasionally 
found as a final letter, 
the most usual sibilant; very often occur- 
final, 
did not differ from the ordinary dental tenuis. 



(15) 


fc », 


(16) 


XII. 0, y> 


(17) 
(18) 


xiii. n, s, 

XIV. O, p, 


(19) 


p. 1. 


(20) 


XT. 2, C, D, 


(21) 


xvi. t, n, 



l»Sj 


"i 


(23) 


<P, 


(21) 


X> 


(25) 


+, 


(26) 


<". 


(27) 


*, 



Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 185 

the residuum of F = hu, when the letter became 
\fsi\6v by the omission of the aspirate. 
an imperfect substitute for another value of the 
lost F. 

a substitute for H after its disuse as a consonant, 
an arbitrary combination of tt and <r. 
a double o. 

an arbitrary combination of c and 7r, afterwards 
obsolete, except as a numeral sign. Its name 
was 2ajU7r?, i. e. <rdv and irZ The former repre- 
sents the only Hebrew letter omitted in the above 
lists, namely, J or Zain, which was once used by 
the ancient Greeks. 

1 18 (3) Interchange of mutes in the Greek and cognate languages. 

We now come to the third subject of inquiry which we have 
proposed to ourselves in this Chapter — the changes which take place in 
the mutes or fundamental consonants of related words in the different 
languages of the Indo-Germanic family. The liquids usually remain 
unaltered in the corresponding words, and the breathings we have 
already considered. It has been perceived that the changes of the 
mutes generally follow a very striking law, which was first pointed out, 
in its application to the Greek (Latin, Sanscrit), the Gothic, and Old 
High German, by that admirable philologer James Grimm {Deutsche 
Gramm. I. p. 584 foil.). This law has been extended by Bopp ( Vergl. 
Gramm. p. 78 foil.) to the Zend and Lithuanian. Some of the excep- 
tions to which the rule is liable have been indicated by Mr Guest (Proc. 
Phil. Soc. III. p. 179 sqq.). The following table will afford the best 
explanation of the canons as given by Grimm. 



Greek, (Latin, Sanscrit), 


lud.UlH.lS. 

V i f 


t 


euuus. uruuurais. 

d th k g ch 


Gothic, 


f P l> 


th 


t d ..kg 


Old High German, 

Or, 

Greek, (Latin, Sanscrit). 


i(t>) f p 


d 


z t g ch k 


Gothic. 




Old High German. 


Tenuis, 


Aspirate, 




Medial 


Medial, 


Tenuis, 




Aspirate 


Aspirate, 


Medial, 




Tenuis 



It must be remarked, that the Gothic aspirate, to which the Greek 
tenuis corresponds, is not ch, for that combination does not exist in 



186 



THE THEORY OF 



[Book I. 



Gothic, but either h or g with a strong guttural aspiration. The same 
remark applies to the Latin, which, however, consistently employs the 
strong h for the Greek x ( see above, p. 177)- In Old High German, b 
is superseded by v, a circumstance which has also taken place in the 
modern Greek and other languages, and instead of th we have z = ts 
by assibilation instead of aspiration. 



119 The following exemplification of the law is taken with some 
slight modification from Bopp ; we have subjoined his comparison of 
the Zend and Lithuanian, with the languages included in Grimm's canon : 



Sanscrit. 


Greek. 


Latin. 


Gothic. 


Old High German. 


pada-s, 


7ro3-o<?, 


pedis, 


fotus, 


TUOZ 


panchan, 


TTCVTC, 


ouinoue, 


fimf, 


tinf 


piirn'a, 


7r\eo<r, 


pld 


fulls, 


vol 


pitr, 


TraTtjp, 


pater, 


fad rein (pi.] 




upari, 


virep 


super, 


ufar, 


vbar 


bhanj, 


Fptiy-vv-fxi, 


f ran go, 


hrikan, 




bhratr, 


(ppClTUfp, 




brothar, 




b/tr, 


(pepw, 


fero, 






kapala, 


n€(pa\tj, 


caput, 


haubith, 




(ram, 


TV, 


tu, 


thu, 




tragus, 


TpeTs, 




threit, 


dri 


antara, 


€T€pO<; t 


ah 


an' 


far 


danta-m, 


odoura, 


do, 


thuntus, 




drau, 


Ivo, 




trai, 




dakshina, 


he^ios, 


d .rtra, 


taihsco, 




uda, 


bctop, 


unda, 






era)), 


KIWI/, 


caii is, 


kuni 




hrdaya, 


Kapciu 


cor, 


kait 




aks/ta, 


OKOCj 


o<jrulus, 


au 




a?ru, 


^ClKpV, 


facrima, 




zal 


pacu, 


TTUiV, 


>(S, 


faihu, 


rihu 


?ra?ura, 


€KV|0O9, 


SGC 


srai/tra, 


sue/iur 


dacan, 


?fKtt, 


decern, 


tai/tun, 


in 


jnd, 


yvwp.1, 


gnosco, 


kan, 


chan 


juti, 


76l'OC, 


nut, 


kuni, 


chuni 


janu, 


fwv, 


genu, 


kniu, 


chniu 


mahat, 


/.ieya.\o<?, 


magnus, 


?nikils, 


in ih il 


ha'nsa, 


*'/«', 


'am 


gans, 


kans 


//gas, 


X 6 ^ 


7nri, 


gi.< 


ir 


Uh, 


\c«x«, 


I'll; 


hi'' 


Uk6m 



Chap. 5.] 



THE GREEK ALPHABET. 



187 



The following comparison shows that the Lithuanian ranks with the 
first three languages in the interchange of mutes. 



Lithuanian. 
ratas "a wheel/' 
busu "I shall be," 
has "who," 
dumi "I give," 
pats "a husband or master/ 
penki, "five/' 
trys, "three," 
keturi "four," 
keticirtas, " the fourth/' 
szaka "a branch/' 



Sanscrit. 

rathas " a chariot 

bhavishydmi 

has 

daddmi 

patis 

panchan 



chatvdras 

chaturthas 

cdkhd 



In most cases the Zend also agrees with the Sanscrit as opposed to 
the Gothic. 

Zend. Sanscrit. 

turn, tvam, 

chathwdrd, chatvdras, 

pancha, panchan, 

pergno, purn'a, 

paitis, patis, 

pacus, pacu, 

pddha, pddas, 

pere$aiti, prachch'hdti, 

ko, has, 

dashina, dakshina, 

The Zend has no bh, and therefore agrees with the Gothic in the 
use of the medial for the aspirate. 

baraiti, bibharti, 

brdtarZm, bhrdtaram, 

uba, ubhdu, 

obi, aiwi, abh'i, 

maidhya, madhya, 

bandh, bandh, 

There are other cases in which the Zend corresponds to the Gothic 
rather than to the Sanscrit : thus we 1 have : 

Zend. Gothic. Sanscrit. 

thri, tri 

thus, tre 

fra, pra 

frijo, pri'ndmi 



Gothic. 

thu 
Jidvor 
fimf 
fulls 
faths 
faihu 
fotus 
fraihith 
hvas 
taihsvo 



bairith 

brothar 

bai 

bi 

midja 

bindan 



thri, 
thwdi, 
fra, 

dfrindmi, 
dfs } 



ah vt 



ap 



188 THE THEORY OF [Book I. 

120 We have before pointed out that, in the use of the soft aspi- 
rate for s, the Zend corresponds with the Greek as contrasted with the 
Sanscrit and Latin. We now proceed to show that the Greek lan- 
guage, too, in addition to these agreements with the younger class of 
languages, also presents a peculiarity, in the use of the mutes, which 
belongs to the third rather than the first class of languages, according to 
this arrangement. This peculiarity consists in employing an aspirate 
of the labial or dental order instead of the corresponding medial or 
tenuis which appears in the Latin, Sanscrit, and Sclavonian. In some 
of these cases the Sanscrit and Greek stand together against Zend and 
Latin, so that we must suppose that the effect of time in softening and 
aspirating has been more felt upon the pliant frames of the former than 
upon the tough antiquity of the two latter languages. The Sanscrit, in 
particular, presents many instances of softening and aspiration which 
are not found in any of the other more ancient languages of this family, 
as in the substitution of ch and f for A-, of j for g, &c. The fohV 
instances among others will show that the Greek sometime? furfti: 
claim to a place among the oldest language? : the Latin or Sclavonian b 
is represented by /, as in Old High German, in optyavos, Latin or 
d\(p6<;, Latin alius; on<pa\o<;, Latin wmbUicu*, Let: > ; dfupti, 

d/j.(pi, Latin ambo, ambiwi / D I . < lothic fat; in I two 

cases the Sanscrit nal/iis, ulhdu agree with the Greek : the form d^\ 
is still found in remains of iEolic dialect : /' is represented by / as iu 
Gothic, in n€<pa\tj, Sanscrit kapdla, Latin at/Ml ; in <ro<po<;, Latin 
tapimt; ft often becomes </>, an«l /, in Greek itself, as Kopvtytj, 

Kopvuftos; <TTpc(pu), o-TpeftXos, &c. ; the </ of the old la: 
presented by &, in duyd-rrip compared with B S lavonian 

dotshcr, Lithuanian duktcr ; in 94pa, Sanscrit dear, Sclavonian 
and so forth. Mr Winning would infer from the appearance of \ 
and x> f° r M, d/i, and yh or //, in Sanscrit, that the Greek lan_ 
actually presents an aspirate instead of a medial in these cases (Mm 
p. 42), and fancies that he has discovered in this a very curious inter- 
change between Greek and Gothic, as in the following table (p. 111). 

Older Greek. Proper Gothic. More recent Greek. Older Gothic. 



i/cwo, 


Mf6, 


1 ~»/0, 




?6£«K, 


tai/isro, 


6vpa y 


diur 


7ro'£ec, 


fotut, 






uyoo<r, 


atr$, 


V€(fn 


mil 


701/1/, 


kmm, 




:> 


jue-yaXo?, 


mikUs, 







But it must be remarked that in every instance which he lias 
adduced as an exception, the consonant objected to is an aspirate, and 
that the Greek aspirates are only of the tenuis order, while those in 



Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 189 

general use in Sanscrit are only of the medial order, and that, therefore, 
no argument can be drawn from this discrepancy, which, indeed, admits 
of an explanation derivable from the vacillations and incompleteness of 
the aspirates (above, p. 177). 

121 Grimm's law applies only to the interchange of mutes considered 
according to their distinction as tenues, aspirates and medials : when we 
find an interchange of mutes with others belonging to different organs, 
as labials with dentals or gutturals, we must not call this an exception 
to the law, as Grimm does (p. 589), for it belongs to a different princi- 
ple. When p is changed to t we must consider it as having arisen from 
a false articulation, which has formed a dental out of the sibilant origi- 
nally attached to the labial in the particular case. Thus from the root 
Fa or crira are formed, both re and ttov. Similarly when p becomes k 
there has been an union of guttural and labial in the original sound, as 
in 7ro?o?, ko?ck ; compare the Latin quis. When I becomes d, or d becomes 
g, the original sound must have originally consisted of both consonants ; 
thus bis and £ v i%spring from £R^ like helium from dvellum, and yfj and 
B»7 from jltj, like 717*1/0? for iyhvpevos. This principle extends to com- 
binations of mutes and liquids as well as to combinations of mutes with 
mutes ; thus KeXaivos and fxeXau spring from K^eAai/, as appears from to. 
KfxeXeQpa quoted from the glossary of Pamphilus, by Herodian, and 
from him by the author of the Etymologicum Magnum (see Buttmann, 
Lexilog. II. p. 265). The interchange of aspirates of different organs 
we have before explained (above, p. 163). 

122 We conclude this Chapter with a table of the consonants 
which correspond in related words of the Sanscrit, Greek, and Latin 
languages. If the reader desires to see this table immediately con- 
firmed by examples he may consult Pott's Etymologische Forschungen, 
I. p. 84 and following. 

Sanscrit. Greek. Latin. 

k k, it c (qv). 

ksh f, cr, k, up (77-) x (c-s) c, s, cr. 

kh x q v > g v - 

g 7, £ g>b. 

S h ; X g v - 

n (like the final n in French) 7 (nasal) n(adulterinum). 

'ch 7r, r c (qv). 

ch'h o"x, <tk sc, c. 

J C g- 

jh no example. 

n (palatal) n (guttural) some nasal. 



190 THEORY OF THE GREEK ALPHABET. [Book I. 

The cerebrals have few if any representatives among the Greek and 
Latin letters. 

Sanscrit. Greek. Latin. 

t T, <7 t, S. 

th T t. 

^ M d,e. 

3 dh 0,<r f,d. 

U ", \ p n,^l. 

p »j p. i (qv). 

ph no example. 

b (3, 7T b. 

bh <p(/3) f,b. 

m fx (J3 bef. liquids) .... m. 

4 fy (palatal) £ i, <r, 0, aspirate... j, L 

| Jr (lingual) p , \ r, I. 

| 11 (dental) \ 1. 

^ [v (labial) F, u, c, fi,<p, aspirate v. 

9 (s palatal) k, a, aspirate c (qv) s. 

sh (lingual) <r, aspirate 

,a s (s dental) o-, aspirate s. 

h (guttural) x> ** K n > g> c - 



APPENDIX 

To Book I. Chap. V. § 110. 



Extract from Bentley's MS. on the Digamma. 

Bentley first quotes the following authorities. Dionys. Halle. I. 20. 
Servius ad JEneados vi. 359. Julianus Orat. xi. p. 71 ; and the follow- 
ing passages from " Grammatics Latinoe auctores antiqui ; edidit Put- 
schius." Diomed. Gramm. p. 416. Priscian pp. 546, 7. (where, on 
the words — inveniuntur etiam pro vocali correpta hoc digamma Mi usi, 
ut Alcman : kcu %et)ua irvp re Ba'F'oV. — F digamma Molis est, quando 
in metris pro nihilo accipiebant, at clppes B' Feipdvav to Be rap dero 
(xiaa-a XiyeTa 2 . — Sciendum tamen quod hoc ipsum JEoles quidem ubique 
loco aspirationis ponebant, effugientes spiritus asperitatem 3 . Hiatus 
quoque causa solebant Mi inter ponere F digamma, quod ostendunt etiam 
poetce JEolidce ; ilti Alcman: kcu %e?/xa irvp tc hdpiov' et epigrammata 
quce egomet legi in tripode vetustissimo Apollinis, qui stat in Xerolo- 
pho Byzantii, sic scripta: AEMOIIHOFON 4 , AAFOKOFON. JSTos 
quoque hiatus causa interponimus U loco (tov) digamma F, ut DaJJus, 
ArgJJi, PaUo, OJJum, OJJis, Bo\Jis b — he remarks (l) Si locus sanus 
est, errat Priscianus: nam in iambico dimetro, cujus hove forma est: 

ip<o T€ drjTd kovk ep<o 

kcu pa.lvop.ai kov paivopai — 
Phaselus ille quern vides — 

hcifiuv facit longam primam syllabam. Sed swpe apud Homerum cor* 
repta syllaba est, ut 'OF<W, "ORa?, &c. (2) Non pro nihilo hie F 
accipitur, sed pronunciatur Ipeipdvav, ut nos possumus dwiranan. (3) 
Non ubique et in omnibus JEoli inserebant F, sed in certis tantum ver- 
bis, ut ex Homero constabit. Et sic Dionysius supra, 7ro\\d non 
irdvra ; et Sergius infra, " in quibusdum dictionibus : " et Terentianus 
Maurus, u no?ninum multa." (4) Sic Codex MS. Cantabrigian, non 
At]po(p6(av, unde constat tripodem Mum vetustiorem esse Uteris Simoni* 
deis, n, <p, fyc, ut Homerus quoque scribebat MENIN AEIAE THEA 
nEAEIAAEO AKHIAE02. (5) Constat ex hoc loco Moles scrip- 
sisse, AaFo?, , Apye7poi, raFaj?, wpov, opts, /3oFo?). — Valerius pro- 
bus p. 1507. Sergius Grammat. p. 1827 (where, on the words — JEo- 
lenses enim Grcvci quibusdam dictionibus, ut pinguescant, istam digam- 
mon apponunt, ut pro Elena dicunt Uelena. Sed Donatus hie argui- 



192 APPENDIX TO §110. [Book I. 

lur, quod apud Grcecos digammos hanc legem habeat, ut u detracta, nihil 
absit nomini. — Bentley remarks — nihil abest nomini in ceteris dialectic 
Grcecorum, at apud ^Eolenses deperit totum : nam illi pro FoTvos nun- 
quam dicebant olvos, non magis quam Latini pro vinum, inum, ant pro- 
vulgus, ulgus). Velius Longus p. 2217: Qui igitur illam literam 
(H) vindicant, ostendunt ejus eandem vim esse quae consonantis est; 
nam et in metro asserit sibi hanc potestatem. Unde et apud Homerum 
non videntur esse vitiosi versus, qui hoc aspiratione suypAentur : 17 
vKiyov 01 Trcuca 6oik6t<x yeivaro Tvcevs. Et hoc amplius adeo litera 
est, ut possit videri etiam vicem duarum consonantium implere, ut 
cJo eltrmp rofoi/ fxeu aVo eo Orjxe -^afxa^e. Et tale guidem exemplum 
apud nos non animadverti. (On which Bentley observes — Velius ille 
Mcfallitur, qui id ascribit asj/init'toiti H quod debet ur tw F; o\iyov 
Hoi pro oXlyov Fo*, et diro Heo pro diro feo. Sic dedit Home- 
rus : i\ oXiyov Foi irate a FcoiKora yeivaTo Tvcevs. et cos peiircov to£ov 
fxev diro peo 6ijK€ p/jiafe). Idem pp. 2222, 2235. Sen mm. 

p. 2254. Aniuvus Cornutus p. 2282. Cassiodorus p. 2292. T 
tianus Mourns pp. 2387, 2397- Marius Victorinus pp. 246l, I 
He then proceeds: Claudhu \ Y nsonanti scribi jussit F 

JEolicum, sed invet confunderetur cum F, quod alium tunc 

sonum habuit. Qualia rh-untur in hu ipud 

Grutcrum. SuMoniUt in Clattdio C. 41. Tacitus Annul, xi. 14. Aldus 
Gellius xiv 5. (xvi. 17) Donatus ad Andr. Terent. 1. 2. Although 
Bentley was well aware that F has occasionally the power of a double 
consonant in Homer, it never seems to have struck him that the origi- 
nal sound might have been made up of a guttural and a labial, and 
therefore he presumes that Ilesyehius must be wrong when he writes 
a number of digammatcd words with a guttural. Hesuchius sane, he 
says, ridiculus est qui pluribus rerbis rfff/i F digamma simjdi- 

ccm y posuit. His notion was, that the digamma was nothing more nor 
less than our ic, as appears from the following note in this MB: D 
Latinorum olim pronuntiabatur ut W /iodic. U consonantem mmd tm 
rim et sonuin habuisse quam F ^Eulicum omnes testantur. Dionysius 
OCeXla, FeX'ta, Uclia, ct Julianus OV. - p. 1027. OKTA- 

OYIOS, Octarius, SEOYAPOZ. § r, OYEIBIOX, r,',W, OYI- 
BIANOZ, Vibianu,\ OYAAEPIOS, Valerius, OYENEPIA, Fmmo, 
ct in historic/.* Gracis noniina infinita. Idem ostendunt nomina guar 
'nos, hoc est, Genua ni retcrcs, M Latin is sutnpsimus. Uinum, hoc est 
Winum, "wine;" Vallum. Wallum, "a wall;" Colo, icolo, 4 *I will;" 
Vcntus, icenfus, "wind;" Vc f 'm, Wcctis. "weight;" Velius, tcellus, 
"wool;" Vidua, Widua, "Widow." 

Tlie greater part of this MS. is tilled with a number of lines from 



Chap. 5.] APPENDIX TO § 110. 193 

Homer, in which digammated words appear. We quote those in 
which he has introduced any emendations. 

Ava£, dvdcro-a), &c. 

IUad VII. 162. WpTO TToXv 7TpU}TO<5 fJL€V dva£, UgO TTpWTOS J€ 

Fdva£, vel TrpitiTHTTa. 
IX. 73. iroXeeai 3' aVacrcret?, lego iroXecrtv Be F<xva<r<rei<;. 
X. 33. 'Apye'icov ijvao-<re, lego epdvaaae. 
XX. 67. evavra Iloo-eiSdoovos ai/aKTo?, forte aVatrTas. 
XXIV. 449. Tijv Muo/ju'Boi/e? Troirjaav ai/a/cra, lego ce'Kpavro 
FdvanTa. Cf. 452. 
Od. xiv. 438. Kvlaive 3e dv/xov ai/aKTo«? — versus spurius (Por- 
SOn suggests dvfxov 3' eixpprjve FaVaKTo?). 
'Avhdvei. 

Iliad VII. 45. ftovXrjv rj pa 6eo?<riv etyrivlave, lego 0eo?e eViFai/- 

3ai/e. 
Oe?. xvi. 387. e* 3' J/Ae« 6'3e pLvdos dfyavldvei. (This seems to 
have puzzled Bentley : we read dpavcdvei with 
Passow.) 
"A<7Ti/ ; mcfe F«0"tJz/oo9, Fao-rJaAo?, Fao-TuFcu'a^j f^a<7Tv(3ocori'}^. 

Iliad III. 140. di/lpds t€ nrpon-epoio kcci aa-Teo<?, fe/0 •nporepov 
K.a.1 FacrTeo9. 
XI. 732. d/jLCplarauTO 3>; aVr^, ^0 to FoVtv. 
XVII. 274. vvKra fxev elv dyoprj adevos e^ofxev, acrrv ce 

TTVpyOl, legO €^€T€ y Fd(TTV. 

E"3w, «?i^o. 

7/«<26? XXII. 450. 3ei/Te, 3ua) /mot eVecrfloi/, 73w//, Z^O eVea-fle, F*'3w//. 
0G?. VI. 160. ou ya'^j 7rw TOiovTou 'Icov, lego ToiovSe plhou. 
IX. 182. ei/0a3' eV ea^aTirj <nreo<i e'lSofxev, lego evpofiev. 
Qucere de iailwv, &c. 

ElCTKO). 

Iliad xxi. 332. P&XV v'^ko^v eivai, lego e^-eiaKOfxev. 

379- ov yap eoiKevy lego ovle peoiKev ut V. 435. 
Od. IV. 247. <p(*)Ti KaTaKpviTToov rj'i(TK6 f lego ipe'icwe. 

IX. 321. to p.ev ajjLfj.es e'io-KOfxev elcropooivres — a/x/xe semper 
casus est accusativi (why not eF-ic-KOfxevI). 
XIX. 283. T076 Kepliov e'laaTO dvp-cp (read roye FetVaro 
nepc^iov elvai). 
Inde mendosum est 3' #Wo ^woJ quater venit pro 3e feUTo. 
"Ekcktto?. 

./Zitfe? XIV. 151. fxeya o-devos ejxftaX' eicdaTop, lego tapcre FendaTU). 
Od. IX. 46*8. dvd 3' o(ppvat vevov ind<rTip 9 lego vevcra. 



191 APPENDIX TO §110. [Book I. 

XV. 377- (pdo-dai kcu cKao-TCt Trvdecrdai, lego diravTCt. 
XVII. 70. to\ o' e^epeetvov enao-ra, lego aVai/ra. 
Cf. Od. XI. 228. oVw? epeoifM endcrTriv et mox 233, eyto c' epeeivo 
aTraaas, ubi Eustatkius tcci/toi/, cos kgu aAAa^ou, 
to eKatrTrjv xai to? airatra?. 
Iliad XIX. 302. IlaT0OKAoi/ -jrpdcpcHTiu, <r(piov o' aurtoi/ Kf/'ce' B»* 
o-t^, fo/0 uTraa-ai. 
332. cel£eia<; enacTa, lego airavTa. 
Od. VIII. 15. dvpiov tKclaTOv, lego dirdvTwi'. 
IX. J 27- Te\eoi€iv CKCta-Tci, lego airavTa. 
Lkcis. 

Od. VII. 321. fxd\a ttoXAov enao-TeptiJ eVr' EJ/?o/r/? (read 7ro.\\ci 

p€KU<TT6pU)). 

'Ek»//3o\o<?. 

Iliad I. 21. d^daevoi Aio? wo* 'Ek t']j3o\ov 'A TroAAwwi, &V70 i^u 
FanipoAiMr* 
18. (k c' LKa~oii/3tii> fiiiaav t \tt6Wwvi, 

fitjve. 
E\ i <r<rti), &C. £*Aci*. eiAuo). 

Iliad XVIII. 522. €vff apa ro'iy T^uvt cZtafptMX, /ft/O *^oi/ FciAqpCMM. 
XXIII. 320. cKppdcetos nri 7ro,\,\di/ eXiaatTCii, a Fc- 

AiVcrcTaj. 
"E\7ro/uai. 

0(/. II. f)l. varrac fic'v ^' eXwei, fojro ^tY FcAn-fi. 

IX. 119. ouTtu ya'^j wov p r;\T6T «Vi <pp€<r\ vr\iriov tlvai, 
I, go wcm Ft v-n-fT*. 
"Eirot, e'tTTU), Sec. 

Od. I. 10. tfvyaTf/) Aid? etaf kcu tjuTv. (The IfSS. 11 it _ 

Bentley often no emendation, but refers to his note 
on the passage, which we cannot find). 
91. p.vt]<TTt]pe<r<riv direiirefxev, lego ^vtjo-Ttjpeaa dnroFeitre^ev. 
II. 269. 1 kcu piv (piovtjaav e7rea, lego ut sapius <ptavrj<ra<ra f-eirea 
vii. 216. * /-< r crasin. 
II. 331. avT € V nr€<TK€, lego av FfjVecrKf. 

III. Bd4. ('tXyeo-K' eireeaa-. \yeanc FeVfo-o-jf. 

7. pcfftr avTov a'oUff? cTiraTe 2' eurw, /.-/<./ aoAActt F*<VaTf. 

IV. ()37. ciVTina 8' //•/ eVee<r(T. F ~ - 

159« to irptarov eVeo-poAi'as dvcMpaiveiv, lego to irpmTa F - 

7T€(rf3o\ta<; >>' 
6$ 2. t) eiire/MCrai ^caj/cru', /<v/(? 17 pen 
VII. 275. a>£ et7r»/<r<, Av/o «? Ft<V»/<ri. 
vin. 27. Dele r\ 91. /,y»c> TepirovTo Fe->re<r<rtv. 



Chap. 5.] APPENDIX TO § 110. 195 

IX. 224. lego X'i<t<jovto FeVeo-crt, 258, 363. lego m FeTreeaaiv. 

IX. 279* dXXa fxoi e"«fi oirt] eo-;^e<?, lego a A A' dye Fe«$\ 

XI. 296. decrcpara ttolvt elirovra, lego poi Fe'nrovra. 

560. aAA' dye Sevpo dva£ 7v eVoe kcu fivdov a'/cowo"*;?, lego "va 
ttov Kai — . 

Iliad vii. 349. o(pp' cTttw, lego o»s FetVa). 

IX. 6l. e^eivte, lego enFe'iira). 

376. ^0 e^airdcpoi Fe7reWa-r FaAts Be' Fof a\Aa FeKf/Xo^. 

X. 425. evlovcr rj dirdvevQe; hlenre /jioi, lego BiaFeiVe/xei/. 

XI. 790. ^0 ^a FeiVow. 

XV. 398. oXoipvpofxevo^ B' eVo? t/u^a, /^ro Be wpoo-rjvla. 

I. 555. Betdoi/ca Kara (ppeva fxt] ere irapeiirt^ lego puy irajoFe/Vjj. 
XIX. 35. Z^0 /u^i/ii/ d.7roFe'nra)v 'Ayctfiefxvovi. 
"Epyov*. 

Iliad XIX. 245. yui/aucos afxv/jiouos epy eltsvia*;, lego dfxv/jiova Fepya 
Fi3wi'a?. 
Od. XIV. 344. ei)Be<eAou e/oya, lego euBe/eAa Fepya, 

XI. 473. erz /xe?^t»i/ ei/t (ppe<r\ fxrja-eac 'epyou, lego /JLqa-ao pepyov. 
XVII. 313. vfxev %e/jLa<; t/Be /cat e'|0ya, ^0 i/Se' re Fepya vel Tt. 
XXII. 422. *ra<? \xLv t epya hild£ap.ei> epydQo-dat, lego ixlv 
Fepya Zihd^ao Fepyd^eadai. 
'E^u'w. 

Od. X. 402. 422. vfja /jlcv dp TrdfXTrpwTOv epucrcraTe, lego ird/XTrpiara 
Fepvacrare. 
XVI. 348. aAA' dye vtja fxeXatvav epva-crafxev rjn^ dpia-Tij 
(perhaps we may read aAA' dye B»; na\ vija 
Fepvo-o-afxev ; at any rate the epithet fxeXawau 
seems unnecessary). 
'Jtt^w, la^tjf &c. 

06?. II. 428. fxiyaX* "o.ye, lego \xeya Fia^e. 

IV. 458. lipew B' alyj/ labour e? (omit al\Js\ and read Be Fid- 

^oi/re?). 
IX. 395. <tjj.€ pSaXeov Be p.ey wfxea^ev irep\ B' i«^e ireTpri (read 
<TfA€p$dXeov B' u)jjlw^€, irep\ B' eVtFf'a^e TreTpr]). 
Iliad XIII. 835. 'ApyeToi B' erepiadev eiria-^ov, forte e'F'a^ot/ #<?/ 
-pud' eiriF'ia-^ov. 
'Icro?. 

TZwK? XXIII. 736. ae'0A.ca B' 7cr' aVeAoi/T€9, %0 ae0Aa Be Fro-'. 



* We may add Iliad vi. 289 ; where we should read ej/0' eo-av ol iriirXoi, TrafiiroiKiXa 
}epya yvvaiicwv, the old reading irafnroiKiXoi being objectionable on syntactical grounds 
also. 

02 



196 APPENDIX TO § 110. [Book I. 

Olha. 

Od. I. 428. Kecv elcvla, lego Kedva FiCvTa. 

II. 111. VTTOKp'lVOVTCtl, 'iVCt CiC^?, legO -IOI/0' WO. p€lCt]<!. 

IV. 534. ovk elco'T , lego ov FciIot. 

XI. 432. Xvyp' clcvTa, lego Xvypd ficvTa. 

XV. 417. xa\ dyXaa epy elcvTa, lego dyXaa Fepya fricvTa. 

O Ik o9. 

Od. XIII. 42. dpvpova c' o'ikoi okoitiv — an evcov ? 

XIV. 318.) . . * ., . 

> »/Y6i/ e? otxoi/, leqo co/xovce. 
XVII. 84.) ' J 

XIII. 121. u)7raaav oucac Voi/t/, lego Fo'ikuC biraaaav tovri. 

J Had I. 19. €v c' oikoo' /Keo-^ai, lego ev o' "Ap7o? i'lv-eo-flai. And 

in a note on this passage lie says — Homer a 1 

<?s£ Fo?ko<?, FoiKace. Ergo hie scr'd» itd>n/i ev c' 

FoiKccc, DWOIKAA* Ml 4«£fta DWELL. PrU- 

Ctantu: est qnando in < nihilo accipiebant, 

lit "Appes 8' Feipdvav. 

Olvos. 

Iliad VII. 467. irapiaraaav olvov uyowrts, lego irdpeaaav FoTvov. 

IX. 224. TrXt]<rdpevo<; 3' otvoio dtVac, /<v/o 7rA»;<ra/wei/o? Ft»/- 

voio rcl 7r\tjaa<; ce Fo'ivoto. 

Od. XX. 255. etavo^dei Be MeXavfaw, Ayo e'Fo^o^o'ft. 

He also quotes the following exceptions, without proposing any 
emendations : Iliad xvn. 545. Od. 11. 46. McAiFff&eot foivov. Od. xi. 
6l. ddecfipaTO'; FoiVoc. 

O/, *i7>i, e, se, eo, sui. 

Iliad V. 338. ov 01 -^dpire<: Kapov ai/rat. )' mil spurius. 
VI. 90. 7r€7r\oi/ o? 01 Soxcei, /<>70 o Foi. 
101. i*a'iv€Tai ovce T« M, /<yo ovtis Foi. 
"Os, fMMf, fo ^j & c - 

Iliad xui. 56l. A«riaBif» o? 01 out». Fo*. 

Xiv. 407* otti 3»; cm, /r</o>, Mi 1CSS. otti pa Foi. 
XIX. 384. iretptjdti O eo av-rov (read ce Fe" civtov). 
The following passages are quoted without emendation: Bm 
282. d^os ol ^u'to (read a\\v^ x iTO )- JEDY. 73. »/ yap Fo«. ( /. ix. 
360. avrdp Foi avro<; eyw. 

Iliad VI. 474. avTap oy ov (piXov vlov, lego uvrdp o Foi\ 

XII. 162. tMtt/fcv re kcii co Trerr "ategew koi 

60) 7T€7t\. /u. 

xi. 330. oi)de v govs 7ra?ca? eao-Ke, lego ovce Foik (or rather 

<r</)ouc). 



Chap. 5.] APPENDIX TO § 110. 197 

Iliad XVII. 90, XVIII. 5, XX. 343. eWe 7rpo? ov /neyaXtjropa 0i///oY, 

lego e(pt] 7rpo<? pdv (or rather o-(p6v). 
Od. IV. 4. dvyarpos dfxv/jLOvos <a ev\ oiKta lego d/jLv/jiova. pep ad yafxov. 
T2<?, tamquam. 

Uiad III. I96. clvtos Ze, ktiAo? cos, Z&70 \|/-i\o<? ecoY eTrnrooXe'irat, and 
in note on the passage he says — Quot sunt in hoc 
versiculo peccata, licet ita citatus a retere Scholiaste 
Nicandri, et Timone de Cleanthe apud Diogenem 
Laertium in Cleanth. tU V ovros, ktz'Ao? &><?, eVi- 
7r<uAe?Tcu a-ri^as dvlpwv. Primum ex JEolismo : 
oportet enim, — ut semper <o? " sicut" " tamquam" 
— kt/Ao? Fw«? esse, metro repugnante. Quale vero 
illud " obit ordines virorum tamquam Aries" ? 
Nondum vidi Arietem virorum ordines moderan- 
tem. Qua? vero r a v r o X o y i a ! " Obit , tamquam 
Aries; et comparo eum Arieti." Ex ipsa sen- 
tentia locum restituo. Versu priore dixerat, 
"Arma ejus liumi posita stmt:" quorsum hoc, 
nisi ut inferret inermem eum obire ordines mili- 
tum. Lego igitur 
avTap \^-i\o5 euju €7wra>X€?Ta.i (TT^ya? dvhpuiv. 
Sic hj 230, simili orationis Jilo : 

'nnrovs p.ev yap eacre teat ap/maTO. iroiKiXa ■yaXKw — 
avrap o 7re£os e<av eirnnaXeiTo <jTiya<z dvdpwu. 
et £ 214: 

eyy^x? fxev KaTeirrj^ev eVt ydovi TrovXyftore'ipri, 
avTap o fxeiXi^ioicri irpo<rr]v6a iroifxeva Xawv. 
Ceterum nihil refert quod est avTap \//<A<k non 6 \jsiXos, ob asperita- 
tem duplicis literal. Sic enim supra 7, 18, avrdp 6 lovpe Ivw : meliores 
€xh6<rei<; habuerunt sine articulo avrdp %ovpe. 

It is hoped that these extracts will gratify any curiosity which 
may still be entertained with regard to the manner in which Bentley 
proposed to restore the digamma to the text of Homer. 



CHAPTER VI. 
THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

123 Different arrangements of the parts of speech. 124 Their syntactical division 
derived from the Dialectic of Plato. 125 Aristotle's Categories considered with 
this reference. 12G Home Tooke's fallacious use of the syntactical parts of 
speech. 127 The empirical arrangement is mainly syntactical. 128 The real 
etymological distribution of words. 

123 ¥"T has been already mentioned more than once, that 
JL there are two divisions of philology, the etymological 
and the syntactical, and that it is of great importance to keep 
distinct these two departments. The distribution of words into 
the parts of speech, as they are called, has been a fruitful 
source of error to those philologers who have failed to observe 
that there are two distinct methods according to which this dis- 
tribution may be effected, the one syntactical, and the other 
etymological ; of which the former considers words only accord- 
ing to their distinction as parts of a logical proposition, while 
the latter analyzes the words themselves, and sets forth the 
primary elements from which the different kinds of words have 
sprung. There is a third method based on the former of the 
two which we have just mentioned; but as its object is merely 
to facilitate the acquirement of particular languages, and as it 
differs with those languages, it has never been thought worthy 
of discussion in formal treatises. 

We propose to examine the syntactical arrangement of the 
parts of speech, before we set forth that etymological distribu- 
tion, according to which the investigations in the following pages 
are carried on. 

124 The syntactical division of the parts of speech may be 
traced to the first beginnings of dialectic or logic, in other words, 
to Plato. The formation of a system of logic is, in fact, simply 
a discovery of the principles of syntax, or of the formation of 
sentences ; for, as far as the reasoning faculty is concerned, logic 
is nothing but the nomenclature and method of the process which 
every man carries on in his discourse. Logic is conversant with 
the truth or falsehood of propositions and not with single words 



Chap. 6.] THE PAKTS OF SPEECH. 199 

(Aristot. de Interpret. I. Cicero, Tuscul. Disput. I. 7. Aulus 
Gellius, XVI. 8). The first step, therefore, in logical analysis, 
is the division of a sentence or proposition into its fundamental 
parts. These fundamental parts we call the subject, copula, 
and predicate; in other words, the proposition must contain 
either a nominative case + verb-substantive + some predicate, or, 
a nominative case + (verb = verb-substantive + some predicate). 
Thus "I run" is equivalent to "I am running." The Greek, 
however, does not make much use of the copula, the article 
being considered sufficient to distinguish the subject from the 
predicate : thus 6 "nriros; XevKos is fully equivalent to 6 'iinros 
€<ttI Xevtcos. In by far the greater number of cases the Greek 
verb contains both copula and predicate. Accordingly, it was 
natural enough that, in analyzing the sentence into its primary 
elements, Plato would consider these as consisting simply of the 
noun (ovofia) and the verb (prjixa)*, for as Plutarch observes 
(Qucestiones Platonicce, p. Ill Wyttenb.): py/mctros 6v6/ulclti 
<jviU7r\eKO/ui€VGU, to yevofxevov evOvs makeicros ecrn Kai Xoyo$, 
and Apollonius Dyscolus says (de Syntaxi^ p. 19 Bekker) that 
the noun and verb are rd €ju\j/v^6raTa Lkeprj tov Xoyov. 
Plato brings forward this division most directly in his Sophistes 
(p. 26l E — 262 c) : ecrrt yap y]luv ttou tiov ty\ (pcovrj wept 
tjjv ovcriav orfXwfiaTwv olttov yevos — to fxev ovojuaTa, to 
06 prjfxaTa KXrjOev — to fiev €ir\ tous irpdl^ecriv ov drjXw/xa 
ptjiia 7rou Xeyo/iev — to Se y ctt av toTs e/celua irpctTTovcri 
crrjueiov Trj$ (pcovrjs eiriTedev ovo.ua. ovkovv e£ ovo/jlcltwv yueV 
kiovoov Gvveyjvs Xeyofieviov ovk ccttl iroTe Xoyos ovo av 
prjiiaToov X W P 1 ^ ovofxaTwv XeyQevTwv — ovoe/uiav yap — wpaj^iv 
ovo airpa^iav ovoe ovcriav ovto? ovoe lly) ovto<z orjXol tcl 
(pcovrjOevTa, irplv av t*9 toi$ ovo/uacri ra prj/uaTa Kepdar\' 
tot€ ce rjpixocre re kol Xoyos eyeveTo evOvs t] 7rpwTr] crvfx- 
7rXoKrj, a-^eoov twv Xoyoov 6 irpvoTos ei kol cr/uiKpoTaTos. It 
must be remarked on this passage, that Plato included in the 



* That the ancient Greeks did not make much distinction between 
ovofia and pfjpa, is clear from Thucydides, V. Ill, where we find the words 
used as synonymous in an emphatic passage: ovoparos eVaycoyoO dwdfxei — 
qo-o-rjOeto-i tov prjparos. We remark in passing that for rjv — eo-rai at the 
end of the chapter, we ought to read r\v — la-Tare The MSS. have i'o-re and 
lo-Tarac. Plato himself sometimes uses dvoLxara and prjp.ara as synonyms ; 
cf. Gorg. p. 489 B: 6vop,aTa Orjpeveov. p. 490: ov prjp.ara drjpeva. 



200 THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [Book I. 

word pfjfxa all that could be called a predicate, as distinguished 
from the subject, namely the verb and the adjective ; for he 
could not have overlooked the obvious fact, that in the Greek 
language a verb may alone constitute a whole sentence : thus, 
Tpe-%61 means " he is running." That this opposition is in- 
tended is clear from a passage in the Cratylus, in which he 
says (p. 399 b) that we change Au (piXos into AicpiXos, Iva 
avrl p^ptnro? bvo/±a rjfuv yevtjrai : for AicpiXos is properly a 
subject, and A a (piXos is calculated to be a predicate. Some 
logicians according to Plutarch (Qucvst. Platon. p. 108) substi- 
tuted KaTtiy6pr)w — " predicable " — for ptj/m f in this division of 
the Xoyos, or logical proposition, into its distinct parts. Did 
Plato make this division, he asks, on Trpio-ov Xoyov 01 iraXaioi, 
nrr\v totc KaXovfxevrjv irporaaiv, vvv ce trfgimma, Trpocrtjyopevov, 
b irpCdTov Xeyoures dXtjOevouaiv tj yj/eucovTUL ; tovto Ce ef 
ovo/uaTos Kctl ptj/jLUTos avveo-TtjKtv, WV TO flCV 7TTWatV Ol 
ciaXeKTiKOi, to ce KaTtjyoptjfia kciXolctiv. 

125 Aristotle, following in the steps of his master, adopted 
the same division of the parts of a sentence, lie says < 
pn tatione, C. 1 — .">) : 7rpwT0V Set QeaOai t[ ovoua nal t'i pyjua. 
eireiTa t'i ccttiv dir6(pa(Tis kcii KaTaipaait mi d—ocpavo'is kcu 
Xoyos — TO /uev ovv ovo/naTa uvtci W€U to. ptjuciTa coikc tio 
dvev avvOeaecog kciI ctaipeaea)s votjftaTi oiov to avGp ivttos tj 
to Xevicov. — ovo/ua fiev ovv cctI (pwvtj mjuavTiKj) kutci avv- 
6)'lK7]v dvev ypovov ifs fujcev fxepos ecrri cdjucivtikov Key^wpia- 
/nevov- — ptjua ce eo~Tt to irpoacnwuuvov y^fxtvov, ov fiepos 
ovSev oj/ualvei ytoptSj kcii cutiv ael tcov kuO eTepov Xeyo- 
/uevwv cDjfieiov — Xoyos ce cctti (piovi) crtjuavTiKt} koto. 
0/jK)jv ifs Twr /ueptvv ti (nj/uarruro* cj-ti Keytcpiafievov w? 
(pdcris, dXX' av% (oy Kara^aji? 7; airo(pacri<i — uri it vfe 
7T/0CUTO5 Xoyos d-Trofpai/TtKos /card^aai?, etra a—o(pa(TH' 01 M 
aXXai 7rai*T€s avvc^ecrfMo eh- Here again it is clear that Xoyos 
is the logical proposition, ovo/ua the subject, and ptj^a the 
predicate — M the sign of things predicated of another thing :" — 
and that the ptjjia includes adjectives as well as verbs, ipp 
as well from this place in which Xeunov is given as an instance 
of a p)j,ua, as from another passage in the same treatise (c 14): 
/ueTaTiOefxeva Ta ovoficiTa nai Ta ptjuaTa TavTOV atj'ui. 
olov e&Ti Xcvkos dvOpioTros, cotiv avPpwTro? \ I he 



Chap. 6.] THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 201 

prj/jLd is a predicate broken off from an actual sentence, and 
it is only in this opposition that it gets its distinctive name : 
otherwise it is merely an ovofxa as Aristotle says (de Interpret. 
C 3) : avra /xev ovv ko.0 eavTa Xeyofieva ra pYjfxara ovo/mara 
ecTTi. The philosopher has explained his meaning with regard 
to the predicate more fully in his treatise on the Categories : as 
this little work has never been properly understood*, it will be 
as well to point out its object. It commences by distinguishing 
homonyms, synonyms, and paronyms. Two things are syno- 
nymous when they agree not only in name but also in nature, 
as when we say that a man and a horse are both animals; 
but they are homonymous when they agree in name only, as 
one might say that a horse and the picture of a horse were 
both animals, and that the man who painted the latter was an 
animal-painter, although the real definition of the horse and 
its picture would not coincide. Words are paronymous when 
they differ only in inflexion : thus " courageous " is a paronym 
of " courage." Aristotle proceeds : " Some words are spoken 
in connexion (kcito. gv^ttXokyiv) ; others separately. Examples 
of the former case are — avOpwiros rpeyei, avOpivwo^ vlko. : of 
the latter, av9p(jo7ro$ 9 /3o?9, Tpeysi, viKa." After distinguish- 
ing between those things that are said of, and those things 
that exist in, a subject (to vwoKei/uLevov), and particularly assert- 
ing that individuals (ra arofxa) cannot be said of a subject, 
he (c. 4) enumerates ten classes of those words which are 
spoken separately ; they are thus described : twv Kara junce- 
ixiav rrv/JLTrXoKrjv Xeyo^evtov eKaarov \]toi ovaiav arjimaivei f) 

t *, \ A / A \ A ~ r\ A yl # 

7T0G0V Y] TTOLOV YJ TTpOS Tt YJ 7TOT€ Y] K€lGUai YJ €"^(EIV Y] 7TOL61V 
A / >/ ft \ » t \ « / » ~ 9 * ft 

Yj iraayeiv. eo~Ti oe ovcria /mev ws tv-wio enreiv oiov avupioTros, 

'iTTTCOS' 7T0CT0V 06 OlOV oiwYj^V, TpiTTrjyy' TTOLOV 06 0X0V XeUKOV, 

ypafifxariKov' irpos tl oe olov onrXacriov, yj/jligv, /uel^ov' irov $e 
olov ev AvKeiw, kv dyopa' wore $e olov e^Oes, irkpvcnv' KelaQai 
oe olov avaKeirai, KaOnrai* ey^eiv oe olov vTrooeSeTai, uhtXigtclC 

7TOL6LV 06 olov T6/JLV61, KCtiei' 7rCL0"^6I.V $6 olov T6fXV6TCLl, KO.I- 



* Since the above was first published the Categories have been fully 
discussed by Dr Adolph Trendelenburg, in his Geschichte der Kategorien- 
lehre, Berlin, 1846. pp. 384. His conclusions are not materially different 
from those given in the text, but he has gone into all the details of the 

subject. 



202 THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [Book I. 

erai. eKaarov oe rwv elprj.uevwu avro /m.ev kcl& clvto ev ovde/uia 
KarcKpaaei Xeyerai rj aTroCpdaei, Trj ce Trpos aWtjXa toutcov 
GVfXTvXoKri KaraCpaai'S rj cnrocpaui*; yiyiferai. Xow it is suffi- 
ciently obvious from these last words, that the ten sorts of 
words thus described do not mean predicates, but simply the 
different parts of a sentence, whether subject or predicate ; for it 
is by the joining of these with one another, that the sentence, 
whether affirmative or negative, is to be formed*, Aristotle 
institutes a more particular examination of the first four, which 
have descended to us from the scholastic philosophy under the 
names, substance (or quiddity), quantity, quality, and relation: 
the other six he has hardly illustrated at all. If we take a 
general view of these categories, according to the instances 
which Aristotle has given, we shall see that this is merely a 
grammatical or rather syntactical arrangement of certain parts 
of speech : the first category includes nouns substantive, the 
three next, different sorts of adjectives, the fifth and sixth, ad- 
verbs of place and time, and the last four, verbs, considered as 
active (9th), passive (10th), intransitive (7th), and in the perfect 
tense, or as representing the effect of something which has been 
done or has occurred (8th); the Greek perfect cannot be con- 
sidered as merely past time, and that is included in the fifth 
category. This is of course a very rude approximation to a 
scientific division, the number ten being in all probability bor- 
rowed from a similar classification among the Pythagoreans. The 
object of the philosopher in enumerating these classes is shown 
by his subsequent explanation : these ten sorts of words do not 
in themselves constitute cither an ovouu or prjfia as distinguished 
from one another, but only when they can be considered as 
general terms; for instance, it is only j nonym that sub- 



* Dr Trendelenburg u. b. p. 10, seems inclined to refer the first category 
or substance to the subject, the others to tin Ii appeari from 

the important passage from the AnaJut. Post. I. -2, p. S3, a, 1, which he 
quotes in p. 15, that the word Karqyopfiv did not in Aristotle's sense truly 
and properly apply to any predications except those contained in general, 
abstract, and distributable words. Thus it is a true Karqyopui 
£i\ov eari XevKov, but to \cvk6v ecrri £i\ov is either prjSapvs Kccnryopeur or 
Karr/yopelv pev pi) a~\(os, icara cn-pSeSrjKos Se Karrjyopeiv. But this does not 
prevent substance from being predieable in the abstract ; thus 6 SuKparrjs 
»)j> avOpanos is as good a proposition as 6 ai'ttpamos rjv axxpos. 



Chap. 6.] THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 203 

stance can become a predicate ; in other words, the irpwTai 
ovaiai or individuals cannot be predicated, but only the Sevrepai 
ovcriat, or genus and species ; thus, he says : to. eiori Kal rd 
yevt] fxova cr]\oi ty\v 7rpwTtjv ovcriav twv KaTrjyopov/JLevwv, and: 
virdp^ei tol<s ovcriais Kal tcu<$ cia(p opals to iravra avvwvufxw^ 
air aurwv XeyeaOai' izaaai yap at air avTwv Karriyopiai 
tjtoi KaTa twv ctTOjuwv KaTqyopovvTai r\ Kara twv eiowv. 
airo [jlcv yap Trjs trpooTTjs ovaias ovoefiia earl Karrjyopia' 
/car' ou$6vos yap V7tok€l/u6vov Xeyerai' twv ce cevTepwv 
ovaiwv to /UL6V etdos KaTa tov aTO/uov KaTrjyopeirat, to ce 
yevos Kal KaTa rod etSovs Kal KaTa. tov aro/ixov, and simi- 
larly of the differences (oia<popai) : waTe iravTa to. airo twv 
ovaiwv Kal to. airo twv ciacpopwv crvvwvvfiws XeyeTai (Categ. 5). 
Hence, KaTr/yopia is elsewhere used by Aristotle to signify genus, 
even as distinguished from species ; thus he says (de Partibus 
Animalium, I. c. 1. p. 639. L 29) : eTepa Se 'laws ecrrlv oh cri/w- 
fiaivei tyjv fiev KaTtjyopiav e\eiv ty\v avrrjv, cia(pepeiv ce 
ty\ KaT elcos cia(popa, olov rj twv Qpwv nropeia' ov yap 
<paiv€Tai fxla tw eloei' cia<pepei yap irTrjais Kal reverts Kal 
fiaSiois Kal ep\j/LS. And the categoremata or predicables, as 
supplementary to and descriptive of the categories or predica- 
ments, are the universals : opo<$ 9 yevo<$ 9 eidos, oiacpopd, 'loiov Kal 
GvufiefirjKos (Topica, I. c. 6). So then Aristotle's treatise on the 
categories is a first attempt to consider which of the words that 
appear in a simple sentence (Xoyos) may form the predicate or 
prj/ma of that sentence, and neither he nor Plato meant to say 
that ovofxa and pfjfia were parts of speech in the etymological 
sense, nor had they any other object than to lay the foundations 
of a system of logic, which of course depends on the syntax of 
individual propositions. We must, therefore, be careful to dis- 
tinguish from this logical division of the simple sentence, the 
distribution of words into the parts of speech, also commenced 
by Aristotle, and completed by the Stoics and later gramma- 
rians. This distinction is pointed out by Plato and Aristotle 
themselves in their discrimination of Xoyos and Xefts. The 
former is a logical sentence, the ovo/ua and prjua, — /cara aufx- 
7r\oKrjv\ the latter is the whole outward form of language, 
whether expressed by articulate sounds or in writing ; or, to 
use the words of Ammonius Hermias (on Aristotle de Interpret. 
p. 99 Brandis) : Xoyov /uev ovv TavTa (the parts of speech as 



204 THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [Book I. 

they are called) ov /uepr h Xe^ews $e iiept) fa kcli 6 Xo'709 
avros fjiepos. KaOdwep ev tcus irepl YloitjTiKtjs (c. 20) e'lprjrat. 
cia<pepei ce 6 Xo'709 tjJs Xe^ews on 6 (xev eari TrXqpoofia Trpor)- 
you/uevo)s tcov arjfxaivouawu to. wpay/mara (pawcov, i] ce rraowv 
cnrXws T(Lv TrapaXaiifiavofxevLov et9 rr)v ctaXeKTiKtjv- eyeis ce 

TOU XoyOV TY]V 7Tp6$ TY\V Xe^lV dLa^Opdv KCtl vtto TlXarwios 

ev Tto TpiTw Trj<$ HoXireia? irapacecoixev^v (p. 392 c) ev oh 
cj)rjo~i " to. lieu ct] Xoywv wepl eyera) re'Xo9, to ce Xefcojc, ok 
ey(pfjLCii, /mera tovto o-Keirreov, kui tjfiiv a re XeKreov kcu ws 
XeKreov iravreXuHs eo-Ke^erai." ci wv crjXos cgti Xoyov fiev 
tyjv Stdi'oiav maXwv, Xe^iv ce rt)v air ay yeX'iav. This also 
appears from the words of Plato (Politicus, p. 277 c): ypacpij? ce 
/cat j~uii.7rdcni<i yeipovpy'ias Xe^et Kal Xoyto CrjXovv izav Xjpov 
/xaXXov 7rpt7rei toi? cvvafxevois eireadai. In the passage of 
the Poetics, referred to by Ammonius, Aristotle, if he has not 
been interpolated here (see liittcr, p. 221 sqq.), divides Xe£i9 
into the following parts ; the letter (aroiyelov), the syllable 
(auXXaptj), the conjunction (o-Jrcecr/uo?), the noun (ovo/ua), the 
verb {pyfuia), the article (dpOpov), the inflexion (^two-is), and 
the sentence (X0709). From the explanations which follow, it 
appears that noun and verb arc here used in the modern signi- 
fication, that X0709 does not here mean a logical sentence only 
(ov yap anas X0709 e/c ptj/marwv auyKeiTai), but any set of 
words, a definition for instance (olov o rod avOpcoirov opiaiuos), 
and that izrwais docs not mean merely the case of a noun, 
but any inflexion of a noun or verb. For instance, the dis- 
tinctions of words noticed by Protagoras were only inflexions or 
TTTwaeis *. It is clear that the only parts of speech, according 
to the meaning which we attach to the term, here mentioned 
the philosopher, are the noun, article, conjunction, and verb: and 
Anaximenes (if Spengel has rightly attributed the treatise to 
him) specially mentions the three former in the so-called Jt 
toriea ad Ahwandrum (c. -25). Xow it is stated by Dionysius of 
Ilaliearnassus (Je Compositione J'trborum. 1 
Prastantia, p. 1101 Keiske) and Quintilian (I. 4. § 18), that 



* He is said to have been the first to distinguish the different moods 
of verbs (Aristot. Po*. c. 21. Quintil. III. 4. § 10. Pio-en. Laerr. IX 
Suidas, npeorayopas) and the genders (Aristot. R k$ t . 111. .". $ B '• for which 

last he is ridiculed by Aristophanes. Xub. 656 foil. 



Chap. 6.] THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 205 

Theodectes and Aristotle acknowledged only three parts of speech, 
the verb, the noun, and the conjunction; and that the article 
was subsequently added by the Stoics. It appears then that 
Quintilian, and Dionysius, whom he copies in this place, paid 
attention only to the passage of the de Interpretations quoted 
above, in which it is said that the logical sentence consists 
merely of ouo/xa and prjima, and that the different propositions 
are united by means of the conjunction (avvSecrinos), so that they 
also have taken merely the logical division. The separation of 
the article is also due entirely to its logical importance in the 
Greek language ; every Greek word, however general, may be 
rendered by the article so individual and definite, as to be 
adapted to form the subject of a proposition : in fact, the whole 
distinction between the subject and predicate in many cases is, 
that the former has, and the latter wants, the article. But, 
although Aristotle felt this importance of the article, he does not 
appear to have said any where that it was a part of the \0709, 
and therefore Dionysius and Quintilian are right in attributing 
its addition to the Stoics, if, as we suppose, they were speaking 
of the logical division. 

126 We have stated thus minutely the origin of the syn- 
tactical parts of speech, because it has not been pointed out 
before so far as we know, and in order that our readers may 
more easily detect the fallacy, by which Home Tooke has, per- 
haps designedly, built up his whole system of etymology on this 
syntactical distribution of language. The resolution of the sen- 
tence into subject and predicate, or, what generally comes to the 
same thing in Greek, into the noun and the verb, was undoubt- 
edly of great importance at the time when it was first effected : 
it was the beginning of a syntactical analysis of language, when 
etymology, or the doctrine of the matter and form of language, 
was not and could not be in existence. But to make this 
arrangement the basis of etymology, and to derive the elements 
of the word from the elements of the sentence, is a mode of 
proceeding which can only lead to error and confusion. What 
then shall we say of a modern philologer, who not only repro- 
duces this old logical division of the parts of speech, applying, 
however, to the words ovofxa and prjtxa the limited signification 
of noun and verb, which they had only as a part of Xe£ t? in 



206 THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [Book I. 

the method of Aristotle, but has even made this division the 
basis of a system of etymology, virtually supposing that language 
was formed according to that system of logic, which only the 
mighty genius of Plato and the unfailing subtlety of Aristotle 
succeeded in extracting from the clearest and most syntactical 
language ever spoken by man ? And this is just what Home 
Tooke has done. His system of ultra-nominalism rests upon the 
hypothesis, which his contemporaries incautiously allowed, that 
the two primary sorts of words, from which all others are de- 
rived, were the nouns and the verbs. " In English and in all 
languages," says he, (Vol. i. p. 45) " there are only two sorts 
of words which are necessary for the communication of our 
thoughts; and they are (1) Xoun and (2) Verb. In the strict 
sense of the term, no doubt both the necessary words and the 
abbreviations are all of them parts of speech ; because they are 
all useful in language, and each has a different manner of sig- 
nification. But I think it of great consequence both to knowledge 
and to languages, to keep the words employed for the dif- 
ferent purposes of speech as distinct as possible. And therefore 
I am inclined to allow that rank only to the necessary words: 
and to include all the others (which are not // to speech, 

but merely substitutes of the first sort) under the title of a? 
viatums." Proceeding from this assumption, he has not hesitated 
to derive all the indeclinable words, whether conjunctions, pre- 
positions, or adverbs, from nouns or verbs, and thus contrived to 
disguise the few remains of etymological structures in our Ian- 
guagc*. As the best answer to an erroneous system is a plain 
statement of the antagonistic truths, and as this is the final object 
of the present work in reference to the English representative of 
the Ileracleitean school, we will simply offer our shield to those 
who dread the power of the e7rea Trrepcevra^; and will here take 



* It is right to mention, that most writers on philology before com- 
parative grammar was brought to its present state of perfection fell into 
the same error of taking a logical view of etymology, but we select Home 
Tooke as an object of animadversion, because his book is designedly 
wrong, and actually pernicious. 

t There can be little doubt that in taking this title for his book. 
Home Tooke merely meant to imply that the wings of Mercury, or our 
haste in expressing our meaning, occasioned those abbreviations to which 
lie traces all the corruptions of language — consequently, by enca trr*. 



Chap. 6.] THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 207 

our leave of this celebrated piece of sophistry, with the remark 
that, although it contains some very happy explanations of English 
words, and some very ingenious argumentations, written in a 
lively and attractive style, it should never be opened by any one 
who has not sufficient philological knowledge to guard him from 
the errors into which it will inevitably lead the ignorant or 
unwary. 

127 The logical or syntactical distribution of words was, as 
we have already stated, made the basis of that division of the 
parts of speech which has been adopted for practical convenience 
in learning particular languages, according to which it varies. 
In the case of the Greek language the usual arrangement is as 
follows : 

«. (Substantive. 
' ^Adjective. 

2 Pronoun, including the Article. 

3 Verb, with which is connected, 

4 Participle. 
These are all capable of inflexion. 



he understands merely " hurried or hastily uttered words." It is, how- 
ever, worth while to remark that here, as elsewhere, he is in error ; for 
the metaphor in the epithet Trrepoevra is borrowed from the winged arrows, 
to which words are so often compared in ancient writers ; and, in spite of 
the joke, it may be truly said, that he has robbed the phrase of its point. 
See Pindar, O. IX. 11 : irrepoevra 6° Ui yXvKvv IIu#coi/a§' oiarop. (cf. Soph. 
Phil. 166: Trravois tots.) N. IX. 55: aKovrifav ctkotvov ay^ttrra Moiaav, and 
the note on O. VI. 82. In the application of the epithet * winged* to the 
arrow itself, there was a sort of metaphor or quasi-personification : see 
./Eschyl. Eumen. 181 : pf} /cat \a(Sovo-a tttt^vov dpyrjcrT^v o<fiw, ^pvcr^Xdrou 
Ocopiyyos igoppcopevov. And so lightning is not only the dart of Jove (/3eXos 
Kepavvov, 7rvp7ra\apov /3eXos), but is represented as furnished with eagle 
wings (see the coins from Elis, in Bronsted's Voyages dans la Grece, I. Livr. 
p. 112): and from this figure the spread eagle of modern heraldry is 
obviously derived. By a further personification, the Eagle itself, as Aios 
ayyeXos, is the bearer of the thunder-bolt ; and it is well known that the 
Semitic poets passed in a similar manner from the powers of nature to an 
army of MaVhdkim. This transition is shown even by the form of the 
word ; " neque enim ullum nomen, cui Mem praefixum est, vim personam 
innatam habet, sed per translationem abstracti in concretum mutuatur " 
(Fiirst, Concord, p. 581). 



208 THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [Book I. 

5 Adverb. 

6 Preposition. 

7 Conjunction. 

8 Interjection. 

These are not inflected, and are generally called particles. 

The old grammarians adopted this arrangement, with the 
exception, that they classed the interjection with the adverb and 
made the article a distinct part of speech (Dionys. Thr, Bekk. 
Anecd. p. 634). For the purpose of learning a language, the 
syntax of which is logical and for the most part well understood, 
this arrangement is highly convenient, and from its constant 
adoption the ear has become so familiar with it, that its nomencla- 
ture can hardly be banished even from etymology, with which it 
has no concern. We, therefore, retain the names of these eight 
parts of speech, though, to avoid confusion, we render them sub- 
ordinate to the real etymological division of words, which wc have 
already mentioned, and which we now more formally set forth. 

128 In the Indo-Germanic languages, all words may be 
comprised in two general classes; the pronouns, or those words 
which indicate apace or position ; and the words CONTAINING 
roots, which express the positional relations of general attril 
The former are words, declinable or indeclinable as the « 
be, without any admixture with the other element of I 
The latter require the addition of at least one pronominal suffix 
to make them words. It is for this reason that we term the 
pronouns or positional words, the organizing, constituent, or 
formative element of inflected language, and the roots the 
material element. By pronominal additions of a perfectly ana- 
logous nature, the same root becomes either a noun or a verb, 
that is, it expresses either a thing, or an acting, or result of act- 
ing. The only etymological difference between the noun and the 
verb is this — that the pronominal suffixes, which mark the in- 
flexions of the noun, are fixed or adverbial, while those which mark 
the persons of the verb are themselves capable of inflexion. When 
they lose this independent power of inflexion they become inter- 
mediate affixes, and the crude verb is then capable of receivi: 
set of case-inflexions, so that it becomes a noun. This sort oi noun 
is called & partieiple. We cannot, therefore, consider the noun and 
verb as, etymologically, different parts of speech, but, on account 



Chap. 6.] THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 209 

of their prominent importance in the syntactical scheme, we 
have in the following pages classed them under separate heads ; 
which arrangement is farther justified by the fact, that in the 
case of the verb the idea of space has developed itself into the 
idea of time. That the formative element of language is prior 
to the material, appears from what we have just mentioned, — 
that the pronoun is a word without extrinsic addition ; but the 
noun or verb are such only by the addition of pronominal ele- 
ments. It also appears from psychological considerations. Every 
thing is conceived as happening in space or time, the idea of 
space being however antecedent to, and the parent of, that of 
time. The first conception about any thing is that it has a 
position, that it is somewhere without us, and, as it is our con- 
ceptions that we express in words, the first words must be those 
which indicate position, that is, pronouns. The next conception 
with regard to the particular object, is of some particular quality 
with which sensation has invested it, and this quality of course 
gives it a name according to a sort of prima facie classification. 
But still it is somewhere, and therefore the pronoun is tacked on 
to the end of it, in order to constitute it a word : the same would 
be the case, though in a more obvious manner, when the thing 
conceived was not a quality but an action. 

That, in the Greek language in particular, all words may be 
resolved into and deduced from these elements, will be abun- 
dantly shown in the following pages. As we use the word pro- 
noun or pronominal in a sense somewhat wider than that which 
it generally bears, it will be as well to give comparative tables 
of the etymological and ordinary arrangements of the parts of 
speech. 

Etymological. Syntactical. 

[ Preposition, 
Formative element or Pronoun, < Conjunction, 

[ Numeral, ) 

m* -i i . fNounJttf?-' 

Material element com- I [ Substantive, 

bined with Pronoun, L , J Participle, 
{ Verb, | yerb< 

The interjection is either an unmeaning cry, a residuary 

P 



210 THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [Book I. 

pronoun, or the vocative case of a noun*: the adverbs are gene- 
rally pronominal words, but some of them are merely cases of 
nouns. The numerals are adjectives in syntax, though etymolo- 
gically pronouns. 



* A writer in the Proceedings of the Philological Society. III. No. 72, 
p. 211, says: "Interjections had originally a distinct meaning and distinct 
origin," and by way of proving this, he derives eja from audiiv! Of course, 
he never heard of the Greek eta, and he is prepared, we presume, to find 
a new parentage for ejulare. As the writer in question is the only person 
in this country, who is styled Professor of Comparative Grammar, he 
might perhaps have been expected to inform himself of the fact, that the 
change of and- into ed-, or rather ced-, could only occur in a compound, 
like ob-oedio; and even in this word the later writers seem to have pre- 
ferred ob- audio. Experience teaches us that those who have neither the 
industry to learn nor the sagacity to discover the truth, have often the 
courage to invent, and that there are no limits to the extravagance of 
perverted ingenuity. 



BOOK II. 



PRONOMINAL WORDS. 



P2 



THE 

NEW CRATYLUS 



BOOK II. 



PRONOMINAL WORDS. 



CHAPTER. I. 
THE PERSONAL AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 

129 Ultimate analysis of pronominal words discovered by Bopp. 130 Principles of 
arrangement and classification of the pronominal elements first suggested by the 
present Author. 131 General view of the pronominal combinations in the Greek 
Language. 132 Objective cases of the three personal pronouns. 133 Nominatives 
of the first and second pronouns. 134 Lengthened forms of the objective cases, 
supplied by Bentley's view of the Homeric possessive. 135 Demonstrative force 
of first and second personal pronouns. 136 Plural aud dual forms of the first and 
second pronouns. 137 The nominative, masculine and feminine, of the third per- 
sonal pronoun. 138 The combinations ai-To's and o5-tos. 139 The nomina- 
tive i and its affinities. 140 Demonstrative use of the Greek reflexive; 141 Its 
confusion of number and gender ; 142 Its vague application to different persons. 
143 Identity of cr<pe and e. 144 Doric inversions \]/e, ^/iv. 145 Indefinite, 
interrogative, and relative pronouns all referable to the second element : 14G 
Their forms in Latin ; 147 In Sanscrit. 148 Connexion of the relative and 
demonstrative in Greek. 149 Guttural origin of tis. 150 Demonstrative use of 
the guttural pronouns. 151 General conclusion respecting the pronouns. 152 
Pronominal adjectives. 

129 TN the Indo-Germanic languages, considered in their most 
I ancient form, we can always resolve the pronouns into 
the shortest possible words, monosyllables for instance, or even 
single vowels (in the latter case we have, of course, derivative 
forms, for, as we have shown before, no single vowel can exist in 
the first instance without at least an initial breathing) : in fact, 
the primitive pronouns must have been very simple words, for 
the first and easiest articulations would naturally be adopted to 



214 THE PERSONAL [Book II. 

express the primary intuition of space. These little vocables 
denote only the immediate relations of locality ; and to designate 
all the subordinate varieties of position and direction, it is the 
custom, especially in the Greek language, to join together the 
different pronouns, or different modifications of the same prono- 
minal stem, till at last we arrive at long words, like o<7-tis-c»/- 
7ro-T6, every syllable of which is a distinct pronoun. 

The first principles of this ultimate analysis of all pronominal 
words were discovered by that admirable philologer, Francis 
Bopp. In his essay iiber den Einfluss der Pronomina anf die 
Wortbildung, he remarks (p. 13): "from the dissection of the 
pronouns and the prepositions connected with them, we get the 
following monosyllabic stems, partly consisting of a mere vowel, 
which either occur in Sanscrit only, or are found in the con- 
nected European languages with more or less exact correspond- 
ence in form : a, i, If, i\ lea, Ici, Jbu ; na, ni, nu ; ma, mi (-yut)> 
mu; ya, yu; va, vi ; to The compound pronouns — 

meaning thereby not derivatives like td-vat ' so much,' but pri- 
mitives, which the grammarians consider as simple, but which 
we have endeavoured to reduce into their real elements — show 
as their first member, in Sanscrit, a stem consisting of a single 
vowel ; they are the following, a-va, i- 

i-da, c-t((, i-ka, 6-jAo." But, although this analysis was pointed 
out many years ago, and though the importance of these re- 
searches was soon afterwards recognised and explained by Mr 
Garnett (Quarterly I, Vol. LVII. p, M sqq.), no one has 

thoroughly examined, compared, and classified these monosyllabic 
stems and others which Bopp has omitted to mention; we shall 
therefore endeavour to show which of these pronominal words 
have a common origin, and thus to arrange them accordii;_ 
their natural coherency. 

130 It is reasonable to suppose that the primitive pronouns 
would be designations of here and there, of the subject and 
object as contrasted and opposed to one another. As soon as 
language becomes a medium of communication between two 
speaking persons (and it is useless to consider it before it arrives 
at this point), a threefold distinction at once arises between the 
here or subject, the the m or object, and the person spoken to or 
considered as a subject in himself, though an object in regard to 



Chap. 1.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 215 

the speaker. We find traces in the Indo- Germanic languages of 
an application of the first three consonant-sounds belonging to 
this family of languages, namely, the three tenues, to denote 
these three positions of here, near to the here, and there, or 
first, second, and third personal pronouns, as they are generally 
called. These tenues, articulated with the usual short vowel, 
are the three pronominal elements pa (found in ira-pa, &c), qva 
or ka (found in k£, &c.), and ta (to, &c). The two former are, 
however, more usually expressed by the cognate sounds ma or 
va, and by Fa, whether the digamma is represented by one or by 
both of its members (above § 110). By a similar change of arti- 
culation the third element appears as na. If now we take the 
elements enumerated by Bopp, we shall find, that, according to the 
principles stated in a former chapter, ma, mi, mu, va, vi, belong 
to the first of them : ka, ki, ku, ya, yu, e — ai- ya, i, u, to the 
second ; and ta, nu, ni, na, to the third of the original pronouns. 
The second also appears under the forms ga, ha, immediately 
derived from qva or Fa. The syllables da and sa, for reasons 
which will be stated in a subsequent chapter, generally belong to 
the second pronoun, though the former would seem to be only a 
slight variation of the element ta, and the pronoun sa is actually 
used for the third pronoun when that pronoun denotes a person 
or subject. From va, as a variation of ma the first pronominal 
element, we must carefully distinguish the same syllable when it 
appears as a mutilation of Fa, the second element; but there are 
some cases in which this distinction cannot be made without the 
most refined etymological analysis. And here we will anticipate 
what will be stated hereafter more at length. According to the 
principle mentioned above, any one of these simple elements 
may be compounded with any one of the others so as to form 
new modifications of the idea of position. There is, as we 
shall see, a pronominal element -la or -ra derived from na, but 
indicating motion, or conveying the idea of " beyond." When 
this is added to the first pronominal element, it combines the 
idea of closeness with that of removal, as in ira-pa, ire-pi, 
which express motion from or to the side of, and motion close 
round an object. When with the second, it expresses the third 
position as opposed to the second, and ka-ra, as we shall see 
in the following chapter, is equivalent to ta, or tva-ra, which 
expresses the same second position in a state of further removal. 



216 THE PERSONAL [Book II. 

On the contrary, by combining the third pronominal element 
with the first, under the form of ma, we obtain a signification of 
nearness approaching to, or even coinciding with that of the 
second element : thus ta-ma, the suffix of the superlative, ex- 
presses the approximation of the end of a series to the speaker, 
and, conversely, ma-ta denotes the approach of the speaker to a 
distant object*. "We shall see in the next chapter that the first 
three numerals are the primary pronouns under the forms, ma, 
tva, and tva-ra or ka-ra. The elements va and na are both 
employed to designate the first person, though always in the dual 
or plural number. They are also used to convey the stroiJ _ 
signification of the demonstrative pronoun, that of distance or 
separation. This coincidence in meaning between the first pro- 
nominal element under the forms ma, va, with the third per- 
sonal pronoun na, is explicable psychologically, from the fact 
that the ideas of self, unity, separation, distance, solitude, and 
negation, all spring from a common source. The clement I 
a strong expression of the there, or distance ; ma, &c. of the 
here or self as a separate individuality. Hence, the strongest 
expression of self in these languages is, in Sanscrit and Latin, 
a-ha-m, e-go-mct, " that which is here," but in Greek e-ycv-ifj, 
" that which is by itself or separate." The apparent coinci- 
dence of va and na, as expressive of negation, is found only in 
the longer forms a-va, or a-u, and a-na or an, ultimately re- 
presented by a- or even e-. But we hope to show in the follow- 
ing pages that na or ana is actually prefixed to va when the 
compound a-va or a-pa bears the negative signification. 

All our misconceptions about pronouns and pronominal words 
arise from a sort of word- worship, produced by the impressions 
of common language. The philological student cannot be too 
early or too strongly impressed with the fact, that all pronouns 
must have been originally demonstrative, or words indicative of 
particular positions f. In their original application there could 
be no distinction of personal pronouns and relatives, from the 
demonstratives. Indeed, it will be seen in the following p ... 



* The student will find these principles categorically set forth and 
illustrated in our Gird- Grammar, articles 83 — ~9. S."i> — M 

| The student will find in the Q _-9, the true 

classification, according to our views, of all the Greek pronouns. 



Chap, l] 



AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 



217 



that the relatives, reflexives, and the nominative of the ordinary 
demonstrative, are all derivable from the second personal pro- 
noun, or the index of nearness in space. 



131 We have thus stated beforehand the results of our ana- 
lysis of the pronominal words, in order that the student may be 
provided with a general map of the country which he is about to 
survey, and, knowing what to look for, may not be confused by the 
multiplicity of details. We now proceed to examine each of the 
pronouns more minutely, taking them in the order in which they 
appear in the common grammars, and beginning in each case with 
the existing classical form, and so ascending to its primary state. 

It will be found that our analysis has conducted us to the fol- 
lowing general results as far as the Greek language is concerned. 

I. Simple Elements. 

Second. Third. 

(Guttural + Labial) F Tenuis r 

Liquid v 



First. 

Tenuis w 

Liquid p 

Vowel v 



Tenuis k 

Med. 7 /3 

Sibilant a Vowel u 




Vowels ~L^ Liquids 
a- X, 
e- p. 



II. 



w 
C 
13 
O 
PJ 
O 

A 



a 
o 

m 
PL, 



Third. 



Compounds of two or more pronominal elements, arranged 
according to the element with which they begin. 

First. Second. 

rFe-Fe (2 + 2) 

/ue-Fe(l + 2) tF€-v = tov-v 

= TV-vt] (2 + 3) 

e-yw-v (2 + 2 + 3) 

acpco'i = Fa-Fa-t (2 + 2) 

v/meis = 'vwe$ 
»/ 
= v <7|ue5 



= Fa-o- / ues , (2 + 2 + l) 
o\ r\ = cro, arj (2 + &c.) 



to-v (3 + 3) 

vuj'i = va- F a-i (3 + 2) 
rjfx€is = aiJLiu€$ 
= acrjues 

(3+2 + 1) 



c 

a 

c 
u 



OB 

P 

o 

i 

5 

P 



218 THE PERSONAL [Book II. 

First. Second. Third. 

,Hi-V (1 + 3) o-2e (2 + 2), fttt r*-» (3 + 3) 

oy-ros (2 + 3), iste av = vd-Fa (3 + 2) 

/ceT-yo? (2 + 3), Ofe av-TOS (3 -f 2 + 3) 

t (2) 

a0e (do.) 

x//e (do.) 

^9 (do.) 

T£-t = t'w-S (2 + 3) 

cct? = oeVs (do.) 

^069 (do.) 

aWos = ay-io? 

(=?//<?, oKttf) (2+3 + 2) 



7X6*9 = /U61/-S 



f 

a 
s 

i 



(1+3) efc-fcs (2 + 3) 

fio-vos (do.) ct'(D (2) 

T-/MIV = rua-pes (2 + 

7T6-TO-/069 e£ = Tp + Tp (2 + 3 + 2 + 3) 

(1+2 + 3) e-TTTa = Tp-ir-rp- (2 + 3) + 

1 + 2 + 
6-AC09 (2 + 2) 



OK-TCV = tV-T/3 ( 

eis = evs a-TTo = a-r. 

= Fa-v-s (2 + 8) = di-TO-s 

Tra-pdi I + 3) d-i<o (do.) I +S x , 

7r€-pi (1 + <xi/-i> (do.) ff = rOHRC 

3+2) a/^' = cli'-cp'i (2 + 3 + 2) (3 + 8 

| --po = 7rp6-s e-irl (do.) 

= tt / oo-T(' oj-t; (2 + 3 + 2) 
(1+2 + 2) v-7TO = I'-TrJ-c (2 + 1 - 
iue-ra (1+3) i':re> (2 + 1 + 2 - 

- W 
Ka-rd = ircy-Ta (2 + 3 + 



o 

- 



a 

1 
P-l 

o 

> 

•if 

too 



/ 



Chap. I.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 219 

First. Second. Third. 

(fia = txev re, Kai (2) vrj, val (3 + 2) 

(1+3) $q, oa/, (2 + 2) ovk = va-va-K 

Ixy) = fxai (3 + 1+2) 

(1+2) rj = Fa (2) ovv = va-va-v 

Mv(l + 2 + 3) (3 + 1 + 3) 

ya - yev, ye (2 + 3) a-^a = vd-pa(3 + 3) 

ei (2) = si (§ 14,6) vvv (do.) 

a-rep = av-rep 

(3 + 2 + 3) 
-ca = -|Oa 
Ato-s, -/U>7 -0"i9, -Tl/S -ros 

-<ro9 -1/09? -i'»7 = -i/-ya 

/uaT-=-/Ui€UT- -ia = (aaa 

-/cos 

-)/ = ea = ya 
■/jLO-vrj^-iULOV-'ia ->79 = t«9 

-Js 

-T>/jO, -TO)/), (2 + 3) 

-Fot-5 (2 + 3) 

-cjv-vy] (2 + 3) 

-o-i-juos (2 + 1) 

-pa = pa-aa 

-iwv — -iov<s (2 + 3) 

-rpia, -rptS- (2 + 3 + 2) -A 09, -pos 

-rtipiov (2 + 3 + 2 + 3) 

-larr]?, -icorrj'S, -tTrjs -vt- (3 + 3) 

(2 + 2) -Taros (3 + 3) 

-wi/ = -crioi/-5 (2 + 3) -Aeo9, -A/09 (3 + 2) 

-rpov, -toXov, -Opov, 
-0\os (2 + 3) -Aey'9 (do.) 

In this general classification we think it needless to include 
the case-endings of the nouns, the person-endings of the verbs, 
and the terminations of verbal derivatives. The person-endings 



BO 

P 

o 

V 
I 



220 THE PERSONAL [Book II. 

are merely certain functions of the objective cases of personal 
pronouns, and the cases are connected with a special develop- 
ment of the first and third elements. In the derivative forms 
we find the converse. Those from nouns use all three pronominal 
elements, in their distinctive senses, and in combination with one 
another : while the verbal derivatives are limited to that special 
development of the second and third elements, which we find in 
the cases of the noun. ^ 

132 The objective cases of pronouns, as well as of nouns, 
are always older than the subjective. This appears from the 
fact that there are many nouns which have no subjective case 
(for instance, all neuter nouns), but no one, so far as we know, 
which has the nominative only. It might also be inferred, 
from a priori considerations, that it must be so. All things are 
to us parts of an external world, and must needs be spoken of 
as such long before the mind of man can invest the not-me with 
the powers of agency and will, which we experience in our- 
selves. We feel that even the spot on which we stand, and 
which is for the moment identified with our description, for we 
are the here, is nevcrthcle -me, and i* spoken of as some- 

thing without, as an object, and therefore must continue to be 
called one till language begins to assume a logical structure. 

The common forms of the objective or accusative cases of 
the personal pronouns, in Sanscrit, Greek, Latin and Gothic are 
as follows. 





writ 


Greek. 


Latin. 


Gothic. 


1st person 


mdm, mA 


fie 




mii 


2nd 


tvdm, tvd 


ere 


tc 


tliuk 


3rd 


tarn 


rou 


tinn 


t liana 



The Cretans appear to have said rFe instead of <re, as may 
be inferred from the following glosses of Hcsychius : Teop. 
gov' \\p)]T€S. — rpe. o~€. Kpfjrcs. Here we should read -reoF 
for Teoi/, and rFe' for Tpe, for immediately under the former 
gloss we have reot/?. govs — and the resemblance between P and 
F might easily cause the mistake. Besides, a labial is mani- 
festly included in the nominative tv. We shall discuss hereafter 
this corruption of the second pronominal element Fa. The Latin 
turn occurs only in composition or as a particle. 



Chap. 1.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 221 

The termination of the objective case of the third person is 
strictly a case- ending, *. e. expressive of a relation of place. But 
the first element is obviously appended to the first and second 
pronouns in Sanscrit, and the second element to the same pro- 
nouns in Gothic, and, as we shall see presently, in Greek and 
Latin also. This is a metaphysical rather than a grammatical 
phenomenon*, and indicates that the here or the near is implied 
in the second, no less than in the first personal pronoun. 

The e, which, under certain circumstances, is found at the 
beginning of the Greek fxe and the other oblique cases of the 
first personal pronoun, is, as Bopp justly remarks ( Vergl. Gramm. 
p. 468), to be referred to that prevailing tendency in Greek to 
prefix a vowel to words beginning with a consonant, as appears 
e. g. in o-i'O/ua, 6-Sovs, 6-<ppus, e-Xa^Js 1 , compared with ndma, 
danta-s, bhru-s, laghu-s. We find it also in e Keivos compared 
with Keivos. It may or may not be the residuum of a pronomi- 
nal element. 

These forms, then, of the objective case of the personal 
pronouns are identical in the four languages compared above : 
this identity they also maintain as the personal endings of the 
oldest class of verbs in Sanscrit, Greek, and Latin ; but then, as 
we shall show hereafter, the vowel is generally subjected to 
certain changes which we shall discuss in the proper place. 

133 In the nominative also, the resemblances of the first 
two, though not so striking, are sufficiently certain. 

Sanscrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. 

1st person aham eyu'v ego ik 

2nd tvam tovv\ tu thu 

It is worthy of remark, that although the nominative of the 
first personal pronoun is distinguished in every language of the 
Indo-Germanic family by an initial vowel, whereas the objective 
case invariably commences with the characteristic m, the nomi- 



* Grimm (Gcsch. d. deutsch. Spr. I. p. 262) seems to write rather con- 
fusedly on this point. 

t The word rav (and in the vocative <o rdv, " O you,") is an old form of 
tovv (Buttmann, Ausfiihrl. Sprachl, § 57, Anm. I.), and is strikingly like 
the Sanscrit tvam 



222 THE PERSONAL [Book II. 

native of the second pronoun manifestly contains the same ele- 
ment as its objective case*. From this fact we are entitled to 
conclude that while the nominative and objective cases of the 
second pronoun had a common origin, the nominative of the 
first person was formed independently of its objective casef. 



* In addition to the four languages adduced in the text, the following 
have been cited by Grimm (Gesch. d. deutsch. Spr. pp. 257, 8). 





Nom. 


Object. 




Num. 


Object. 


Nom. < 


Object. 


Zend 


azem 




0. Pruss. 










Lithuan. 


asz 




Slav. 






O.H.D. ih 


,n ih 


Lett. 


as 




Pol. 






A. S. 










Bohem. 




me 


/ 
O.N. 


m ik 



t The Professor of Comparative Grammar at the London Uni 
College, in a paper which appears in the J 

')/, Vol. IV. No. 78. has the courage to maintain that I, I 
that if ; that eya>, vut'i, and jj/iet?, have all arisen from one com- 

mon stem. For example, the German nominal', a mutilation of 

the corresponding accusative mis*, and the /< in m«JU is tin :;ural 

which appears a? </ in ego. If the evidence on which he puts fowan! 
conjectures were as complcto as H 

admit that scientific etymology had received a . and that 

a return to the ragoe L f ues--work of i\>rmer days seemed not improb 
Fortunately, however, the want of tact and critical acumen display) 
the Professor is so manifest that the faith of philfl 
seriously shaken by his heresies. As the folio. I take 

much notice of the Professor's various contributions to the J 
Society, it may he right to say here, that in looking into them we have found 
nothing calculated to advance the of comparative grammar, and 

B great deal, which, it* generally admitted, would compel philologers to 
fight the battle over again. There is indeed a plausible array of inter- 
esting particulars generally gleaned from Other writers, including the 
author of this present book: but wherever we can clearh that 

the Professor is original, we cannot fail to rec ■ error or 

a mischievous fallacy. The paper alluded to above is full of prOO 
this assertion. We will take one instance, in which I ems 

peculiarly satisfied with himself (p. 31). lie wishes that 

our word SUM is contained in the first syllable of <m/,j = Tamp, and 
that it enters into the composition of 7roi-pm> and Troi-pavvp. We shall 
have another opportunity of showing thai > is conn, 

with a root nsr, and not with the word stSMS. Those who are well ac- 
quainted with Greek will see at 01108 that. 
&q . stand by the side of icGpa* r, and crf\ 



Chap. 1.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 223 

This, however, is by no means inexplicable. Even after the 
adoption of nominative pronouns the person spoken to would 
still continue to be an object, and therefore the nominative and 
objective cases of that pronoun would contain the same elements ; 
but when the speaker could detach his notion of himself from 
the idea of space, from the here, which before constituted his 
definition, and consider himself as the /, the real subject, he 
would adopt some word more emphatic than the mere mono- 
syllable fie to express himself by, and this word was aJiam in 
Sanscrit, and ego in Latin and Greek, by a common transition 
from the h to the g (Pott's Etym. Forsch. I. p. 144). 

If we compare aka-m, tva-m, with a-ya-m, "this man," i-ya-m, 
" this woman," sea-ya-m, " oneself," va-ya-m, " we," yil-ya-m, " you," 
ma-h-ya-m, "to me," &c, we must conclude that the termination is 
simply in. The Greek iywu was written eyuv by the iEolians, eytiwya 
and e-ywvt] by the Dorians (Apollonius Dyscolus, de Pronom. p. 64 b, 
Bekker). Of the Boeotian Iwu, Apollonius writes as follows: Bohoto\ 
'IQN, cos fxev Tpvcpwv (ptiatv, v<pe<r€i evXoyut tov 7, 'iva kcli to. Ttjs jxera- 
0e<7fcos tov e 6i's 7 yevrjTCLi, e7ret (poivt'jevros eirupepopevov to toiovtov 
TrapctKoXovQei. aXXa prjv kceI ehacrvvdrj, iwet taavveTai to. (pwvtjevTa €i> 
Ta?s dvTcavvpiais, otc irpo (poovrjevTwv tiOcvtcu, eo's, eov eai/Tco 
iavTov, koi. cos Be ei/coj, dsv kcu d "Afipiav, Qeaa €<tt'iv o avfvycos ol 



a form nol-pa-r as well as the form 7roi-p^v = 7roi-pev-s, from which it is 
immediately derived ; cf. <j>pjv, €v-cf>palv<o ; and as the t of the termination 
pa-r generally evanesces in composition, (e. g. in oropaXyla, alpoppayeco, 
&c), there can be no difficulty in deriving 7roi-pava>p from irolpa. Again, 
as the termination par- was orginially pew- (according to § 114 above,) a 
fact to which we shall recur, we see at once that iroi-pi]v = i?oi-pev.s means 
the person who belongs to the iroL-pev-T = not pa-r \ cf. ar-men-tum, &c. 
The root is ttcz-, as in pas-co, pas-tor, and the full form of not is irSi/, 
Sanscrit pacu, Goth, faihu, Lat pecu (§ 119). From this it is obvious 
that the Professor of Comparative Grammar has very little acquaintance 
with the science of etymology. But perhaps any thing might be expected 
from a writer, who derives the composite pronouns mro* &c. from a 
supposed verb ken = "to see" (Phil Soc. III. p. 67) ! who tells us that &av 
is the radical syllable of paivo (ibid. II. p. 147) ! and considers eja as 
another form of audin! (above p. 210). We hope that these contributions 
to the Philological Society are not to be regarded as specimens of the 
comparative grammar taught at University College and promised in the 
Imperial Cyclopcedia. 



224 THE PERSONAL [Book H. 

avToi (paai Ttj fxev iyoiv Trjv Zoo'i/, eiye to irapd Aoopievo-iv e eh 7 /ucra- 
paAAeTar, t>7 ce 'eycovya tx\v Ycavya. Kopivva" 

/xen<po/xai Ce k<x\ Xiyovpav alvpTW 7u)vya 

on ftava* (pou<r f epa Tlivcaploio ttot epiv. 

K\ »/ 

iuivei t]0 tjpwwv apera? yetotoa'cwi/ 

(read, partly with Sturz, 't'tavya ovc? t'lpuwv aperd? X €l P u> ?^ w )* 1° ^ e 
manner for <rJ or tJ, we find ti/Vj/, and the Boeotian forms toJ, toi/V, 
Tovya (Apollon. de Pronom. p. 69 c) ; also in the oblique cases the 
JEolians wrote e/xoi, the Boeotians ip», the Dorians ipm and epuvya, 
and the Tarentines eu'ivt] and tIvti (Apollon. de Pronom. p. 104 c, and 
105 c). In Hesychius too we have eut'ivt] (read cfxevvt}), f V°«S and 
egexe/xevai (read with Ilemsterhuis €£*x */ ul€l '' , "0> X 69 ^ e V°^> 
AaKwi/fc AVhen we remember that the Dorians wrote cvwv for cuu 
(Hesychius), that eym appears as eju in Latin, that the third j - 
dual was sometimes -toi/, at others -t^i/ or -tuv ; that we have me, tc, 
se, in Latin, and ma/u, ma, team, tra in . by the side of /ie, 

<re, e ; also /uf/V, /mr/, o/V, 07. as well as ueV. •;, and in the case- 

endings -o/»S as well a »-, we shall not be perplexed by the 

variation in quantity which tak and shall 

perhaps be disposed to . without any hesitation on thai 

count, the identity of the syllables of ahd-m and iym r , 

eyus-vt). The termination of the former is undoubtedly the element 
of the first persona] pronoun, which appears at _:h in the 

Latin ; the final -r, -it] of the latter is a variation of the 

element ta, which we shaO frequently have occasion t<> -peak of. The 
bulk of the pronoun aha-m is a compound of the pronominal elen 
tf, ha, the former being here <>f demonstrative, the latter of relame 



•This won!, w&fch inform for yem*. deserres some remark. The fol- 

lowing are the notices of the grammariai.- j it. Herodian (irtpi ucv. Xe£ : 

1. 85) : to ■) tip ttuou Kopivmj (Sava (1. pavd) ui 

hoiWTWV T(l(T<TV(Jiei'Ol/ ill'TI TOU }Ui'»j. Jlt'Sych . lid V V U . tj tTJ BoiWTWJ'. 

Now the Dorians said j turn instead of ) mnj C.regor. Corintli. de Dialecto Dor. § cliii. '. 
It is, therefore, obvious that the original form must have commenced with a compound 
of the guttural and labial, Other* ise the I .:le. The old word was 

perhaps yfidmt or Wdtm. This digamma initial is split up in the usual way in the differ- 
ent lndo-Gernianie languages. The whole letter is preserved in the old English quean, 
the labial only in the Beeotie pai-a. Sanscrit vanita, Erse bean or MOM, Welsh benic. the 
guttural only in the Sanscrit jani, Erse MMB, Russian jena. Iu the common Greek 
yuinj the labial is vocalized into », as is the CM . v, Sanscrit pran. I 

t It may be doubted whether this is the Boeotian form for ^v<ra {ov being regularly 
substituted for i\ whether long or short, in that dialect), or the participle 
<peto, supposed to be the old form of - l Virgil. £c!o<j. I. 49). 



Chap. I.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 225 

import, and the whole signifying "that which," or conveying, with 
the affix, the meaning " that which is here," while the gloss in Hesy- 
chius (eywiz, (xvtos eyw) seems exactly to express the meaning of 
e-jio-vrj, i. e. " that which is by itself." If we may be allowed to 
state now what we shall prove in the course of the following chapters, 
the relative element, which here in Sanscrit and generally in Greek 
appears under the form ha, 6'-<?, also assumes (l) the form ya, ye in 
Greek, under which it corresponds in meaning to the Sanscrit particle 
ha; (2) the form que, qui in Latin, under which it corresponds in 
meaning to the Greek ye, Sanscrit ha (qui-dem = ye-lt]v), (3) the form 
ka, Ka, in Sanscrit and Greek. All these, it will be seen, belong to 
the second pronominal element, which of itself is capable of expressing 
the mere relative pronoun, and the cognate signification of the genitive 
case. In order, however, to give greater emphasis to this sense of 
proximity, derivation, and relation, it is not unusual to find a re- 
duplication of the second element. As Mr Garnett has remarked, in 
his instructive essay on this subject (Proc. Phil. Soc. Vol. II. nr. 39. 
p. 168), we find cases in which, "for the sake of greater precision, the 
demonstrative element na is doubled to form a relative, much as in 
Norse and Anglo-Saxon : sa-er, se-the = ' who,' lit. ' the- the,' or 
' the-that :' the object of this duplication appears to be to establish 
a more precise connexion between the antecedent and the relative 
clauses, a portion of the complex expression being referred to each." 
Although, therefore, the existing import of a-ha, e-go, &c, may be 
" that which," there is every reason to believe that we have here the 
remnant of the reduplication ha-ha, the stronger form being retained 
for the relative expression. This is confirmed, as we have elsewhere 
shown*, by the analogy of the composite Hebrew relative ^W$ 'hasher, 
compared with the personal pronoun *03tf 'ha-no-ki, in which the 
elements of i-yv-vri appear in a different order; and we shall see that 
the word pd-va-£ involves a similar combination of pronominal roots. 
For a-ha-m we have a-da-m in the Behistun inscription; and there 
are other instances in which the d appears in this inscription as the 
representative of a Sanscrit h (Rawlinson, As. Soc. X. 2, p. 113). 
Moreover, the character itself indicates some connexion with the old 
Persian digamma which is made up of / and YY or d (above § 110). 
We trust to be able to show in the following chapter that the pro- 
nominal element ma is also one of the representatives of the first 
numeral in Greek. There is another expression for unity in Sanscrit 



-h 



* Maskil le-Sopher, pp. 12, 24. 

Q 



226 THE PERSONAL [Book II. 

t-kas, in Greek e-««, in Latin cequus (secus), in Hebrew TIN 'e'had, 
both syllables of which represent the second pronominal element. 
These expressions for unity are, in our opinion, identical with the 
Greek e-«y«, the Latin e-go, and the bulk of the Sanscrit a-ha-m. In 
the Boeotian ?»•* the evanescent guttural is represented by the aspirate, 
on a principle before explained. 

134 With the final letter suppressed, a-ha is in Sanscrit "a particle 
and interjection implying; (1) commendation: (2) rejecting, sending ; 
(3) deviation from custom (improperly): (4) certainty, ascertainment" 
(Wilson's Banter, Diet. s. v.) ; and it is interesting to know, that the 
Latin language has two interjections, chem and cho, corresponds 
aham and ego respectively, which eonvey a meaning very nearly akin 
to what we conceive to have been the original force of the fir- 
pronoun: compare such pac 

te:—eho puer, cum ad Bacckidem. It is not impossible th 
da may be residuary forms of the same kind. These are not the only 
instanccs of the nee of the particle //ri=F«< in Latin. It appei 
have been the regolai Buffo <>f the objective cases of the first pronoun 
in old Latin. ^uiutilian - I- 5, § 21): I 

a, I not Utqm* vr.iir.ur.M WFBMBBKD 

■ 
Iftril 'noun 'nuns - I ' ■ 0.). It ii 

improbable too that the same termination WM employed to form the 
objective, ijenitive. and dative cases of the iir-t personal pronoun in 
the oldest Greek. This dative appears generally under the form 
epos. Bentley, however, perce i ved that the metre in Homer occasionally 
required ptow, peol. instead of ipoi, fan,, and peo\ 
the possessive, after tlu- si ■''/<*, s^d m*u*. 

We give the passages in which he has noticed this, from a MS. in the 
Library of Trinity Coll) 

Iliad IN ' *•» €(ppdcr<ravTo^ peov aVourji i<t<ivto<:. 

Ody$t* X. 4:25. outoj 6 oTpvvevSe fieoi apa TcrcTfc eveo-dai. 

XX. 864b F.i'.M i ;^ '. ovri <r uvtaya fX€o\ irojiirr/a? 6-wdQt*. 
In the two latter passages the editions h;r the first 

In the following, they have different cases of the posses>i 

7/tW IV. U k 2. TfTTa, criwrrij ricro, peto 8' eVurei't^o uv6V 

IX. 57« »/ P«f* ««J **•* t'* 7 "^ — * e * ai •■* *»#•* 

XIX. 194b £a>pa /uer/<r ira^a vrjos evfyKentv. 

x\. SO. o; nfV e'f <rT»/'tW« pm-Vip*. 

XX11I. -278. 7raT^( U«f II- 



Chap. 1.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 227 

Odi/S$. IX. 459. Ka33e fxeov Krjp 

\(0(pr]<r€l€ KCLKitiV. 

X. 178, and 428. XII. 222. 01 h' w*a /ueo?e emeeara-i irlOovro. 
XII. 258. o'lKTKXTOV Sff K61VO /jeo?5 Ft(W o(pda\po?<n. 

3Q7- and XIV. 249. i^rjfxap fxev eVeirct fxeo\ epirjpes 
eTciipot. 
XIII. 305. Fo'tKah* b7ra<r<rav 'iovrt, jue>/ f3ov\rj re cow tc. 
XXIV. 327. €1 fxeu Ztj 'OSuo-eu? ye, jueo? 7ra?5, evOdh' iKavets. 

As we have the forms ep'm (Ahrens, dial. Dor. p. 249) and efxedev, 
and even fxeQev in Sophron. (eVt ^e^eV a Kaphia 7ra3j/. i^V. 46. a/?. Apoll. 
de Pron. 83 c. 98 a), we are not obliged to assume the form fxeov, 
though the analogy of reou (Apoll. 96 b) renders it justifiable. It 
must be remarked in general that all these case-endings of the pronouns 
belong to the full development of a language, and are as recent as the 
case-system of the nouns themselves. For we get beyond the merely 
distinctive use of the three original elements themselves, as soon as we 
begin to speak of case-affixes, which, as we shall see, are connected 
with a special development of the second and third elements. The 
Boeotian efxv for efxo\ points to an original e/xeFl, just as ru represents 
an original tFc ; and with regard to Bentley's assumption of jueoi for 
e/j.oi } we think the o in both forms is a substitute for the lost digamma 
or aspirate, which is otherwise represented in the common suffix -</>i, 
and that fxeol=ixe-(pi=neF'i is fully equivalent to mi-M. The same stem 
is represented by the Jc, or ch appended to the Gothic ?nik, thuk, New 
German mich, dich ; and the long vowel in the Latin me, te, may in- 
dicate, as we have seen, an original me-he, te-he; so that in the Greek, 
Latin, and German language, the second element was probably ap- 
pended to the first and second personal pronouns in the objective cases. 
We have already adverted to the metaphysical significance of this 
phenomenon. 

It may be objected to this explanation of the identity of ha, ya, &c, 
that, if so, this element is repeated in such combinations as eyuye, 
eywvya, Yuvya, &c. ; but it will be remembered that nothing is more 
common than such repetitions of the same root in pronominal com- 
pounds, and especially when it appears under slightly modified forms. 
When it is placed after the termination -v-, as in e ywvya, the word is a 
compound of two compound pronouns, into each of which similar pro- 
nominal elements enter: for vya or vaya is a compound analogous to 
me-he, mi-hi. 

135 As the three primitive personal pronouns are expres- 
sions for the relations of place, synonymous, in fact, with the 

Q2 



228 THE PERSONAL [Book II. 

Greek 6Se, ovtos, e /eel 1/09, the Latin hie, iste, We*, and the 
Italian questo, cotesto, quello, we ought to find in the Greek and 
cognate languages traces of the use of all the primitive forms as 
demonstrative pronouns; and we do so. Of the third it is 
unnecessary to speak. With regard to the first ; in Sanscrit we 
have i-ma " this-here," from which Bopp derives the Latin 
words im-arjo and im-itor {Demonstrativstamme, p. 21). The 
Greek demonstrative p/r, and, as we shall hereafter show, the 
preposition /ue-rd, the particles fiev, \id, and the verbs /ia'w= /ulgiw, 
maneo, &c, all contain this element *j\ It appears as a suffix to 
the second and third personal pronouns : in Sanscrit, tva-m, aya-m, 
as well as aha-m ; in Latin, tu-met, vos-met, semet, ipse-met, as 
well as ego-met, nos-met. The second element, under the form 
dva, is used as a demonstrative in the numerals. Of its use 
under other forms derived from Fa we shall speak by and by. 

136 The common dual and plural of aham and tvam are 
in the nominative and accusative as follows: nom. dual, didm, 
yuvum ; accus. dual, dvdm or nou, yuvdm or vdm ; nom. plur. 
vayam, yuyam ; accus. plur. asm&n or nas, yiuhm&n or vas. 
It will, of course, be understood by every one, that the plural of 
the first personal pronoun, of which the dual is only a modifi- 
cation, could not be formed from the lingular as the plural of 
any noun might be. The plural of this pronoun must signify 
one of two things, either a collection of persons united in the 
idea of here, and, as such, separated for the moment from the 
rest of the world, or, as between two speakers, the idea of 
i"+ you. On analyzing I nscrit forms we shall find that 

one of these meanings is always implied. The plural va-ya-m is 



* The correspondence in use of these triads is very remarkable : 
cially the use of 58e and hie to denote the speaker and his client in a 
law-suit, and the use of ovtos and Mfe to signify the opposite party, _ 
rally the defendant, as "the person before yu." "the person in your 
court." Thus o8e avrjp = eyu>, and. in addresses, J ovtos = o~v. It will be 
shown below (§ 166) that illc oro! 7 - anlv.s OOf 

in form as well as meaning to kuvos = Fd-vios. The prefix ali (in ali-quis, 
ali-quando, kc.) always rehrs to BOOM distinctive person or time. 

t Miv from the first person and rin from the third are so completely 
Bynonymous that., as we have shown elsewhere («4 Fin>1ar. p. Lvm.), 
euphony alone determines their employment in the lyric poets. 



Chap. 1.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 229 

a combination of two modified forms of the first and second pro- 
nouns respectively, to which the common element of the first is 
added to imply more strongly that the notion of here is intended. 
Therefore, va-ya-m means " I + you here." Similarly, the 
plural yu-ya-m is a repetition of the second element, with the 
same suffix. Of the first syllable we will speak presently. We 
have already mentioned the employment of the pronoun ex- 
pressing distance or separation to denote the first person, and 
explained how, in fact, there is none of that absolute difference 
between pronouns of different persons which habit leads us to 
imagine. It is true that there was and is a distinction in meaning 
between the stems ma and ta, as signifying the opposition of 
here to there. But they are, both of them, essentially demon- 
strative, and there is no reason whatever why modifications, 
in fact, stronger forms of them, should not be used to convey 
the notions of unity, distinctness, and separation, which run into 
one another. At any rate, there is no doubt of the fact, that 
these stems are so used ; and we shall see abundant proof of it 
when we come to a discussion of the negative particles. We 
have an instance of this phenomenon in the pronouns before us. 
The dual d-vd-m is evidently composed of the pronominal stem 
d, in our opinion a degenerated form of the third pronoun na, 
and vd an entirely different element, which is unquestionably 
a corruption of the second pronoun under the form sva 9 and 
appears as vdm and vas in the accusative dual and plural. Con- 
sequently d-vd and the accusative nau — na-va represent the 
same combination. To the whole is appended the suffix m, so 
that this word signifies u you -f I by ourselves," which is equi- 
valent to va-ya-m — " I + you here." In order to analyze the 
plural accusatives asmdn, yushmdn, we must take the Veda- 
forms of the nominative plural, asme and yushme. The former 
is written amha in Pali and Pracrit. It is obvious that the 
termination of these forms is sma-i; the aspiration of s in the 
second word is caused by the u which precedes, a phenomenon 
common enough in Sanscrit : compare the datives amushmai, 
from amu, and tasmai from ta. This suffix sma, compounded 
of the stems sa-ma and also appearing as the preposition sam 
(avv), is used to form some of the oblique cases of all pronouns 
of the third person ; indeed, asmdt, the ablative singular of a 
demonstrative, differs only in the quantity of the last syllable 



230 THE PERSONAL [Book II. 

from asraat, the ablative plural of the first pronoun : sa-ma 
signifies "all taken together," "whole," "entire," "complete;" 
and in this sense of completeness, it is used to give verbs in the 
present tense a past signification : thus we have : hanti sma 
Rdvanah Rdmah = "Rama killed" (instead of "kills") "Ravana" 
(Wilson, Diet.). The initial vowel a is the pronominal element 
na in the last state of mutilation, and thus the compound 
asme = a-sa-ma-i (the final vowel being the mark of plurality in 
the case of pronouns ending in a, Bopp, Vergl. Gramm. p. 262) 
signifies " the here taken altogether," with a note of plurality 
appended. The first syllable of yushmc = yu-m-ma-i, is obviously 
the same stem that appears in yuymt. As the dual accusative 
nau = na-va seems to have the same origin as the form d-ca-m = 
na-vd-m, it is reasonable to conclude that the plural accusative 
na-s is a similar mutilation of a-smdn = na-sman. And the 
same reasoning applies to the abbreviated forms vdm and vas. 

We may now compare these Sanscrit forms with those which 
occur in some of the other languages of the Indo-Germanic family. 
The Latin plurals nos and vos agree exactly with the Sanscrit 
accusatives plural nas and vas, and the Greek duals vwi, a(pwi 
correspond pretty well to the duals nau and vdm, the latter of 
which, as we have said, has lost its initial sibilant or guttural. 
In the Greek vwi, the most predominant idea must have been 
" separation/* " unity," as appears from the adverb v6s-<pi " by 
himself*" i/o's-tos "a return" (literally, as we shall see below, 
"a coming from a distance"), and in the pronoun nv, which 
always stands alone, though we often have pg» avTov. The 
long vowel however shows that here, as in the Sanscrit nau. vdm, 
we have a mutilated or abridged form, and there can be little 
doubt that van, acpwi, were originally va-Fa-i, Fa-Fa-t. The 
German languages have very short forms for the plural of these 
pronouns ; generally, in fact, modifications of the simple root. 
Thus the Gothic has iveis, yas, Lithuanian m£&, yits, English 
jtou. The Zend has also the short forms vain . The 

Greek forms 9#ftftf, vfieh agree with the Voda- words asme, 
yuihmi ; for the J^olic a/m/mes, v/uljulcs (by the .Eolian ^iXcoais 
for vjuLnes) are assimilations of aa^es, Capes, just ts inds 



* The grammarians, absurdly enough, eonsider this word as an abbre- 
viation of v6<rro-<t>t (Hermann. Opuscul. I. p. S 



Chap. l.J AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 231 

for eo-yu/, Sanscrit asmi (Bopp, Vergl. Gramm. p. 473), and 
the assimilation is represented by a long vowel in the possessive 
duos, v/ulos (Ahrens, dial. Dor. p. 262). With regard to the 
first syllable of vjuels, the following remarks may suffice. The 
Greek aspirate often stands for the Sanscrit y : thus yas, yaj, 
yakrit (jecur), correspond to 09, aXw, rjirap. We have no 
hesitation, then, in comparing the Homeric word vaimivrj, " battle/ 
with its Sanscrit synonym yudhma: Doderlein's suggestion, that 
it comes from virofxelvai {Lat. Synon. u. Etym. III. p. 304), 
is not deserving of any consideration : the derivation of an old 
substantive from the infinitive aorist of a compound word re- 
minds one of the perverted ingenuity of Schrevelius. When we 
recollect phrases like conserere pugnam, and compare yudhma 
with yugma (Lat. jugum), "a pair," "a brace," we shall be 
disposed to seek for a connexion of meaning. Now jugum, 
another form of djugum, as Janus is of Djanus, Juturna of 
Djuturna, &c, contains the element of the second numeral, as 
does also the word duellum, " battle. 51 In the next chapter 
we shall show that the second numeral is identical with the 
second person singular. As then the second numeral is con- 
tained in the first syllable of yugma, yudhma, vafxivr}, so is the 
second pronoun in yushme, v^els. The suffix -sma is assimilated 
into -mma in the singular dative of the Gothic pronoun, just 
as it is in a/upes, vwies ; thus, the Gothic thamma, hvamma 
and imma correspond to the Sanscrit tasmai, kasmai and asmai 
(Bopp, Annals of Orient. Lit. p. 16. and Grimm, Deutsche 
Gramm. I. p. 826). It appears as smu in old Prussian : thus 
antar-smu, ka-smu correspond to the Sanscrit antara-smai, ka- 
smai (Bopp, Abh. Ak. Berl. 1824, p. 143). 

137 The nominative masculine and feminine of the third 
personal pronoun are as follows : 

Sanscrit. Zend. Greek. Gothic. 

Masc. sa, sak, so ho o sa 

Femin. sd ha d or jj so 

The Greek and Zend aspirates are of course derived from 
the sibilants preserved in Sanscrit and Gothic. The nearest 
Latin forms corresponding to these are the compounds hi-c, si-c, 
the latter of which is used only as a conjunction. We shall 



232 THE PERSONAL [Book II. 

speak of these in connexion with the forms t, &c. Perhaps the 
original Fa is preserved in its most genuine form by the 
Hebrew Nin , though we might be disposed to compare this 
rather with the compound av, of which we shall speak directly. 
It will be observed that all these forms belong to a different 
element from the neuter nominative, tat, to, thata, turn or 
is-tud. In fact, as will hereafter be shown, it is only a mas- 
culine or feminine noun that can have a nominative case pro- 
perly so called. The reason for the adoption of a form manifestly 
connected with the second pronominal element as a nominative 
of the third personal pronoun, will be obvious on the slightest 
consideration. The person spoken to, or designated as near, is 
invested with a subjectivity and personality which is denied to 
the object spoken of, or designated as t he re, Now, whatever 
is spoken of as in the nominative case, is considered as sub- 
jective in itself, though not a part of ourselves, and therefore can 
only be designated by a pronoun which expresses the greatest 
degree of nearness to the here. We shall return to this subject 
when we come to the case-endings. 

138 There arc two stronger fan! of the demonstrative or pfO« 
noun of the third person, both compounds with the simple <>', », 
namely, o-t i . y-$€, ■. The form- : 

shall consider in the next chapter. The latter we will now 
connexion with ov-roc, another pronoun of the third person. The tir-t 
part of aw-«rot occurs as the separate particle 
distance, negation, &c. And WO -hall BOO that the same parti' 
involved in the negative ov-ft, and the illative .T-.. It is a prefix in 
uv-Oi, av-rop, and, in a weaker form, in - the same 

mutilation of the pronoun )ni, which we have had in <i-sin>'. In the 
disyllabic form it appears in the Sanscril aea, mva-k 7 and the Sclavonic 
oro (Bopp, r, /•-//. Gramme pp. 100, .Hi); hut then \ reason for 

believing that the complete combination ¥ or dv-iro, (b 

§ 18J)). We consider a*- lhination of av % and tli 

ment t-, just as 6«e?wx combines the particle eccTwith the element *-, 
though perhaps the original form of m F - ~\<oc 

— oiiu*, UU (above. ^ 135, note). We cannot agree with Bopp (V 
G fr amm . p. 101) in regarding o S tok , or-- > as a combination 

of oi'to'c, avTij. iu'r,>, with the primitive pronoon « It would 

be better to adopt the suggestion o( M ax Schmidt, whom he quotes, 
that it is merely a compound of the simple pronoun with 



Chap. 1.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 233 

objective form, and that the first syllable is lengthened euphonically, so 
that ov-tos is formed from 6, just as ow-tos is formed from av ; but it is 
not right to compare this word with toiovtos, &c, as Schmidt does, 
for these words are really compounds of toTo<?, &c, with the pronoun 
«Jto5, as appears from the feminine forms ToiavTrj, &c. In the same 
way ai/Vo? appears compounded with itself in avravro? (Sophron. apud 
Apollon. de Pronom. p. 339 b). Bopp's etymology is obviously un- 
tenable, for when o, &c. are combined with ai/ro'?, &c. the crasis is 
ai/ro?, avTtj, TauVo, not ovtos, avTtj, tovto. 

139 The nominative case 6=ao also appears under the subsidiary 
form t, in which the effect of the digamma has been to convert the 
vowel into i (compare ^w, v'tos, vTrepcpvrjs, with Jio,JiUus, vwepcpiaXo^, 
and this vowel being, as we have before seen, itself a representative of 
the guttural, the aspiration has been omitted when less emphasis was 
intended. Both forms appear in Latin, the stronger as kl-c, si-c, the 
weaker as is, i-terum, i-tem, &c. The latter appears as i-ma, i-taras 
in Sanscrit. Most scholars, as well as the old grammarians, consider < 
to be the nominative case of ov, ol, e; thus we find in Bachmann's 
Anecdota, II. p. 72, 1. 3 : oti at irpiaTOTVKoi dvTiavvjXiai, olou to eyoi, 
<rv, t; and again, II. p. 66. 1. 28: to ifxeTo kcu aeTo kcu eJo, el fxev 
TrpuTOTVTTot elaiv dvTiavvp.iai dird tov eyco kcu av kcu ? KAii/o/xei/cu, hid 
T^? el CKpOoyyov ypdipovrai. So also Dionysius the Thracian (Bekk. 
Anecd. p. 640) : irpoaiaTta TTpoTOTviroov fxev eyio — av — 7 — dpi0fxo\ he irpia- 
totvttoov evixos p.6v eyco — av — ", hviKO? he vial — a(pu>'i, 7r\t]dvvTiKO<5 he 
»Jm6?9 — vfxeTs — a(peT<; — TTTooo-eis he irpiaTOTviroov fxev SpOrjs eyio — av — ", 
yeviKrjs he e/Aov — aov — ov, hoTinr)<; he efxot — ao'i — ait, alTiaTinrjs he ep.e 
— ere — e. The Scholiast on this passage says (p. 91 6, Bekker) : rod 
Tp'iTov Trpoaioirov ecrrt to 'l, kcu arj/J-ctivei to outo? »/ eneTvos, Kad eavTO 
fxev nei/Jievov evpedrj ovha/Aov, eoitce he airo Trjs tiov Att'ikwv xprjaeoos 
elptjadai irapd tovtio tm T€^i>oypd(f>(a. e\eivoa\ ydp Xeyovai kcu ovToai. 
That this Scholiast is mistaken, appears from the words of Apollonius 
Dyscolus (de ProJiomine, p. 69, c): 1 TnvTtjv 01 fxev (paat irapaXoyov, 
oti ov hid tov v' diro(3o\y] ydp tov a naTa to Tp'iTov diroTeXe'iadai aov, 
ov, ads, 09. He proceeds (p. 70, b) : d^ioiriaTOTepos he d 2og/>okA>7<? 
fidpTvs ■yprjaa/jievo'; ev Oii/o/xa'co* el juei/ ooae\ Qdaaova elhuts el Tenoi 7ra?8a. 
The Venetian Scholiast, on the Iliad XXII. 410, reads this fragment 
of Sophocles somewhat differently, thus : tj jueV wae\ Bdaao • ijhe eoa\ 
Tefou TrciTha. From a comparison of these two readings, William 
Dindorf has emended this corrupt line as follows : tj fxev w<? < Bdaaov, 
r\ h' to? T tUoi iratha, adding, "it is said of two women, each of 
whom was boasting of her son's fleetness. Why they did so, is clear 



234 THE PERSONAL [Book II. 

from the well-known story about CEnomaus." It is hardly necessary 
to add that iraica is either followed by a vowel in the next line of 
which it is the first word, or else that it is added by Apollonius to ex- 
plain the line. Bekker thinks {Comment. Crit. p. 337), that 7 might 
properly be substituted for e in the following passage of Plato {Sympot. 
p. 175 c) : fxerd Tav-ra e(pr] <r<pd<i fxeu ceiirveiv, rov ce ^(OKpaTtj ovk 
el<rievat. rov ovv 'Ayudwva TroWdxis aeXcveiv fxcTcnr€fx\l/a<r&ai rov Zcu- 
Kparr], e he ovk eai/, and appears also to suggest the insertion of this 
obsolete nominative in a passage at the end of the same dialogue 
(p. 223 d) : rov ovv ^.uoKpdrt] — ctvaa-rdvra dirievai, kcu auroc, wa-rrep 
elwdet eireadai, where almost all the M8& omit avros (Bekker's ( 
ment. Crit. p. 3G2). With regard to the former , : may be 

observed, that, according to the rules of Syntax. I would be better 
grammar than e; that, in the parages quoted by Ileindorf, on the 
JCulhydemus, § 72, and on the 8opkk the verb fil always o'uai 

or tjyovftat, and that olfiai pe by no means justifies (ptjui ne. u Stall- 
baum (adloc) MOM U) rmagilMT In the latter passage the I 
easily have been absorbed by the last lettef of the pfi ceding *a\ that we 
Cannot doubt it would bi ■ bitter reading than ai/ro?, which is disal- 
lowed by the MSS. I„ Um Attic dialeet we find the pronoun I 
very frequently as an inseparable and uninfleete<l aiiix to the indicative 
pronoun- She, oito?, exfuwe. Tliis termination^ long and carries the 
accent; thus, otn, ovto<t\, Ueivoa'i ; also in the other cases, as Ton 
ravTtiai ; plur. ovrou, avroC, ravr\ } &c. And so also in advcrl 
ei'Oitc'i, Sec. It is right to remark in passing that the form ei - 
been imported into the texts of the Attic writers, and even of Homer, 
by grammarians, who were mi-led by I appearan 

analogy. The fact is that Ba, 9ev, 6V, Oov, $t, 0c are the only a 
able forms of the affix -0-. %i impoanbli 

would be. There can scarcely be any doubt that when cvrait 
found in the Attic writers, wo Bhonld Bnbetitul , and when it 

has been intruded upon Homer we should write erreSOev, which he 
uses in the same sense. The two following are important passages 
relative to the pronoun T. Apolloniufl Dye V- 10 b) : 

tti'Twi 170110 dvmpopinai f] re 7, ov. <>.'. t. Priscian. XIII 
rtiur it'uim illud, cur, </tn<m <//"' • num 

vrimitivorum ct in thqpdari n wunatinm kal ■• F.. 

plurali <T(/)fK, apt«t Latino* sui dnatiro dt 

t'un ROM kabuit. § 8 . ninatirus ntpraiic 

minis, id est, F<, ranis est in usn. These authorities, taken together, 
are sufficient to establish the fact, that there was originally a noinina- 



Chap. 1.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 235 

tive to the reflexive pronoun ov, ol, e, and that this nominative was J'. 
"We need not wonder that this ? should be of rare occurrence. There is 
very little demand for the nominative of the reflexive pronoun, which is, 
in most cases, used objectively. The nominative of the Latin reflexive 
pronoun sui, sibi, se, never occurs, nor has that pronoun any plural 
number. Now what is the reflexive pronoun? Nothing more, we 
believe, than a form of the second pronoun, pointing at once to some 
person or thing close at hand, and it is always used in connected speech 
to refer to the person last spoken of, when that person is considered in 
any way as a subject, especially in relating the words of that person. 
The idiom of the Latin language admits of such phrases as dixit se ven- 
turum, but the Greek, which is much more accurate in its syntax, 
always requires that if the subject is expressed in the nominative in one 
member of the sentence, the same case must be continued in the de- 
pendent member ; accordingly, the pronoun is either suppressed, as is 
generally the case, for example MoipoKXfjs ovdev ecpt] irourjpcT€po<s elvcu 
(Aristot. Rhet. III. 10, § 1), or, if emphasis requires it, as in the line 
of Sophocles quoted above, or distinctness in a complicated sentence 
renders it necessary, as in the two passages from Plato's Symposium, a 
nominative case of the reflexive pronoun would of course be used if 
there were one; and we have clear testimony that there was one. 
The very fact that there was no plural of the Latin reflexive pro- 
noun shows, as all undeclined parts of speech always show, that the 
word itself, and the peculiar use of it, belong to the oldest state of 
the language. As, therefore, it is manifest a priori that the reflexive 
is nothing more in its nature than a demonstrative pronoun indicat- 
ing nearness of position, we must seek for its equivalent among the 
oldest forms of the demonstrative pronouns. We have irresistible 
evidence that there was a pronoun t as well as a pronoun ". The 
Scholiast on Dionysius (quoted above) says as much, though he con- 
fused it with the reflexive pronoun mentioned by the author on whom 
he was annotating, and whom, like most other Scholiasts, he made 
a point of misunderstanding. Its existence is further proved by He- 
sychius' Glosses: 7 m. avrijv, avrov. Kvirptoi. — el v. eKetvos (leg. eKeTvov) ; 
by what Lascaris says (de Pronomine, III. p. 344): tov rpirov' irpo- 
(xusirov tj ovojiacrTiKr} Kara. iraXa'iov? 7 (leg. 7) ko.\ oe, and by the re- 
mark of Draco (p. 106) : tj 7 avToovv/jiia tj cnj/xaivovaa Tp'tTOv Trpoaw- 
ttov fipayy e^ei to i ; for if 7 was short, it could not have been the 
same with J', which we know from the passage of Sophocles, and from 
the terminations eVai/os-I, oJtos-7, &c., to have been a long syllable. 
Moreover, the conjunction el " by this that" = " on this condition" — is, 
as we shall show, the dative of 7, just as the Latin si is the dative of 



236 THE PERSONAL [Book II. 

sis; the pronoun also evidently enters into Uywtrre*, the Rhodian word 
for avdiyeveu, i. e. " born in that place" into 'l-a-os, l-os, 7-iapos, and 
"-cios, and we have seen its appearance in Latin and Sanscrit. The 
evidence indeed for this pronoun is so strong that Hermann and Bockh 
have not hesitated to introduce &, as the dative, into the text of Pindar 
{Pyth. IV. 36. Nem. I. 66). It is quite clear, then, that the Greeks 
had two pronouns, the stronger aspirated form 7 being used to express 
the reflexive relation, i.e. relation to something near and immediate; 
the i t a synonym for auTo?, to denote something in which the idea 
of nearness was not so directly implied ; and, therefore, to return to the 
common terminology, 7 is a complete, and 7 a shortened or mutilated 
form of the second personal pronoun, which appears in the ultimate 
analysis as the stem Fa. The same wu the case in Latin. The com- 
mon pronoun i-s expresses the weakest demonstrative relation, the 
equally common pronoun hi-c signifies "that which is near:" the 
termination c is a mutilation of the ordinary arfix M, so that we should 
write hitn-cc, not hunc-C€, This termination i- by n<» means confined 
to the singular, as some scholar- have imagined. In good writers we 
have hire fol hi (Varro. VI. 7.;), and lur-r for ha (Plautu-. Auiml 

111.5,59, TewBOt, Emmck. I1L I P v 

V. 75j 6Y0.). Now tin- pronoun ///'-#- flttlHl lot the I.. J the 

common change from the sibilant to the ft! root 

belong >v-//, rf, the form- in Knnius - P M, m 1, JO-*, ind, we 

have no hoffitition in eaying, ftJao the reflexive ttt-i, ti- . . I 

intonating to know that in the B -ssess the weaker forms 

i-m (also an old Latin form) and /-'/, and rm ?i-m. 

140 This supposition that the reflexive pronoun is identical with 
that of the second pefBOOj and merely indicates nearness of place, is 
fully home out by the 088 of 1 in Homer, where it occurs as a demon- 
strative pronoun implying nearness, and is used in the singular and 
plural o( all genders: thus Iii.nl. I. 1 

Nil fta t©$€ v m i j irrpov to pc» o S wort <pv\\a ecu o^ovs 
(pvcrei, eveiCt] irptorii toio/Y eY OOCvm \(\oiir€v, 

ilvaOiiXtjcrei, irep\ yap f>d e (nam circa hoe) \u\<d<: e\f\!/e 

cV\\u -rt : KOI AXotOP, 

And in the Hymn to Venus, v. 9 

rjftn \!siK(lf)tiyoi 

yttvo/jiei'tjatv eepva-av eVi ^tW« fttoTiaveiprj 
roAoI, npXevsowcu, eY ovpeo-iv v\jst]\oT<riv 
tV-roV t]\ UNMTW 

dOaiiiTiov (haK autem TOCftnt). 



Chap. 1.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 237 

141 With regard to the use of I both as singular and plural, it is 
to be observed, that while we have a/^e, v/j/xe, constantly in the plural, 
we have e/me, o-e, invariably as singular forms. We may remark, too, 
that the endings of the datives plural dmxiv, v/jl/xlu^ of the datives 
singular e/uriv, rr ' LV -> l' lv — F'" (= °"°' 5 Hesychius\ and of the accusatives 
fxiv, vlv, «/, are the same : <r(piv is both singular and plural : for its plural 
use see Matthiae's Note on Herodotus, p. 285, and for its use in the 
singular, see Horn. Hymn. Pan. 19. iEschylus, Persw, 76l. Sophocles, 
(Ed. Col. 1847, and Reisig, Enarr. p. clxxxi. Buttinann, Lexilogus, 
Vol. I. p. 60. It is very easy to conceive why there should be iden- 
tities in the case of pronouns, where there are such marked distinctions 
in the other parts of speech ; the fact is certain, and it is an additional 
proof, if proof were needed, of the exceeding antiquity of these little 
elementary words. If the pronouns were, as will be shown hereafter, 
used for the purpose of distinguishing the cases and numbers of nouns, 
it is obvious that in the original pronouns there could be no consistent 
distinctions of that kind. 

142 It will be observed by every reader of the Greek writers, 
that the ordinary dual and plural forms of the reflexive pronoun were 
identical with the second personal pronoun, in form, and with both 
first and second personal pronouns in signification. Thus we have 
<r(p<a€, "they two," o-epwi, "ye two;" fxerd <r(pt<nu = fxed' vptp (Horn. 
Iliad, X. 398); <x(p€T€po<;, (l) "yours," Hesiod, e. k. ij. 2. and elsewhere ; 
(2) "mine," only in Theocr. Id. XXV. 163; (3) "thine," Theocr. 
Id. XXII. 67; (4) "ours," Xen. Cyr. VI. 1. § 10. In the same 
way we find words, into which the element e enters, used to express 
the first and second persons ; thus Moschus Idyll. IV. 77 : \xr\lev <re 
Xepeiorepov <ppe<r\v riviv a-repyeiv ("my own heart"); Horn. Iliad, 
XIX. 174: a-vhe (ppe<r\v r\<nv lavQ^ ("your own heart") ; Odyss. I. 402 : 
KTj/uaTa d' (xvtos e^ot? k<x\ Zoop.a<xiv olcriu dvctcro-ois (" your own house"). 
The same is the case with the cognate Sanscrit w T ord svayam, and 
its possessive adjective svas. Now it may be asked with regard to this 
fact in Greek and Sanscrit, why it happens that such an extension 
of meaning is given to the reciprocal in those languages, while in Latin 
the same pronoun is never used, except in the third person. The fact 
is, that the Romans made but a sparing use of their pronominal words 
in comparison with the Greeks, as indeed appears from their unac- 
quaintance with that particular sort of pronoun called the article, 
and from the infinitely greater number of pronominal particles in Greek 
and Sanscrit. As a natural consequence, we find in Latin, a greater 
restriction upon the free use of these particles and pronouns, and a 



238 THE PERSONAL [Book II. 

greater uniformity in the employment of them, for, not possessing 
a great variety of pronouns, they frequently used as distinct words, 
what were only different articulations of the same form. Thus, while 
they employed suus (in Ennius 8us) = szus, (Greek atpos, Sanscrit sras), 
as the possessive of se, they turned the hy-form acpeTepos into tester 
(compare <r(ptjg with tespa) y just as they converted <r<piai into tos. It 
must be observed, that the use of the reciprocal in the third person, is 
infinitely more frequent than its use in the first and second persons ; 
and the reason is plain : for as all pronouns denote relations of place, 
and the primitive pronouns differ only in the degree of nearness to the 
here, a pronoun expressing, as the reciprocal does, a special nearness, 
would be more naturally and more frequently superceded by the fir-t 
and second personal pronouns than by the third, in other words, there 
might be a necessity for the expression of a particular kind of nearness 
in the third person, which could arise but seldom in the case of the 
other two persons. 

143 We have before shown how the stem of the second personal 
pronoun (clement F'') enters into <r<£a>V; it will be equally easy to point 
out the etymological connexion of <r<pe and f. That the latter was a 
digammatcd word is well known, and we have shown before bow 
often the digamma was a representative of the double sound sr, as in 
>/ou? = F'/cu's compared with ! oL-erit). tudvis » Modbtf (Latin); 
and €Kvp6<:= Fenupos, compared with pMgwa (Sanserif). The Latins 
dropped the labial in at, Mid vocalized it in tus; or omitted the sibilant 
as in ros and ranter; similarly the ordinary Greek omitted the labial, 
and softened the sibilant into an aspirate. This intimate etymol _ 
connexion between the reflexive or reciprocal pronoun, and that of the 
96COnd person, throws very grant light on both. 1: 

idea of relathi that the WOOnd of the old pronominal I 

originally employed : it is the same idea of relative wanraan that 
stitutes the distinction between t and CKffro», between Ate and i//«», 
between quest 'o and <jnel/o. 

144 The inverted Dorian forms \^e, \^lv, deserve notice from their 
constant appearance in Latin. We have in Ennius MrjMO, and in 
Plautua eaptej in the former word the enclitic is inflee: .1 as 
the personal pronoun, and in more modern Latin the form i-/>,<e alu 
retains its first syllable unaltered, while the -p* \< su inflexion 
in every case. This alone should be a confutation of those who fancy 
something essentially accusative in e. The same may be said of 
c-Te^op, which must be connected with this pronoun, and cannot be 
derived from o-. as Bopp seems to suppose (/ 



Chap. 1.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 239 

145 We come now to the most important part of this sub- 
ject: namely, the discussion of the indefinite, interrogative, and 
relative pronouns. In the Latin language these three pronouns 
contain the same element ; the question is whether this is also 
the case in Greek and Sanscrit, a question to which we should 
be inclined to seek for an affirmative answer, as well from the 
analogy of the Latin, as from general considerations. In our 
own every-day language we constantly use a demonstrative for 
a relative, and we must be conscious to ourselves of frequently 
using a demonstrative sentence, with a difference of tone, in an 
interrogative sense. This alone would lead us to believe that 
there cannot be any radical difference between the demonstrative 
and these particular kinds of pronouns. A little investigation 
will satisfy us that in the Greek and Sanscrit languages they are 
all etymologically identical, and all connected with the pronoun 
of the second person (element Fa). 

146 The Latin interrogative and indefinite are both writ- 
ten quis ; the relative is written qui. In these words therefore 
the root is qv-> or kv-. It has been already remarked that a 
double consonant-sound like kv may be superseded by a single 
representative of one of its two constituent parts. This is par- 
ticularly the case with the digamma sound, which, we have shown, 
was this same compound sound kv = kp. There are many in- 
stances in which this compound sound in Latin words is repre- 
sented in Greek, Sanscrit, and Gothic, or one of them, by one of 
its elements ; for example, we have the Latin e-qv-us compared 
with the Sanscrit agvas, with the Gothic aihvus, and the Greek 
<7r7ro9 (by a change of the guttural from '/ /c7ros = 'ikkos iEolic) ; 
co-qv-o compared with the Sanscrit pach, and the Greek 7re7rw ; 
o-qv-ulus compared with the Sanscrit aksha, and the Greek o/u/ua 
= o-mra ; lin-qv-o compared with Xa'nro) ; qv-atuor, and qv-inqv-e 
compared with the Sanscrit chatur, and panchan, Greek 7re- 
ropes, TGTopes (Tecrcrapes), and irevre, iretxire ; a-qv-a com- 
pared with the Sanscrit ap, Gothic ahva ; se-qv-or, compared 
with the Sanscrit sajj, and Greek ewo/uiai. We may also com- 
pare the Latin an-gv-is with the Sanscrit ahis, and the Greek 
e^i?. Similar changes have taken place even in the same lan- 
guage; thus, to take an instance in point, the Oscans, according 
to Festus, wrote pitpid for qv-id-qv-id, and the terminations. 



240 THE PERSONAL [Book II. 

-qvam, ~ce were identical with -piam, -pe. The guttural element 
ce, which thus appears as a substitute for the labial pe, was 
further softened into hi, as is shown by a comparison of hi-c 
" this/' ci-s, ci-tra, " on this side," ci-terio and ci-timo. In 
fact, qui, si-c, hi-c, is, are four forms of the same pronominal 
root, signifying relative proximity, in which the guttural element 
has successively degenerated. Accordingly, if all the Sanscrit 
and Greek forms of the relative, interrogative, and indefinite, 
are resolvable into one or other of the elements of this compound 
Latin consonant, we are entitled to conclude in favour of their 
original identity with one another. The full form is preserved 
in the Gothic liver, hva ; we pronounce the labial only in which, 
what, and the guttural only in who, how. 

147 We now turn to the Sanscrit forms. This language 
has three interrogative stems, Jca, hi, ku : thus, from the first 
and second, kas, ka, kim = qvis, quce, quid ? from the second, 
kiyan, kiyati, kiyat = quotus, quota, quotum ? and from the 
third, kutas = nude? kutra and kva = ubit From the second 
of these interrogative stems comes, by the softening process which 
is always going on in languages, the indefinite chit, just as church 
from kirk, chambrc from camera, &c. This particle, also writ- 
ten chana when added to the interrogative, gives it the sense 
" any one," " whosoever," " a certain person," just like g 
quis, &c. in Latin: thus, kach-chit (from kat-chit, used as an 
interrogative particle like the Latin on and num), kac-chit. 
chana = quisjnam. The copulative conjunction cha, also from 
this root, agrees as well with the Latin que as with the Greek 
re, the connexion of which is otherwise shown by a comparison 
of the forms ore, ir'ore, with 6Va, itoku. It appears unsoftened 
in the Veda-forms mdkis, nakis = nequis (softened again in the 
Zend mdchis, nai-chis), in md-kir, na-kir, md-kim, na kim = 
nisi, non (Colebrooke, Gramm. p. 121); and so also in the old 
Pelasgo-Etruscan, if we are right in supposing that ne-kc = 
que in the Hexameter inscription at Niplefl first printed by 
Lepsius (die Ti/rrhenisch. Pelas^ci', p. l^\ which we divide 
thus: mi ni JIuIre nebe Velthu ir Pupliana, and render. "I 
am not Mulva nor Volsinii, but Populonia." A comparison of 
these words with ni-hil, ne-qvid, together with the ana 1 , 
between hi-c and ci-s before pointed out, can leave no doubt in 



Chap. 1.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 241 

our minds as to the connexion of these terminations with the 
second pronominal element Fa. The Sanscrit relative is yas, yd, 
yat ; the y standing for the aspirate in 6$ y %, 6, according to 
what we said upon yushme and vfiels. That the demonstrative 
meaning entered largely into this relative, appears from a com- 
parison of the Zend demonstrative yim, Latin jam, " at this 
time," with the relative sense preserved in yadi, " when," and 
in yadi, " wherein," = " if" (comp. el and si). It will be remem- 
bered that the German wenn signifies both " when" and "if." It 
may be concluded, then, that the Sanscrit intorrogative, indefi- 
nite, and relative, spring from the guttural part of the digamma, 
which is the initial of the second pronominal element. 

148 If we even confined ourselves to the Greek language 
alone, we should have no difficulty in recognising the connexion 
between the relative and demonstrative. Greek Svntax teaches 
us that the relative 09, fj, o, is only a later and more emphatic 
form of the distinctive pronoun or definite article 6 (05), ri, to. 
In Homer we find the latter both as relative and antecedent ; 
thus (U. I. 125) : a\\d to. /x€V woXicov e£ eirpaOoixev, ra ce6ao~- 
rai : and even in Attic Greek, the distinctive pronoun is occa- 
sionally used for the relative*, just as our "that" appears in- 
stead of " which." Generally, however, in the more fully 
developed Syntax of the language, os, r\, o, as relative pronoun, 
is limited in its application to some sentence containing a finite 
verb, in close conjunction with which it forms a periphrastic defi- 
nition or description of some object considered as otherwise well 
known, or else, which is the highest refinement of Syntax, it 
makes some general assumption or supposition. But whether 
the antecedent, or object referred to, is definite as in the former 
case, or indefinite as in the latter, the relative sentence exists 
only by virtue of its antecedent ; in other words, it is a syntac- 
tical contrivance which plays the same part as the adjective or 



* Some have attempted to limit this use to the neuter gender, as well 
as to the oblique cases. But there are authorities for the use of the mas- 
culine (top, Eurip. Bacch. 712, rovs, Androm. 810) and feminine (ttjv, Soph. 
Track. 47) ; and we have therefore not hesitated to introduce the necessary- 
correction of t&v vn, dpyvpov, for ra>v d' V7rai yevovs in Soph. Ant. 1002. 
We take this opportunity of mentioning, what we did not know at the time, 
that the same conjecture had been previously suggested by Mr Mitchell. 

K 



242 THE PERSONAL [Book II. 

genitive case; and Mr Garnett, in the paper already quoted, has 
collected instances from various languages in which the affix of 
the genitive case is manifestly identical with the relative pro- 
noun. The Semitic languages, which, as we have elsewhere 
remarked, are in a tertiary or merely syntactical state, and 
have consequently lost their apparatus of inflexions, show more 
clearly than even the inflected languages that a demonstrative or 
indicative pronoun is the vehicle or instrument by which human 
speech expresses the connected, if not concurrent notions of a 
relative sentence, an adjectival epithet, and a genitive case. It 
is well known to every Hebrew scholar that the noun to be 
expressed in the genitive case is placed unaltered after the govern- 
ing noun, which, being affected by the contact, is said to be in 
the construct state. Not unfrequcntly the qualifying or genitive 
noun has prefixed to it the distinctive pronoun hal, which serves 
as a definite article, and sometimes a relative sentence takes the 
place of the genitive. Tim- r being '• a psalm," we 

might express the phrase, " a psalm of David" by (a) 
David, (b) mizmor had-Dai'id, (c) manor 'hasher or she le- 
David, which would be in Greek, (a) \}/a\/j.o-Safiic, (b) \W\- 
/uo9 o Aa/3^, (c) \j/a\fi6s o? rip £ In Chaldee, Syriac, 

Samaritan, Ethiopic and Arabic, the demonstrative pronoun di, 
dt\ za, and dsa, which is regularly used as the relative in these 
idioms, is as regularly employed to mark the genitive relation, 
and we have elsewhere* pointed out instances in which the cog- 
nate Hebrew pronoun geh is used in the same manner. For 
example the LXX translate mi-jnu' 'helohi'm zth-Cinai' by 
diro 7rpoau>7rov rod Qeov rod ~ii'ai. The most instructive : 
ture in this usage is the occasional corroboration of the distinc- 
tive particle by another pronominal element, which is properly 
synonymous with it, but which is prefixed by way of antecedent 
when the demonstrative import is superseded by the relative. 
We have seen instances of this in the relative*/ -.self, and 

in the compounds a-ha-m, e-go. And the genitive may be 
pressed not only by the relative 'hasher or she, but also by the 
article and relative ha she, and even with a double determi- 
native, as in lieth ha she. It has therefore been rightly sug- 



Pr ml tt ti o rhilohyica in Debonv Canticum Triumphale, (Cantabrigia\ 
1848), p. 11. 



Chap. 1.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 243 

gested by Mr Garnett that the termination a in Ethiopic con- 
struct nouns, and the -i and -u in Hebrew and Arabic, are 
derived from pronominal elements of a demonstrative and, ulti- 
mately, a relative nature. As the guttural in the Semitic lan- 
guages constantly subsides into the vocal chirik there is no rea- 
son why Abi-meleh should not represent an original Ab-ham- 
melek. We must return to this important subject when we come 
to speak more at length of the adjective ; at present enough has 
been said to show that there is no reason for doubting the con- 
nexion between the relative and the second pronominal element 
indicating proximity. Indeed, there are some languages, in the 
ultimate condition of departure from the original etymological 
structure, which express the strongest form of the relative sen- 
tence either by the correlation of two pronouns expressing near- 
ness, or by placing one of these in the relative clause : thus in 
the instance* quoted by Bushmann (iiber die Kawi-Sprache, 
III. nr. 720), either of the relative sentences ; qui fidelis amicus 
est, is fidelis in rebus adversis est : or qui fidelis in r. a. est, is 
est fidelis amicus is expressed : is fidelis amicus est, is fidelis 
in rebus adversis est. And in the celebrated Chinese saying, 
usually attributed to a greater than Confucius, we find the 
demonstrative used instead of the relative only : tit so pu yd, ue 
shi yu jin, which is literally : " ipse hoc non cupis, ne inferas 
hominibus." In the most interesting and important application 
of the relative construction, namely, to the formation of hypo- 



* We have taken this and the following example from Dr Steinthal's 
tract entitled "de pronomine relativo commentatio philosophico-philolo- 
gica cum excursu de nominativi particula" (Berolini, 1847) p. 87. This 
author, who is an enthusiastic disciple of W. von Humboldt, applies his 
master's principles to an investigation of the use of the relative chiefly 
in the Chinese and African languages. With regard to the Indo-Ger- 
manic idioms he states specifically (p. 101) "relativum in his Unguis e 
demonstrativis et interrogativis ortum esse." But he defines the relative 
generally as the demonstrativum formate (p. 84), and says that whereas the 
personal suffixes denote coincidence, and the demonstratives (including case- 
endings and prepositions) signify dependence, the proper use of the relative 
is to express inherence (p. 21). In all this there is rather an accumulation 
of words than a clear statement of definite notions. The relative is 
neither more nor less than a particular logical employment of the pro- 
noun signifying proximity. 

R2 



244 THE PERSONAL [Book II. 

thetical propositions, we shall see that the Greek not only 
opposes the antecedent av to the relative el, but occasionally, in 
the older poets, introduces k€, from the second element, in the 
protasis as well as in the apodosis. 

149 The indefinite and interrogative pronouns in Greek 
are both written r*s, originally ti-v-s, the distinction between 
them being that one is an enclitic, the other accentuated ; the 
one being written after, and the other before, the word to which 
it refers : in the former case, the want of accent unites the noun 
and its corresponding indefinite so closely, that they may fairly 
be considered as one word. That the first part of rtv-s is not 
connected with the third pronominal root ta, as might be sup- 
posed on a casual inspection, appears, to a certain extent, from 
the fact, that their uses in Greek are absolutely and diametri- 
cally opposite. We are not speaking here of the nominative, 
masculine and feminine, of the Greek article, which we believe 
to be of the same origin with the relative, &c, but of the ob- 
jective cases which r/9 externally resembles. The article, 6, »/, to, 
is a pronoun which would not in all cases express with sufficient 
definiteness any particular object, even though that object may 
have been mentioned before : the name of the object is, there- 
fore, added to avoid a vague generality. Conversely, when it 
is desirable to express that some class is known, but not a par- 
ticular individual of that class, the general attributive noun is 
put first, and the indefinite word after it. And thus, if it is 
necessary to lay particular emphasis on the class, the incliri' 
of which we do not know, a Greek would not hesitate to prefix 
an article and affix an indefinite to the same word; thus we 
have, in a distributive sentence, in Eurip. Med, 1141 : 

Kvvel o 6 [xev Ti? X € '( J '' ° c ^ %<*vQov napa 
7raiccov. 

and similarly in Soph. CEd. T\jr. 107 : 

tovtov QavovTos vvv eiriareWei aa(p<Jos 

TOUS aVTO€VTCL<$ \€ipl Tl,UWf>€U> TtPcfcj 

i.e. "the murderers (for we know he was ma whoever 

the particular persons may be (for we do not know that):" and 
thus CEdipus immediately asks o'l S* elal 7rou yjj ; " where are 
they?" a question which shows how the interrogative might 



Chap. L] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 245 

have arisen from this use of the indefinite, with merely the 
change of tone indicated by the accent : yuvy t*9 — ti$ yvvn ; 
"a woman somewhere" — " where?" But, if tis is not con- 
nected with the stem ta, how is it to be explained ? It is 
sufficiently obvious that it is not the primary and genuine, but 
a secondary and corrupted form of the original interrogative 
and indefinite. We find traces both of the labial and of the 
guttural element of the original Fa, even in the existing state 
of the language : we have the former in the Attic words 7roy, 
7toT, irore, 7r66i, iroOev, 7ro<jo? 9 7ro?os, irorepos, &c, and of the 
latter in their Iouic equivalents kou, /coT, kotc, koOi, KoOev, 
Koaos, ko7os, Korepos, &c. The latter of these two forms 
appears immediately in the Latin word cur, and also in (c)ubi, 
(c)unde, (c)uter, (c)ubi, (c)ut, as we may fairly infer from the 
compounds ali-cubi, ali-cunde, and from a comparison of the 
Latin amo with the Sanscrit kdmaydmi. That these words, 
however, are only the older and more genuine forms of the 
interrogative t&, appears from a comparison of Teropes, re, 
ore, &c. with tropes, kcli, oko, &c, and from the identity of 
irevre with quinque, Sanscrit panchan, &c. ; so that tis is 
merely a corrupted form of Ffs, the course of the changes 
being from sv through hv to 8v, rv, and ti. We have shown 
that the Sanscrit relative yas is another form of the Greek 09 
(= cros-), and it appears that the indefinite and interrogative ti<$, 
tis, are identical with chis, Ms. In fact, ns is nearer to the 
Latin synonym quis than re is to que, for the guttural element 
is very sufficiently represented by ti =j. The full crude form 
of ri9 is of course ti-v-, the latter part being the third element 
under the type na* In other words, it is a compound of two 
pronominal elements, like ets = e-y-9, Kel-vos, rfj-vos, d-vd, &c. 
It bears, therefore, the same relation to 6s, yas, qui, that Ztjv, 
Tuscan Tina (Varronianus, p. 105), does to Zei/9, Ju-piter, 
Jov-is. It is difficult to say why the tenuis t in this word, in 
the pronoun tv - rFe, in the terminations -tis, -T1/9, and in re- 
Topes, re, &c, has taken the place of the medial $ or medial 



* This addition, which Schomann regards as unessential, in order to 
bring in his strange etymology, r-ts = is-te (Hofer's Zeitschrift, I. 2. p. 
250, l), has caused some difficulty to Lobeck also (see Varronianus, p. 105, 
note). 



246 THE PERSONAL [Book II. 

aspirate 0, which are generally the dental representatives of the 
sibilant : but there is abundant reason to believe that this sub- 
stitution has been made ; indeed, as we shall see in the follow- 
ing chapter, the more original form of tis, namely, ce/s = cev-s, 
or Seiv-s, has not quite vanished from the language, and $i = 
oFe still stands by the side of re = rFe. In general, we see a 
tendency to substitute the tenuis for the medial, which is espe- 
cially manifested in the altered value of 9. And, in regard to 
the particular case, as the natural changes, which are always at 
work upon a language as long as it is a spoken one, continued 
longer in operation in Greek than in Sanscrit, we are entitled 
to conclude that the Greek relative was also, in the Pelasgian 
state of the language, identical with the indefinite and interro- 
gative. As an illustration of the affinities between the Greek 
and old Persian, to which we have already adverted, it is worthy 
of remark, that the relative in the Behistun inscription, as 
deciphered by Major Rawlinson, is written both tya and hya. 

150 The original demonstrative power of the Greek inter- 
rogative stem *(") is still preserved in a number of words in 
common use, such as nd-rci, kci-vo?. k(i'i, kcv (\a Doric), and 'ye 
(7a Doric). This root may also be recognised with a 
strative power in the modern French ce, ci, ce-tte, ce-ci, ce-Ue, 
and in the Italian ci. The use of ci, as the accusative plural of 
the first personal pronoun, is an additional illustration of the 
demonstrative nature of that pronoun. 

Wc must bestow a little consideration upon some very important 
words indicating relations of time into which this root kv (under 
certain regular varieties of form) enters with the demonstrative signifi- 
cation. The Sanscrit word for "yesterday 1 - r, the Gr 
the Latin /icr-i from fo-t (Aii ttrnui, Sanscrit //i/<u-tii/i<is), and the 
Gothic (jis-tra. All these words manifestly contain the same clement 
Xr-, represented by hy- in the Sanscrit word, by \^- in Greek, by the 
common aspirate in Latin, and the guttural in Gothic. A comparison 
of \'^to'i', gfapoXocj X a l JiCl ^ MMJ ilMWiffj shows that \d is occasionally 
represented by ^ or A only. Wfl do not believe that the syllable - 
is, as Bopp suggests (F mm. p. 568), a mutilation of </' 

In a word of such common use. an adjective pronoun signifying near 
might be used without any substantive, just as brum* (=J>rcrim 
used for "the shortest day" without any addition o( dim. The same 



Chap, l.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 247 

root also enters into the Sanscrit word $ vas (= Jcvas), Latin eras = csas ; 
these words imply nearness as well as kes-, &c., but as the nearness is 
predicated with a prospective and not a retrospective reference, a different 
form of the same root has been adopted. The word peren-die "on 
another day" (para "another," Sanscrit) should also signify "tomorrow," 
but all-powerful custom has assigned to it the meaning " on the day- 
after-tomorrow." The word vesper, ea-irepa " evening," is made up of the 
pronoun ves (= kes = chthes =gis = hyas), and the pronominal adjective 
para, pera, which we have seen in peren-die, only here para is used in 
the sense of " late " or " after/' as in pardhna " the afternoon," " the 
latter part of the day" (from para "after" and ahan "a day"); the 
initial pronoun, retaining its signification of nearness, is applied by 
another change in the association to a part of the present day, and 
vesperus means " this day late " or " after this day." These transitions 
by association are all so many facts; the reasons for them, though 
easily explained, are most easily felt; and it is better to investigate these 
curious time-adjectives by the application of such a simple principle, 
than by the hypothesis of almost impossible mutilations, as Bopp does. 
The word tjpipa itself, the second part of which (pep-) is evidently the 
element of jue/>o<?, may be connected with the Sanscrit root dyd (=jd). 
Compare fiirap, jecur, yak-rit, &c. : so that rj-ixep-a will signify " the 
light," "the part of the twenty- four hours during which the sun 
shines." Or rather, to go farther back, it may be the preposition hid, 
dya=ja, which appears in rjfjLi<rv = hid-peao<;, and which we have no 
hesitation in recognising in the adjective ijpepos, the regular antithesis 
to dypios. Thus too, we must compare tjyefjioou, tiyeTcrdai, with hidyio, 
8to7ro<? (iEsch. Pers. 44), &c. ; for the preposition hid seems particularly 
applicable to the functions of a leader or guide. "We consider rjpLepcx; 
as originally predicable of a country through which there was a road 
or passage, a country divided by a road (W^epo?), just as dypio? was 
properly applied to a rude open country with nothing but dypoi. This 
appears from the following passages : iEschylus, JEumeni d. 12 — 14: 

7T€fX7rovcri o avTov Ka\ <r€j3i£ov<riu fxeya 

Ke\€vQoTroio\ ircuhes 'Hcpaiarov, ydova 

avrjfxepov Tidewres ijfxep u>pL€vr)v. 
Plato Legg. p. 761 A: obiav re eiri/jLeXov/jLevovs, oVec? w? t]p.€p<aT(ZTai 
exa a-Tai yiyvwvrat : compare Pindar, Isthm. III. 75 (IV. 97) : 

/ecu f3a.dvKpiJij.vov TroAta? aAo? igevpwv Qevap, 

vavri\iai<ri tg iropdfxou dfxepwa-aTo. 

which refers to the passage of Hercules through the straits ; and for the 
etymology compare "H^e^o? with its epithet liairpv<no<i (Pindar, Nem. 



248 THE PERSONAL [Book II. 

IV. 51), on the principle pointed out by Lobeck (ad Soph. Aj. 254, 
p. 193). The effect of such road-making on civilization appears 
clearly enough from what Aristotle says of the Herculean way, and of 
the protection afforded to those who travelled upon it (nepi 6av/jia<riu)u 
dKovarfxaToov, c. 85. p. 837 Bekker) *. We consider dies, dya, Sec. of 
pronominal original, like the particle ctj, which generally refers to 
time. 

151 From the facts here stated, we are entitled to con- 
clude, with regard to the pronouns in general, that they were 
all originally demonstrative : that there are three primitive pro- 
nouns ; that the second of these, which indicates nearness to the 
here, gave birth under the form Fa to the reflexive pronoun and 
the relative, which are identical with it; and that different mo- 
difications of this same second personal pronoun were subse- 
quently used to express all relations of nearness, till at last in 
modern Italian a word formed from the same root came to be 
used to express the here itself, that is, the first personal pronoun. 

152 The adjectives formed from pronouns eonstitul 
subject immediately connected with thai which we have been disease 
In regard to the poesessiTes formed from the persona] pronouns 

appears lingular that, while those from the second and third person are 

regularly formed from the genitive ca-c, the po oooOBI Te <>f the tir-t 
pronoun, c/moc, though it contains the adscititionfl € which we have 
noticed as an occasional prefix to the objective ClOOO of the pronoun 
itself, omits the e in the second syllable: there i-. h<>\\ 
believe that as Homer nssd the form /.te'oc from pco, like the Latin 
mens from mc\, which is quite regular, ifux is only a corruption of an 
original fV et >S fr° m e V e " for eueTof. The Sanscrit possessives are 
madtya, "mine," tvadtya, "thine, I !able 

of the two former is identical with e ablatives of the 

pronouns. The only ablative of the third person which is in OS 
tatmdt, but it is very likely that a shorter form, an I the 

ablatives of the other two pronoun-, was once in existence; at 
all events, constant use would easily generate such an abbreviation 
in the compound. It will be shown in a future chapter that 



* Wo have treated this important subject at greater length in the Yetrroniatttu^ pp. 
219 — 828, On the eonnexion in meaning b », (which contains the same 

root as dyiov, dyopd,) an \ki«?. ■•■ below § 889. 

f See above. \\ 



Chap. L] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 249 

or tia is the full or original form of the ablative affix, from which, 
of course, these possessives are derived. This termination is also found 
in the Greek adjectives of quality olo? (o'-to?), 7ro?o9 (71-0-109), to?o? 
(to-ios), the d or s having dropt out, just as the s has been absorbed in 
the cognate genitives in -010, in which we should expect -<rio on the 
analogy of the Sanscrit genitive ending -sya ; compare elilocro, elllov, 
Ii^okto^ SiloTo (Bopp, Vergl. Gramm. p. 220). Indeed, as we shall 
show hereafter, — lios and -cno? are by-forms of the genitive or ablative 
case. The d is preserved in "ilios from the pronoun 7. The force of 
this termination in Greek is invariably to denote derivation, kind, or 
quality : we might, if we liked, consider the Sanscrit termination as 
compounded of the demonstrative and relative, and signifying " that 
which ; " but it is better to refer this form to the genitive or ablative 
ending*. The Greek pronominal adjectives signifying quantity are 
o-o-os, 7ro-<ro9, to'-o-o<?, &c. We have elsewhere pointed out that the 
termination -<ro$ signifies " a collection " or "aggregate," even when 
found as a part of nouns, and it obviously bears the same sense in these 
pronominal words. But how did it get that sense? It cannot be 
doubted that 7-<ros has the same termination. Now it is well known 
that this word was originally pronounced "<rvos, and even F'VFo?, as 
appears from the necessities of the metre in Homer, and from the gloss 
7 1 o-y ov, 'i<rov in Hesychius. The labial was, however, dropt in the 
course of time, and '1<to<z appears in all the later poets with the first 
syllable short, so that this is no reason for denying its connexion with 
o-o-os, &c. in point of termination. As 7-<ros and toVo? are synonyms, 
both signifying "so great," i. e. "equal," an examination of the common 
part in these words will lead to a proper interpretation of the affix 
a-os = Fo? = acpos. This word implies " all that belongs to the person 
near us," a meaning which includes in it the idea of a collection or 
aggregation ; and this is just what we want. There is no occasion 
therefore to connect this ending with the Sanscrit -vat, or -vant, though 
this is of course the origin of the Latin quantus, tantus, &c. ; for tantus 
is connected with the Sanscrit tdvant, just as malo is with mavolo. We 
do not think Bopp is right in deriving from this stem the Latin 
adjectives opulentus, &c. by a de -vocalization of the I, because con- 
versely the French have turned the Italian at into au (Jiber den Einfluss 
der Pronomina, &c. p. 7); it is clear that these adjectives are true 
compounds with lentus, which signifies "heavy," i.e. "slow from 
weight;" nor do we concur with the same eminent philologer in 



* In like manner the relative stem ko- expresses a quality in such adjectives as 
ypa/j.fxaT~L-K09. 



250 THE PERSONAL AND OTHER PRONOUNS. [Book II. 

connecting the terminations of tz-At/cos, tt^-X/ko?, t^-Aiko?, immediately 
with the Sanscrit verb dric — "to see" (Greek cepum). It i3 true that 
the Sanscrit ta-drica, &c, are perfectly synonymous with t*7-A<ko<?, &c, 
but it is more in accordance with the general analogies of the Greek 
language to consider -A/-ko? as a compound of two terminations la-, ka-, 
each of which is found separately at the end of words. The second 
part of the compound is omitted in the Latin -lis, as in ta-lis (nj-Ai-f ), 
qva-lis (W-At-f), &c. It is possible that the syllable At- ^may be con- 
nected with the root of a Greek verb (\dw) synonymous with ce/jxw, 
but hep™ is itself a compound verb as well as the Sanscrit ending 
dri-ca, and though, as we shall see hereafter, the root At- may be of the 
same origin with part of the root d-ri-c, this does not justify Bopp's 
mode of proceeding with regard to these terminations. At one time he 
bases his argument on the interchange of the d and /, as in cdupvua, 
lacryma (iiber den Einfluss, &c. p. 8), at another time on the inter- 
change of r and / {Veryleich . Gramm. p. 599); but we have both d 
and r in drie-, and are we to suppose that they can both be turned into 
anZ?* The Greek termination -Anco? or -A«f (»/A«f, oVv-uf) runs 
through most of the sister-languages. Thus we have in Gothic sra- 
(eik$ t hrc-Liks, Anglo-Saxon t ky lie, German ahn-lo r (so-like, 

such), and in English like. In Latin many very common adjectives are 
formed with this termination: e.g. (from a- I n-crit 

e-kas "that which"), r< : i<i-li.<, riri-?i*\ mitti fit, humi-lis, rimi-lis, 
fame-lieus, &c. The word fe-lix also contains this termination ; the 
first part of the word is connected, as Bopp suggests ( Ver>ileich. Gram' 
matik, p. 606), with the Sanscrit Lhuj, not, as others have sup] 
with fe-tus, fctura, fe-mina, &c. It is related to// 
and the Greek (pdpos (viro-<pav-<ri<;). It might be written (pav\ig in 
Greek characters t, like <pav-\o<; "light," "blown about hy 
breeze" (F«'F<o, Fac-onius), and signifies literally "light-like," i.e. 
"brilliant,"" splendid {." 



• The Praerit corruptions tariso, &c. prove nothing, 
■f We are aware that the surname of Claudius Felix is written *>1Ai£ hi Josephus, 
XX. G. Act. Apostol. xxiv. Suidas 8. r. KXav&UK. This is not, however, an etymolo- 
gical transcription, but only an attempt, like the <Zk dye {hoc age) of Plutarch, to 
represent the sound of the Latin word. 

$ On the connexion of "light " and ■ air," see Book IV. Ch. ">. 



CHAPTER II. 
THE NUMERALS. 

153 Why numerals have lost their original signification. 154 Connexions of the first 
numeral with the first personal pronoun. 155 Similar affinities of the second 
numeral and second pronoun. 156 Origin and explanation of <5eis and Selva. 
157 The third numeral and its use as a comparative affix. 158 The fourth 
numeral compounded of the first and third. 159 Why the first four numerals 
are declined in Greek, and the others undeclined : eight the dual of four. 169 
The sixtJi and seventh numerals how related. 161 The fifth, ninth, and tenth 
numerals are to be referred to a decimal system of computation. 162 Views of 
Lepsius on this subject, and on the higher numbers. 163 Vague expressions 
for large numbers. 164 Ordinals, and their connexion with comparatives and 
superlatives. 165 General comparison expressed by the affix -iwv. 166 Compa- 
rative words, such as ?'/'/ucru, jue'-aos, a\\os. 167 Superlatives in -kt-tos derived 
from adverbs in -is, or from nouns in -v<s, -evs. 

153 OINCE it is the tendency of inflected languages to be- 
O come more and more abstract, as they develope them- 
selves syntactically by means of writing, and, by striving after 
generalization, to lose the immediately perceivable meaning of 
their individual words, we might expect that this tendency 
would soonest be realized in the numerals*. The use of numerals 
at all is an abstraction, and one of the highest kind ; it is 
stripping things of all their sensible properties and considering 
them as merely relations of number, as members of a series, as 
perfectly general relations of place. Hence it is, that the short- 
hand of written language has arrived at. its completion in nu- 



* There have been many important treatises on the subject of the 
numerals. The most valuable are those by Lepsius (iiber d. Ursprung u. d. 
Verwandtschaft der Zahlworter in der indogermanischen, semitischen, u. d. 
koptischen Sprache, Zwei Sprachvergl. Abh. Berlin, 1836) and by Pott (die 
quinare u. vigesirnale Zahhnethode bei Volken alter Welttheile, nebst ausfuhrl. 
Bemerkungen ilber die Zahlworter Indogerm. Stammes u. einem Anh. iiber 
Fingemamen, Halle 1847). The second of these treatises is to a certain 
extent controversially opposed to the former; and though we are in- 
debted to Dr Lepsius for many interesting details in the present chapter, 
we think his leading principles (p. 92 sqq.) untenable, and we have here 
followed up the views respecting the classification of the pronominal ele- 
ments, which we have set forth in the preceding chapter. We have made 
the Hebrew numerals the subject of a special investigation in a tract en- 
titled Maskil le-Sopher, London, 1848. pp. 41 sqq. 



252 THE NUMERALS. [Book II. 

merals sooner than in any other words; for while all other 
words are expressed by combinations of letters, the words 
expressing abstract number have, in all languages, a set of 
distinct symbols or cyphers for their expression. In the 
language of Algebra the same method has been carried so 
far, that we can now, by a systematic combination of single 
letters, carry on the most complicated analytical reasonings in 
all sciences based upon one or other of our primary intuitions 
of space and time. 

154 It was hinted in the last chapter, that the first three 
numerals are the three personal pronouns : this we shall now 
endeavour to prove by considering them in detail. 

The root of the first personal pronoun is ma ; it signifies 
" that which is here." The natural connexion between the ideas 
of here, that wldcli is near to the here, and there, and the 
numbers "one," "two," "three," needs no formal exposition : 
the vulgarism "number one" as a synonym for the first person, 
and the proximus sum e/jomtt miki of the Latin comedian, 
speak in the plainest terms for this identity. Our business is to 
establish the etymological fact. 

The Greek word expressing the number one was a regularly 
inflected adjective ; in the ordinary writers we find efs, fi'ia, eV, 
but in Homer the feminine is written ?a (Ilia</. IV. ; :. XIII. 
854. XXI. 669), in which, as well as in the ordinary masculine 
and neuter, we discern no traces of the first pronominal root 
na. Doderlein (Lat. Si/non. IV. p. 52) supposes that fa is 
connected with fila as eo is with imo. and oKou with m 
The following investigation will show that there is no connexion 
between fa, or, as it should be written, fa, and ula. 

Man is naturally led to adopt one of two methods of arith- 
metical reckoning : the decimal, suggested by his own hands 
and feet, and the duodecimal, derived from the twelve moons. 
The latter system was of more frequent use in ancient times 
than it is now, though we still have our dozen as a distinct 
term, and still divide the day into two portions of IS hours 
each, and carry the same division into our tables of weights and 
measures. Among the Greeks, the prevalence of this system is 
more strongly shown by the 18 gods, most of them clearly con- 
nected with the months, and by the frequent occurrence of the 



Chap. 2,] THE NUMERALS. 253 

number 12 in political subdivisions. "We find that most ancient 
states had some regulative number which was the basis of their 
social organization. " Twelve," says Niebuhr, " was the funda- 
mental number of the Ionians, which appears in their towns in 
the Peloponnesus and in Asia, as well as in the Attic TpiTTves. 
Their primary number was four ; then each quarter was sub- 
divided into three" {Hist, of Rome, II. p. 20). He should 
rather have stated that the primary number was twelve, a num- 
ber suggested by the changes of the moon, and that this number 
was divided into three tetrads. The influence of this subdivision 
upon the formation of the numerals will be seen by and by. 
But if twelve was the regulative number of the Ionians, and if 
this number was, as is highly probable, suggested by the num- 
ber of the moons or months, should we not expect that the 
words for an "unit" and a " month" would be identical ? Now 
the Ionian word for a month or moon is /mek (Homer, Iliad, 
XIX. 117. Hymn. Merc. 11. Hes. e. k. t). 559. Herod. II. 82), 
and this is also found in iEolic (Pindar, Nem. V. 82. comp. 
Suidas and Zonaras under the word tieis). The feminine fila 
therefore perfectly corresponds with this form. We shall now 
show that the common particle fxev is the regular neuter of 
/ue/? = juev-s. 

A full discussion of all the usages of juev, as a conjunction, 
belongs rather to the syntax of the conjunctions than to the 
present subject*. We shall now insist only on those of its uses 
which most strikingly show that it means " the first thing," " in 
the first place." This amounts almost to a certainty when it is 
considered, that, in its regular use, it is always opposed to Si, 
which can be proved to mean " in the second place." It is also 
proved by this circumstance, that juev never stands alone without 
suggesting the idea of something that is to follow. Thus, when 
Socrates is going to catechize Meno's slave, he asks the master, 
''EWrjv juev ea-TL Kal iWyjvt^et; " he is a Greek, I suppose, and 
talks Greek" (Plato, Meno, p. 82 b). Here an cl Se m is ob- 
viously implied : " if he is not, he will not serve my purpose of 
questioning him:" so also in the answer iraw nev olv, which is 
so common in Plato's dialogues, there is a manifest suspension of 
part of the sentence: "you are right, but what then?" (rl d 



* See Greek Grammar, Art. 559-568. 



254 THE NUMERALS. [Book II. 

€7r€Lra;) and there is always an expectation of something ulte- 
rior in the use of fxevroi in answers : e. g. Aristophanes, Equites, 
890 : tov KctvXov olaO etceivov tov ai\(piov tov a^iov yevdfxe- 
vov; "do you remember the fall in the price of laserpitium ? " 
the Demus answers oloa fxevroi — " to be sure I do, and what of 
it ?" In such phrases as r\ aol /xev TJ/ueT? iravrayj] cpwvres 
<pi\oi (Soph. Antig. 634), the other part of the opposition (ei 
[irjSevl ciX\(o) is so obvious that it is omitted. There are also 
cases where /iev standing alone recalls the idea of the first per- 
son, and is nearly equivalent to the Italian phrase in quanto a 
me, e. g. Plato, Crito, p. 43 d : ovtol Stj dcp'iKTui, dWd conel 
/ul€v /uot ij^eiv TrjfxepoV' In other passages it means " first of 
all," " above all others," as in Homer, Iliad, V. 893 : "H/t»79, 
Trjv /uev eyw Girovcri cd^ivrj/x erreeaaiv. From all this it 
appears certain that /ueV is the neuter of fiek, which bears the 
same relation to men-sis that OeU (Oevrs) does to OevTos (Bockh, 
Staatshaush. II. p. 395). 

We have therefore fieis, n'ia, /iev, as complete in all its parts 
as eh, la, ev y "and containing the elementary pronominal form 
tie. We find the same root and with the same signification in 
/ulovos, "only," "one-ly" (Ionic fxovvos, Doric fxwvos), which 
answers also to the Gothic possessive nuins. The ia men- 
tioned above is obviously connected with the second prono- 
minal clement: compare '1, hi-c, &c. : there are many coinci- 
dences in use between the first and second elements; see above, 
§§ 135, 150, &c. 

The first Sanscrit numeral ckas is, as we have before sug- 
gested, related to aham, the nominative of the first pronoun; 
it is represented by the Greek e/ca9, enaTepos, tKwrrott and is 
probably formed, as Bopp supposes, from the demonstrative 
stem e, and the relative or interrogative kas, with the meaning 
" that which :" we shall speak again of this word in a future 
chapter. Bopp has attempted to find a further remnant of the 
Sanscrit numeral in the word codes, which is explained as " one- 
eyed " (Plin. A". H. XXX VII. 55 : coclites qui altero lumine orbi 
nascuntur), and which he would consider as a compound of ca 
for eka and oculus. In a similar manner he would explain the 
Gothic haihs, and the Latin arcus, which he writes caicus. 
Grimm also compares k-i/k-\o>\|/ (GescJi. d. dcutsch. Spr, p. S 
It appears to us that cocks, which has the same formative ending 



Chap. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 255 

as aries, miles, paries, &c, is derived from cceculus, a diminutive 
of ccecus; and we have no objection to consider kvkX-wxJs an- 
other derivative of the same kind : cf. TrpvXees with proelium, &c. 
(Varron. p. 215). Luscus seems to be Xo%os with the common 
inversion of the elements of £. The ordinary Greek eh = evs 
is connected with the Sanscrit demonstrative e-na {aina), with 
the Gothic aina, and with the Latin unus, most anciently 
written oinos, by the substitution of an unaspirated long for an 
aspirated short vowel before explained, just as ekas and e/cas 
are connected. The same word also occurred in Greek (see the 
Commentators on Hesychius, sub vv. olvrj and o'lv'iCeiv), and we 
have it with an s instead of the aspirate in the Latin words 
sem-el*, sim-plex, sem-per, and sin-gulus, just as enas appears 
under the form secus in the same language. 

155 It is clear that the first Greek numeral contains the 
first pronominal element ; it is no less so that the word express- 
ing the number two is identical with the second personal pro- 
noun. In the last chapter it was suggested that the three 
original pronouns would probably be the three tenues pa, ka = 
Fa, ta; that the first might be represented by the cognate 
sounds ma or va, and the second by that double sound Fa, 
a combination of the guttural and labial, which so often appears 
in certain languages of the Indo-Germanic family, where we 
have only a labial or a guttural in the others. We have seen 
that in some cases the second element is represented only by 
tF, tv, or Tt. It was also mentioned that we might extend 
or modify the signification of these elements by combining them 
with one another, or with the element ra, denoting motion or 
beyond. Thus, the compound ka-ra or tva-ra might present 
the third position, which might also be expressed in a stronger 
manner by ta-ra. Now it is the corruption tv which constitutes 
the usual form of the second personal pronoun ; and this form of 
the second pronoun exactly coincides with the second numeral. 
In most cases, however, the more ancient d has not been super- 
seded in the numeral by the tenuis t, which takes its place in 
the personal pronoun. Thus, we have in Sanscrit dvau, in Zend 



* Pott (Zahlmethode, p. 156) derives a-na% from 7njyvv(ju; cf. eVt/ii£, 
dvajxi£, &C. 



256 THE NUMERALS. [Book H. 

dva, in Greek Svco, Svo (=cFo), in Latin duo (dvo), but in 
Gothic tvai. In this, as in other cases, where two consonants 
make one sound, we frequently find one of them standing as a 
representative of both. Sometimes the dental is omitted, as in 
a.fx-(pu) (dud Sfuo), in Fet/can, vi-fjiuti and vln-cati instead of 
cFei-KctTi, dvi-giati, dvin-cati : so also in belhtm, bird, 
bes~*, from dvellum, dvini. dvis, dec*. At other times, on the 
contrary, the labial is dropt, as in ^e, cea. ~o<, tco-ce*a, 

Si/uLtjrwp (Sanscrit dvimatri). 

It has been remarked that the origin of the second personal 
pronoun is the idea of comparative nearness. An examination 
of the second numeral will show that the same is the case with 
it. That Se is the shortest form of this numeral, is proved by 
its constant use in the obvious sense of " in the second place," 
and by the verb ceto = cFeco, " to bind," (compare turn 
Besides, the numeral He was also written lie = cFc : this n 
be inferred from the Attic form oWtr, and we clearly read it in 
an Arcadian Inscription (1511, 1. 7, Bockh): /ui rai -rpid- 

Kovra. Now this particle it is often med in composition to 
express comparative nearness. In this sense it appears in 
" the man near," &C It is also used to express motion towards, 
or a tendency to become near, as in 'OXvairov-ce u towards 
Olympus," oUorSe "homewards," Afly»q£c» 'Aflyput it "to- 
wards Athcnsf." It is found with the same meaning in ceupo 
= SeFpo, a word which requires some explanation. We have 
before remarked on the change of place to which the digamma 
is liable : there is nothing singular, therefore, in the change 
from ^Fe- to &F-. That such a change has taken place in this 
root, is manifest from the fact, that M rtpm is the only ordinal 
of Sua), and that cfeco to bind (which we have shown to be im- 
mediately formed from this root) is intimately connected with 
Seo/mai = Sevo.um. The word ceFpo signifies " in this direction," 
Seurepos "a man who is nearer to us than another man,'' and 
cevraros "a man who is nearest to us of a series of men," i.e. 



* See Sahna-. irum. p. ! 

t Since tho above WM first published we fa mewhero — pro- 

bably in the Transact ions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh — an 
nious attempt by the late Professor Hunter to connect ftj and* -£f. at and 
ad, two, to, and too. 



Chap. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 257 

" the last," and thus it is used as a synonym for vo-rctros. 
The Latin secundus is only a lengthened form of sequens, as 
will be shown in a future chapter. 

156 There is another word of the highest interest connected 
with the second numeral, which these combinations will enable us 
to explain: we mean the pronoun 6, r\, to Selva, or, as we would 
write it (after the analogy of o£e, ij$€, toSc), — oleiva, ijSeiva, 
ToSeiva. This word signifies, that, though we know perfectly 
the particular person or thing we are speaking of, we either 
cannot or will not mention the name : it was, therefore, natural 
enough that a word, signifying proximity, should be added to 
the personal pronoun, to refer to a person or thing definitely 
conceived, but indefinitely mentioned. Now we have seen that 
the first personal pronoun, when used to express the first nu- 
meral, was lengthened from /me- into nets = pen?. We should 
expect, therefore, that the second pronominal root $Fe or rFe 
would be analogously lengthened into cFe/s = ^FeVs when used 
to express the second numeral. This termination -vs (-v\o's) 
was, as we shall see under the prepositions, a strong expression 
of locality, and this sense is highly appropriate for a transfer 
of the weaker relations of space which constitute persons, into 
those stronger ones which originated the numerals. Let us 
inquire then, if there ever was such a word as $ek. The author 
of the Etymologicum Magnum, says (p. 639, 1. H, Sylb.) : 
Ovceis. Igtsov on tou oucek, ore laocuva/uLel Tip outis, ouo 
fJLeprj Xoyou eicri, to re ou, kcil to oe/s. ouoe yap eo~Ti auvOe- 
tov. el yap r\v auuOeTov, rjfxeWe irpo /jlius e\eiv tou tovov. 
irav yap 'ovofxa /uovocruWafiou auvTiOefievov dvafiifia^ei tou 
tovov — 7ra/9, €U7rai<S' yQwv, avToyOuov" Qpq<~, 'EafxoOpa^' \oopis 

TOU 7TT(jo£, 7ro\l>7TTcJ£. aUTOU C€ TOU OV&€l$ TO OV$€T€pOV) $€V, 

X^pts r^s ov TrapaOeaews e-^o/nev irapa AXkciuo ev Tip evaTW, 
Kovoev €K cevos yevoiro, Zrjvofiios. See Mullach, Quwst. 
Democrit. p. 362. So also Choeroboscus (Bekkeri Anecd. 
p. 1362) : dei/, oirep lo-o^uvafxei tw ti. In fact, as we have 
suggested above (§ 149), §eis=Se-v-$ is really the older form of 
tis = tI-v-s. The word /xek has the flexion fietvos (Bockh, 
C. I, I. p. 741), as well as ixevos (Chcerobosc. in Theodos. I. p. 
200, ed. Gaisford). Similarly, we find Selvos, as well as Sevos, 
from Sets. There is no more difficulty therefore in the adverb 

S 



258 THE NUMEKALS. [Book II. 

Selva from oek, than in 'iva from eh*. But, besides this adverb, 
we find traces of a regular declension : thus we have gen. deit/os, 
dat. ceivL, accus. Selva, in the singular, and nom. celves, gen. 
Selvwv, accus. Selvas, in the plural. The form of the dative 
plural may be inferred from the forms rols-ceai, Tols-ceaai. 
These forms are all regular inflexions of cei?, just as fxeivi, 
which is found in an inscription, is formed from peis. We may, 
therefore, reasonably infer that there was originally such a Greek 
word as SeU = c)eVs corresponding to nets - fxevs, and that when 
6 Selva is used in the nominative case, the second part must 
be considered as an adverb. In regard to the genitive cclro? 
as compared with cerck, quoted by Zenobius, we may remark 
that there was also a form elva for era. Sec L 
p. 240, and Buttmann's Mytholoffus, Vol. II. p. 

From these two words fielt^fuw^, and 8ct? — £er?, we have 
ju^V, c>/»', and fwj, o/;, which we shall discuss in a future chapter. 
We have also /uajv, ntjvos, "a month," as well as /mels, /meivos. 
It may be thought singular that while fiev preserved the final 
consonant, it is dropt in the correlative ce. It is to be remarked, 
however, that in words of such common occurrence, the shortest 
forms would naturally be preferred, unless there were some 
reason to the contrary, as there ii in the case of yueV, which 
would otherwise be confounded with the pronoun yue, whereas 
no confusion could take place between the second personal pro- 
noun and such a modified form as ( t : . Of the omission of v in 
such cases, we have other instances in re*, *e, mccr, ew*e, 
TrpooQev, irpoaQe. 

An objection has been made by Buttmani. rl SprL 

§ 70. Awn, 7, note) to the derivation of ovccU from ov and 
oeiSf namely, that the forms wceiila, ovcerepos and ovce-n-ore, 
manifestly contain oi'ce. Xow it is also a theory of Buttmann's 
that ovOeis, ovOtv are the masculine and neuter of this n 
ovcefua, the § being turned into a by the contact of the 
aspiration, just as is the case on 06 i found for 6c 'Epfiijs 

in an old inscription, Boeklfs Corp. Lucripi. L p. 32), and as 
Thiersch would write in Pindar wcrra#ripi0 L'WatT 



* Schomann (IloctVr's Zeittckr. I. 2, p. 2A9) iqggvtl tha: 
combinanation of u. Se, and mi: and Mehlhorn {• \ 110) identifies 

Sets with eh, to which it ultimately reverts, although tlu .dely 

different. See Ghaeroboac, in Theodoe, p. 199. Gaisford. 



Chap. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 259 

eupfjo-ets (Thiersch's Pindar, II. p. 349). It is, therefore, un- 
necessary to suppose, because an ov$e /ula implies an ovoe eh, 
which indeed occur as two words in the older writers, and as 
one word — oiOels — in the more recent authors, that there could 
not be such a compound as ov-Seis. The only question is, whether 
there is such a word as Se/s. If so, and it appears clear that 
there was, ov~$eis is just as allowable as ov-Se, or ov-Se-eh*. 

With these uses of the particles <5e, Sets, &c. we may com- 
pare the collocation Sij rts = nescio quis (Heindorf ad Platon. 
Pha>d. § 130). 

157 The root of the third numeral in the Indo-Germanic 
languages is t + r with a short vowel either interposed or 
subjoined, according to the etymological rule that a vowel may 
be sounded either before or after a liquid. In Sanscrit we 
have tray as, tisras, trim, in Greek Tpeh, rpia, in Latin tres, 
tria. We do not know the nominative (threis ?) of this numeral 
in Gothic, but the genitive, dative and accusative are thrift, 
thrim, thrins. In Latin we have also ter, ter-nio, and ter-tius. 

If the second numeral has arisen from the idea of nearness, 
the third must be the expression for that which is farther. The 
third personal pronoun ta does indeed express the there, but for 
the third numeral a stronger form was required, and therefore 
the particle ra was added to the pronominal root. This particle, 
which we shall examine hereafter more minutely, expresses the 
idea of motion from or beyond, the point from which the motion 
is supposed to begin being indicated by the pronominal element 
to which the ra is subjoined : thus, when added to the third 
pronoun, it changes the idea of there into the idea of that which 
is beyond or farther than the object denoted by the simple de- 
monstrative. It is not impossible, however, as we have suggested 
above, that ta-ra may be a corruption of an original tva-ra, in 
which case the second numeral would be the parent of the third. 



* The existence of Sets is still questioned by Pott (Zahlmethode, pp. 
152, 3), on grounds which seem insufficient in themselves. To say nothing 
of the passages which prove that this word was actually used, it appears 
to us that a sound theory respecting the particle Se would almost lead us 
to assume this inflected form. It is surely a most unscientific proceeding 
to suppose, as Pott does, that Se is a mutilation of code. 

S2 



260 THE NUMERALS. [Book II. 

To this point we must return, when speaking of the fourth and 
sixth numerals. The word t(")-ra is accordingly used in Sanscrit 
as an affix to pronominal roots, when distance, whether definite 
or indefinite, is implied : thus we have amu-tra, " on the other 
side," ku-tra, "where?" It also denotes direction or tendency, 
and in this sense it appears in the Greek adjectives opea-repot, 
dypo-repos, ctj/uo-Tepos, &c. In Latin this root appears in the 
preposition tra-ns, signifying " beyond," and it is also affixed to 
pronominal stems as in Sanscrit ; thus we have ul-tra, " on that 
side," ci-tra, " on this side." It appears too in the word ter- 
minus, " a limit," which has the form of a passive participle, and 
may perhaps be referred to the verbal root tr which is formed 
from this pronominal word, cf. Tpdco, in-trare, &e. The most 
important, however, of the uses of this word is as a suffix, in- 
dicating the comparative degree in Sanscrit, Greek, and Latin. 
Thus we have ka-taras, 7r6-T€po<;, u-ter. In this use the idea 
of "beyond" is also involved. Thus we are told that in the 
Chinese language, which has no inflexions, hou yoong kwo gno 
("lie is more vehement than I"), may be translated literally 
"he is vehement beyond me" {Quarterly 1\ i \>1. L. p. 1ST). 

The Hebrew method of expressing the comparative degree is 
not altogether dissimilar, e.g. pb30 liD, Wkd&or Balaqo, is 
literally " good above or beyond Balaq." The suffix ta-ra, 
as is well known, is used when only two things are to be com- 
pared, and this was its original force when employed as the 
third numeral: for the first numeral signifies, like the first per- 
sonal pronoun, " that which is here," the second M that which is 
near," the third " that which is farther." Now far and near 
arc relative terms; and though, for the purpose of expressi: 
person who is neither / nor you, an indefinite t/tire would suffice, 
the number " three" must be considered more distinctly in its 
relation of contrast to the number two. Hence it is that the 
idea of tlicrc was extended to that of relatively greater distance, 
when applied in direct and particular contradiction to the iu\ 
nearness contained in the number two. This comparative ending 
sometimes appears under a form still more like the common third 
numeral, as in aWo-rpios, for which, however, the .Eolians also 
wrote d\\o-T6joo9 or aWo-reppo?, as they also wrote Koirepa for 
Konyxa and Ylepauos or Ileppauos for Tipiauos (Etyni 
Magn. p, 529, I. W ; Orcgor. Corinth. 6S9 and ! 



Chai\ 2.] THE NUMERALS. 261 

158 That the Indo-Germanic word for the number four 
is composed of those for one and three is clearly proved by the 
following combinations. The oldest Greek form was -tre-ropes ; 
the first syllable bears the same relation to jue- that ire-Sa 
does to ixe-rd, and the remainder of the word is only another 
form of Tpels {r^pes). The Sanscrit form for this numeral is, 
masc. chatvdras, fem. chatasras, neut. chatvdri, where the fe- 
minine appears to be anomalous ; now the same anomaly is found 
in the feminine tisras of the third numeral ; it is therefore clear 
that the last two syllables of the fourth numeral comprise the 
third. The same appears also from a comparison of the Latin 
ter with qua-ter, ter-nus with qua-ter-nus, and tri-duum with 
qua-tri-duum. With regard to the first syllable of the Latin 
numeral, it is a mutilation of the Sanscrit numeral ekas, " one," 
which, as we have seen, is synonymous with ce-qv-us and secus : 
this u will show why -qva stands for -ka in the Latin word for 
" four." We have before pointed out how ki became softened into 
chi (§ 147) ; such a softening would most naturally take place in 
an abbreviated form like chatvdras. By the side of the strong 
form chatvdras we have a weaker form chaturas. In Gothic 
we have jidvor and ftdur-dogs, just as we have qvatvor and 
quatemus in Latin. It will be observed that we generally 
have v or u in the second part of the word signifying " four,*" 
although the labial does not appear in the common word for 
" three." We have suggested before that the relation of " three" 
might be expressed by adding the particle ra to the second as 
well as to the third element : and tva-ra, or ka-ra, " motion 
from that which is near to the here" might signify the third 
position as well as ta-ra "beyond the there." Indeed, these 
two forms would be more intelligible even than ta-ra, for they 
bear outwardly the form of a comparative of the numeral " two," 
and this is the proper idea of "three." 

159 It is a remarkable fact, that the first four numerals in 
Greek and Sanscrit, and the first three in Latin, are declined, 
while all the others remain without inflexion. There must be 
some reason for this. Now we know that the oldest Greek year 
was divided into three seasons of four months each : and the sub- 
division of the fundamental number in the state-division into the 
factors 3x4, of which the four was the basis, needs not to be 
insisted on. The first four numerals, therefore, would be more 



262 THE NUMERALS. [Book II. 

frequently used as adjectives than any of the others, and for this 
reason would have inflexions, which the others, whose use would 
be more adverbial, might want without so much inconvenience. 
The same remark applies to the corresponding fact with regard to 
the Roman numerals. The fundamental number of the Romans 
was three ; they had three tribes, just as the Ionians had four. 
Besides, the old Etruscan year, which was the basis of their civil 
and religious arrangements, consisted often months, not of twelve, 
and therefore the division into tetrads would not hold with them. 
That this division into tetrads was observed not only in the old 
Greek and ^Egyptian year of twelve months, but also in the Greek 
and Sanscrit system of numbers, is clear from the following facts. 
The numbers two and eight in Sanscrit and Greek have the 
ordinary dual-ending which is found in the dual number of nouns 
in those languages; they are written dc-au, cu-w, — a*ht-au, 
okt-o). The meaning of this termination is clear in the former 
case : can we then deny its force in the latter ? But if the 
number eight is really in the dual number, it can only be so as 
denoting ''twice four ;"" therefore the root of the number eight in 
these languages must be the number four. This root in Sanscrit 
is ash-t-. Wc have seen that the first part of the Sanscrit 
numeral, four, is a mutilation of c-ka aspirated into -cha. Here 
the whole word is shortened and assibilated into a-sli-. The 
second part wants the letter r, which gives the third numeral its 
particular meaning, as distinguished from the third personal pro- 
noun. That it is wanting here is no argument against the iden- 
tity of the latter part of the root of the number eight with the 
number three. In words of common use, when they exceed a 
certain length, and especially in those which are compounds, 
process of shortening and softening always takes place, some- 
times to an extent which renders it difficult to discern the ele- 
ments of which they were originally made up. Who would sup- 
pose, on the first inspection, that concio was con-ven-tio t An 
additional reason for the hypothesis of a sub-division of the duo- 
decimal basis into tetrads is derived from the fact that in Greek, 
in which this division seems to have been most called for, the 
numbers eleven and twelve are single words eritxa and civceKa, 
whereas the succeeding numbers up to twenty are made up of 
separate words, connected by kcii : thus, Tpi* kciI Sttra, reaaapc? 
Kal Sena, kc. The same appears still more clearly from 
the Teutonic ain-lif, '•' c-levcn," tva-li/, " twe-lve," which D 



Chap. 2.] THE NUxMERALS. 263 

respectively "one" and "two left" or "over" (Bopp, Vergl. 
Gramm. 450 ; Pott, Zahlmethode, 172 sqq.). 

160 There are only two other numerals which appear to 
contain the roots of the primitive pronominal numbers ; namely, 
six and seven, which commence with the same letters respectively 
in Greek and Latin. In these words, however, the process of 
abbreviation and softening has been carried so far that we can 
only offer a probable explanation of them. On comparing e-£, 
e-7TTa, with se-os, se-ptem, and the Sanscrit shash, saptam y it 
appears exceedingly probable at first sight that the initials in 
each had a common origin. Setting aside, then, this first syllable, 
we have in all three languages the letters -pt- as the element 
of the second part of the numeral seven, and these letters point 
at once to the elements of the old ireropes " four." The first 
part, therefore, must be some mutilated form of the number 
three, so that €-7rr-a, &c. will be 3 + 4 = 7. This also appears 
from an examination of the corresponding syllable in the number 
six. Bopp remarks (Vergleichende Grammatik, p. 443) that 
as the Zend word for six is written Jcsvas, and as sh is neither 
an original letter nor the beginning of any other word in San- 
scrit, we may infer that the Sanscrit word should be written 
kshash. A comparison of the Greek and Latin inclines us to 
believe that the more ancient form would be ksha-ksh, for there 
is an evident reduplication. And similarly the Greek and Latin 
words would be written ef = ae% = (/co-)e-/co--, and sex = (k)se~ks, 
which are perfectly analogous to, and equally indicative of a 
reduplication with, the Sanscrit. If, therefore, there is a redupli- 
cation it must be that the word is composed of two co-ordinate 
parts, and as the word is a numeral, this must express that it 
is a number added to itself, and in the case of the number six, 
this number must be " three." Accordingly, shash = e-K? = 
se-cs =» 3 + 3 = 6. But although it appears highly probable that 
the numeral is composed of two words, each signifying three, 
it would be desirable to know how the element ksh could bear 
this meaning. Indeed it would be instructive to inquire, in gene- 
ral, by what consonants this compound* is represented in other 



* In the Behistun inscription the group Jch-sh is represented by two 
distinct characters; see Rawlinson, As. Soc. X., 86, 157, who observes 



264 THE NUMERALS. [Book U. 

languages of this family. We shall find on examination that 
ksh is represented in Greek or Latin (l) by x, (2) by s, (3) by 
cr. We will take these three cases in order. 

(l) The Sanscrit kshatra means "a man of the second or 
military and regal caste," and the Zend ksathra, old Pers. khshd- 
yathiya, signifies " a king." Now we know from Herodotus 
(VI. 98) that the Greek word which translates He^/79, is dprj'ios, 
that which translates ' A pra-%e p^rjs is fieyas dpy'fios. Kosen sup- 
poses (Journal of Educat. IX. 336) that arta is the perf. pass, 
participle of ri, which, as appears from a comparison of the San- 
scrit sakrit, krinoti, mrityu, with the Zend hakeret, kerenoit, 
merethyu, would be written in Zend ereta (comp. Bahr ad I. 
Herod.) ; arta therefore means " honoured," and Arta-xerxes 
"the honoured warrior or king" (like maha-rdjah in Sanscrit) is 
therefore rather the epithet than the name of a king, as indeed 
appears from Ctesias, Pers. 49, 53, 51 : fiaaiXeuei £e WpaaKtjs 
6 fierovo/uaaOek ' Apra^ep^rjs, and Curtius, VI. 6 : Bessus veste 
reyia sumpta, Artaxerxem appellari se jusserat (quoted by 
Pott, Etym. Forsch. I. p. lxv.). Accordingly, nothing is more 
probable than that He^f*/? is merely the Greek corruption of 
kshatra. The ksh is preserved here in the first letter of the 
Greek word, but p% are substituted for the tr. Wilson derives 
kshat-tra from kshad, Sautra root " to divide, to eat,'.' unadi 
affix tra. The first syllable has undergone many changes. It is 
transformed into the Persian shah, just as kshaksh becomes shash. 
Whether kei is connected with ksha, and kissra with ksatlira 
(Pott, Etymol. Forsch. I. lxvi.) is doubtful. (-2) Malcolm (Hi>t. 
of Persia, I. p. 271) translates Satrap "umbrella-carrier." We 
think this far-fetched, and consider ^ar pd-in^ to be the nearest 
approximation a Greek could make to what would be in Persian 
kshctra-bdn (JLarpa-Tnivcx;. Plut. Lueull. XXXI. 4), or the 
Sanscrit kshetra-pd (we have e^aiOpaweveiv in an inscription), 
"ruler of the country," for, according to Xenophon (Cin-op. 
VIII. 6), the Satraps were persons o'lrives ap^ovai rwv tvoon 
tiov (Pott, Etym. Forsch. I. lxviii.). Here ksh is represented 
by s only ; comp. sex with kshaksh. In '0-£dfy)>/s, {Diod. 
XVII. 34. Plut. Artax. c. i.) the Persian ksathra is exactly pre- 



that the aspiration in each character is developed by the mutual influ 
of the guttural and sibilant. 



Chap. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 265 

served. The o is to be explained like the first syllable of 
Otanes, which, according to Pott (Etym. Forsch. I. p. xxxv.), is 
equivalent to the Sanscrit su-tanu, " having a beautiful body," 
(su = e v ; tan = " body " in modern Persian) the s being omitted, 
as in "Ii^os from Sindhu. In the root kship " to throw," the 
initial guttural is left out in the Latin equivalent sip- {in- sip- 
ere = injicere, dis-sip-are = disjicere), but in the Greek pnr-Teiv, 
anciently Fp'nr-Tetv, as appears from epe'nr-eiv (Pott, Etym. 
Forsch. I. 257. IL 167), we have p substituted for sh. (3) The 
following instances, in which the Sanscrit ksh is represented by 
cr in Greek or Latin, have been pointed out by Rosen (Journal 
of Education, VIII. p. 345, cf. Rig-Vedm Spec. Annot. p. xi.): 
kshapd " night," Zend ksafna, ksafne, ksapanem, Persian shab, 
correspond to the Latin crepusculum ; kshura " the hoof of an 
animal," to the Latin crus (crur-is); and kshipra "swift," 
"quick," to the Greek Kpanrvos. From (l) we see how the last 
letter of e£, sex, is related to the last letter of kshaksh : from 

(2) how the s of sex corresponds to the initial ksh ; and from 

(3) that either the initial or final ksh may be a representative 
of Kp, cr. Now we have before suggested that one form of the 
number " three" might be produced by adding to the second 
pronominal element the particle ra. We think, therefore, that 
ksh, in the number "six," stands for the combination ka-ra 
denoting " three," and that e£ and eivra have suffered the same 
initial mutilation. 

161 It appears then, upon the whole, very probable that 
seven of the first ten numerals may be traced to the three pri- 
mitive pronominal elements. The numerals five, nine, and ten, 
cannot be derived from the same source. Although the duodeci- 
mal system of notation was forced upon the notice of man by 
prominent and ever-recurring objects, it must not be forgotten 
that there was still another mode of counting no less obvious 
and necessary. We mean the decimal notation suggested by 
the number of the fingers and toes. That this system of nota- 
tion should be mixed up with the duodecimal, in suggesting 
the names of the numerals, is natural enough ; and we see such 
a mixture in the fact that the Romans had two years, one of 
twelve months and the other of ten. One would fancy, indeed, 
without any particular investigation into the subject, that the 
number five would have some connexion with the word signi- 



266 THE NUMERALS. [Book II. 

fying " a hand," and the number ten with a word denoting the 
right hand, for in counting with our fingers we begin with the 
little finger of the left hand and so on till we get to the little 
finger of the right hand. In Greek and Latin, especially, it 
is impossible to overlook the resemblance of ceVa, dec-cm to 
<$€K-aios, dec-s-ter ; and with regard to 7rei/re, quinque, we have 
already seen (above, $ 146) that the -k of the former is duly repre- 
sented by the labial included in qv, and its Greek representative F- 
The same interchange might be presumed in the second syllables 
re and que, for the identity of which we have abundant exam- 
ples, and this might seem to be supported by the dialectical form 
7r€fi7r€. A more accurate examination, however, ought to con- 
vince us that the nq in the Latin numeral is merely the represen- 
tative of an euphonic nasal which took the place of the original n, 
for the ordinal is quin-tus not quinctus, and the derived proper 
names (according to the true orthography; see Facciol. s. v. < x ' 
tins) are Quintius (Samn. Pontius'}, QmnHHuB, Qtttnl 
&c. The change of vr into /A7r in 7re,u7re, 7T€)U7ra9, 7re/ui7rayt>, 
irefXTT-ros, &c. must therefore be regarded as euphonical and 
arbitrary ; and the original form of the fifth numeral in Greek 
and Latin must have been irevre = Fevre and quint*. ; and this 
view is confirmed by the Greek ce-na : for we have shown above 
that Ka may represent cither kv» or kcvt and we have 

just seen that ce = £Fe. If, therefore, k in Jena stands for an 
original Kowrra (Varron. p. 201), the compound must denote 
" twice-fivc;" and as we shall show hereafter that Ka = Feir is the 
root which expresses M a hand," it will appear that ( Ft-F- - 
originally meant " two hands," /. c. the ten fingers held out 
together. With regard to the ninth numeral, in Greek at all 
events, it is difficult to resist the first impression that mn, which 
must have been originally tire-Fa, owes its origin to the Greek 
mode of speaking of the end of a month, and that ewi e'-Fa = e»>- 
l't'-Ferr means the last of the hand before the two hands were 
held up together. At any rate Plato seems to have recognised 
the possibility of irm tc rai i»eos being represented by 
for it is idle to correct his intentionally ludicrous compound 
aeXa-ev-veo-aeia in the Cratulus, 100 r>. And it may reason- 
ably be inferred that the orthography Sr-vor, which so: 
reject, has arisen from the constant combination of cvos and 
veos to signify the last day of the month. This must at all 
events be the meaning in the line o( llesiod, Op, it D. 



Chap. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 267 

JULYS' avafidWeaOai es t avpiov es r evvrjcpi, where it denotes 
the last of an assumed period, i. e. three days. This explana- 
tion of the ninth numeral must of course be limited to the Greek 
language. But the Latin, Sanscrit, and Teutonic novem, navan, 
niun, admit of an explanation which involves the same idea, 
though it implies a slightly different origin. For we agree with 
Bopp and Benary in referring those names to the adjectives 
novus, nava, niujis, i. e. " new," and the interpretation of their 
use is simply this — that "nine" can only be contemplated with 
reference to preceding numbers, and as something later, subse- 
quent, and neiv. In the Lithuanian and Sclavonian languages 
no doubt this numeral has immediate reference to the succeeding 
'•'ten;" thus de-wyni means "therefrom one" (like the Latin 
do-drans = dequadrans) ; and Pott proposes (Zahlmethode, p. 
142) to consider the Sanscrit navan as a compound of na " not," 
and van = una " diminished," which seems self-contradictory. 
On these and kindred subjects Lepsius has collected a great deal 
of valuable information combined with much ingenuity and acute- 
ness : and though we disagree with him on many points we 
think it right to give our readers an opportunity of judging for 
themselves, and therefore subjoin an extract from the essay to 
which we have referred above*. 

162 "It is not difficult to perceive," says our author +, "that this 
same stem recurs in the number 10 of the Indo-Germanic languages; 
it is preserved most entire in the Latin de-cem. The final m, which has 
fallen off in the nominative of the Sanscrit and Zend da-$a, shows itself 
still in the declension, and therefore may be supposed in the original 
form of the Greek Se«a. In the Gothic taikun, the k is changed into k 
according to the usual law : in this it differs from the form admitted 
in fimf, without, however, justifying any doubt as to the identity of 
the two forms. Moreover, we find the Gothic form hun, with an 
addition of d (see Grimm, II. pp. 231, 232), in the compounds sibun- 
tehund, 70; aktau-tekund, 80; niun-tehund, 90; in which we find 
tehund as an equivalent to taihun. Indeed both forms are combined 
in taihim-tehund = 10 x 10 = 100, and it is not till the combinations 
which follow, tva-hunda, 200; thrija-hunda, 300; &c, that the simple 
form hunda appears, in which of course we must recognise the same 

* Dr Richard Lepsius Zwei SpracJivergleichende Abhandlungen. 

Berlin, 1836. 

t p. 116. 



268 THE NUMERALS. [Book II. 

stem as in tai-hun and tehund. It is certain, from a mere comparison, 
that hunda is again found in centum, tta-hunda, in du-centi, &c The 
radical m or n is thrown out, as is frequently the case before t, in the 
Sanscrit fata, for which eka-cata is also used (compare i-narou). As 
hunda reappears in the tens, so also we have centum in (d)ci-ginti, 
tri-ginta, &c. ; and although the n has fallen out in the Greek e«o- 
tou, it is preserved in Tpia-nouTa, Teao-apd-novTa ; it has fallen out 
only in (oF)eiKaTi ; the ordinary Attic form eluoai has gbne still far- 
ther, and has softened t into s ; so also in cia-K 6<t-ioi, rpiaKoa-ioi (comp. 
the Boeot. ckx-kcIt-ioi, &c), and in the Latin ordinals ri-ces-imus, 
tri-ce8-imus. In these, therefore, the same stem appears as ko<? and 
ces. In Sanscrit the n is quite dropt in the tens also: rin-cati, 20; 
the three following have lost the i also : trin-$at, 30 ; chatrarin-$at, 
40; pancha-fat, 50; in the following cati loses its first syllable, and 
ti, originally nothing but an affix, alone remains: shash-ti, CO; M i 
ti, 70; aci-ti, 80; naca-ti, 90. It is precisely the same in Zend, 
except that 30, 40, 50 are formed with -<;<iti, instead of -ott ; those 
which follow however also take -ft. With regard to the Gothic we 
have only the additional remark to make, that wc find in the first 
four tens tr<ti-t!</us, thriju-t'tgut. JiJror-tigi/s, jimf-tigx.*, a third form 
gus of the same stem : this comes very near the Greek koc, and has 
besides retained the softened guttural instead of the //. Tims Ave find 
in the Gothic the remarkable phenomenon of one and the same - 
which is written Jim in 5 : hun in 10 and the higher tens, and gu(n) in 
the lower tens : and it is the business <>f definitive, and, at the BUDS time, 
extensive comparisons, like those which are possible in the numerals, to 
establish such facts as must necessarily be :o objections, when 

the investigation is confined within the limits of a single language. 

"How then are we to interpret this widely-diffused stem, which 
we see recurring in the five, the tens, and hundreds of all Indo-Germanic 
languages? Wc observe that this stem contains precisely the most 
essential numbers of the decimal system. In general, how have man- 
kind arrived at the decimal system, which is so inconvenient for all 
minute reckoning, and especially for division ? and yet the earlier the 
period, the less was the occasion for large numbers, in which the fun- 
damental system becomes less important. Finally, why did they not 
go back to the number 5, the lowest basis of the decimal "We 

find both systems together among the aborigines of America, as well 
as among the most polished nations of all ages. Whence came this 
decimal system which has every where taken its place by the s: 
the far more natural duodecimal system I From what else but from 
the 10 Jingers of the two hands, on which every child at the pn 
day begins to count. 



Chap. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 269 

"In this simple consideration we must be struck with the sur- 
prising resemblance between hunda and handus, the hand, in Gothic : 
in fact a narrow scrutiny of both stems, which we will now attempt, 
will easily convince us that this similarity is not merely external 
and accidental, but that the two words are etymologically one and 
the same. 

"Handus is immediately connected with hinthan, capere*, which 
we also find in the isolated, and, I might almost say, Germanized form 
pre-hendo. Grimm (Gr. II. p. 35) is quite right in also referring to 
this stem hund-s, canis, the catcher, qui capit /eras. In this too we 
see that in the whole stem d is really nothing but an affix, of which 
Grimm (II. p. 231 foil.) has very fully treated : for hund-s, with the 
usual changes, but without d, is found in the Greek kw-os, Latin can-is, 
Sanscrit c van (gen. abl. cunas, dat. cun-e, instrum. cun-a, locat. cuni, 
nom. cvd, accus. cvan-airi). We find the same stem in the Homeric 
form 761/ -to V lfxd<rd\tiv 9 which points to an ancient form yev-etv, 
instead of eAeu/f. As hund-s, canis, refers to the stem hun, Greek kw, 
Latin can, similarly we may trace also hunda, centum, to the stem him, 
Latin cen, Greek kov. Consequently, both stems are identical even in 
this form. An u in a stem as in hund, kui/o?, often points to an original 
v, which in this case brings us nearer to the stem kvan. In fact we 
still find both consonants in the Sanscrit cvan, dog, Zend cpan J ; we 
must therefore in the case of cants also suppose an older form qvanis. 
Just so the stem of the number 5 was originally kvam ; only in this 
word the m is still preserved, as might be established by certain forms 
(we^xire, Jimf), though in most words expressing this numeral the m 



[* Hente, which so often occurs in Chaucer, is the same word.] 
■f " Buttmann is unquestionably right in comparing ykv-To immediately with qXcto, 
just as the JEolic form k£vto for KeAero is adduced from Alcman. It is this transition 
from n to I which prevents us from recognising the stem hinthan in the Greek lan- 
guage. "We find the same stem with r for I in the Sanscrit hri {capere), to which belong 
hasta (manus) (see Burnouf, Yacna, Tom. I. p. lxxxi. and note H), Latin hir, Greek 
Xei'/o and alpeetu, also, with an addition of p, /ca'/o-7ros (the wrist), carpus, dp-ira^eiv, 
Gothic hreiban, greifen (see Grimm, II. p. 45); nay, as it appears, also in the Sanscrit 
hara (manus), and consequently the whole wide-extended stem hri, the general signi- 
fication of which (facere) cannot be the original one. The stem hri, as we must infer 
from the letter h, which is always a later one, cannot represent an original form, but 
we must always seek for this in hri, which therefore corresponds to hri, facere. ' That 
which is identical as far as the letters are concerned cannot be diverse as concerns the 
meaning' (see Grimm, II. p. 76 foil.). The stem of manus is different, though it is 
probably connected with the Sanscrit pdni, the hand, and with the Greek fitiv-vw, 
mon-stro." 

X " See Burnouf, Yacna, I. p. lxxii. and comp. Herodotus, I. 110 : ttjV yap kuvcl 
airdna Ka\eov<ri M^(5oi." 



270 THE NUMERALS. [Book II. 

has been softened into n. This m is probably a softening of p, which 
we still find in cap-ere, the connexion of which with can-is is as 
certain as that of hinthan with hunds. Lastly, we find the same 
stem in the Hebrew qomez, c the full hand,' qamaz, ■ to take,' kaf, ' the 
hand/ and in the Coptic 'gop (capere), whence comes 'gvj, ' the hand.' 

" So much for the stem from which hunda and handus are derived. 
It appears to me fully established, that, in all the languages referred to, 
the number 5 was expressed by the hand with its 5 fingers, and was 
thus made the simplest and most obvious basis of the old system of 
numeration. The Greek word ire fXTrd^eiv means what we call ' counting 
on the fingers/ It was possible, however, when the one hand was 
finished to go on with the other, and thus a higher unity was naturally 
made of the number 10; so that instead of the quinary scale, which 
is still in use among some nations, they formed a scale of which the radix 
was 10. There are people in America who count witli their feet, and 
have thus arrived at the still higher radix 20*. 

" It is clear that, if the principle of continued composition of the 
same elements was applied to the higher numbers, it would soon lead to 
forms of intolerable length. Even the simple numbers up to 10 are 
abridged and mutilated in a mo^t violent manner. AVc should a 
to find the same in the higher numbers formed on the digit system, 
though in Gothic we may still point out this system in almo- 
original completeness, for in this language the outward similarity of 
hunda and lt<ni>hts seems to haw 1 the feeling of their identity 

for the longest period, while in other laagliagM this fceH - oner 

lost because they had no form for handus so similar to that for 100. 

" In the number 5 wo find not only no mutilation, but even a 
reduplication of the stemt. The Latin is the only language in which 
we find traces of the simple stem, namely in qu 
quin-aritu, <ju'ni-dcclm, quiit-gmti. See. : perhaps also in the old K 
Jiinni, Danish and Swedish fern (see Grimm. I. p. ?(>-), unless these 



* Voyage de Humboldt et Bonphind. It-re Partie. a Pari*. 1>1«\ p. 
[-"- Bopp and Penary think that the last syllable of the numeral five in Sai> 
Latin, and Greek, is the copulative conjunction, and that the nasal, which, in S.i 
and Zend, appears at the end of this numeral, is a later excrescence. Bopp ( JVrj//. 
Gramm. p. 443) considers ;>rtn'-i'/m as signifying "and one,*' the first syllable being the 
neuter form of pa which appears as the number "one.*' Benary remarks Jierl. Jahrb. 
July 1S33, p. 4S\ that pan'-cha is easily explicable as a mutilation of pfin'i-cha "and 
the hand," because with this number they began to count with the other hand : and he 
thinks this derivation confirmed by a comparison of pan -cha.quin-qite, and xt : r-Tf, the 
last syllable in each being the regular conjunction in each language. This 1 
tion is not to be despised : but if the termination of these words is the conjunction, it 
implies simply that after counting four the whole hand was opened and held up.] 



CHAr. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 271 

forms have arisen from a mutilation which seems to be indicated by the 
double m in the old Norse. 

" In taihun, 10, we easily recognise Mai with an omission of the v : 
' two hands/ Just so in da-gan, de-cem, Be'-Kct. 

"In tvdi-ti-gns, 20, 'twice two hands,' the first tvdi is still entire; 
ti is a further mutilation of the tai in tai-hun. We find that in the 
other languages even this ti has fallen out. Instead of (d)vi-gati, we 
ought to have (d)vi-da-gati from da-ga, instead of dvi-ginti : dvi-de- 
ginli, instead of el-Kan : el-SeKari. 

"The same relation remains in thrija-ti-gus, c 3 times 2 hands,' fid- 
v6r-ti-gus, ' 4 times 2 hands,' sibun-te-hund, ' 7 times 2 hands,' &c. 

"In "Gothic the number 100 is written at full length taihun-te- 
hund, ' 2 hands x 2 hands.' But this exactness does not extend farther 
in Gothic; instead of the difficult composition taihun tehund, the 
following hundreds return to the simple stem, and we have tva-/umda, 
200, instead of tvdi-ti-gus tehund. In the other languages, as also in 
the later dialects of the German language, the simple stem is put for 
100, and only distinguished by the ending, so that enctTov properly 
signifies * one hand,' and as far as the letters are concerned, du-centi and 
dvi-ginti are perfectly identical, and denote 2 hands, just as tdi-hun 
does*. 

* "Grimm (Gr. II. p. 17) is perfectly right in connecting the following words: 
Gothic teihan (nuntiare, dicere), old High German zihan (accusare), zeigon (indicare), 
zeha (digitus, i. e. index) ; Gothic taihun, old High German z't'han (decern), Gothic 
tigus (decas, numerus index), &c. A confirmation of this will appear in the following 
development. 

"In counting with the fingers one naturally begins with the left hand and so goes 
on to the right. This may explain why in different languages the words for the left 
refer to the root of Jive, those for the right to the root of ten, and why expressions like 
finger, fangen, zeigen, z'dhlen, refer sometimes to 5, and at other times to 10. To 
omit any strict development of the ideas, — that there is a connexion between 10 (the 
second hand) and the right hand, appears from the words : Sanscrit da-ca — dak-sha, 
dah-shina; deica — 8eK-<rios ; decern — dec-ster ; Gothic taihun — taih-s-vo (on the deri- 
vation in vo, see Grimm, II. p. 189), old High German zehan — zeso, ze-se-wa, old High 
German zeswe (dexter). All the languages have also formed from this a distinct feminine 
substantive, to signify, the right hand. This transition to the idea of the right hand 
will enable us to understand how the ideas of pointing, taking, directing, could proceed 
from the same root : Sanscrit dig (mon-strare) , deU-wixi, deK-o/iai, dic-ere, in-dic-are, 
in-dec-s, dig-nus, &c. Gothic teihan (accusare), zeig-on (monstrare). Let it be ob- 
served here, how these verbal roots preserve, by abbreviation, an appearance of sim- 
plicity and originality which by no means belongs to them : this is a phenomenon of 
frequent occurrence, which has been hitherto but little attended to. Language, like 
the Indian fig-tree, lets its branches sink into the ground again, all round its root, and 
these strike root again and become new stems, like the old one, whose relative origi- 
nality can only be estimated according to the degree of their removal from the common 
middle-point. From <5e/ca is farther derived <5a'/c-T-wXos, from decern dig-it-us, and 



272 THE NUMERALS. [Book H. 

" Lastly, in Gothic the word thusundi, 1000, seems to refer to this 

stem, and appears to be composed, how we know not, of taihun hundi*. 

"I subjoin here the explanation of the Indo-Germanic expression 



from zehan, ztha (the toe). Lastly, we refer to taihun, old High German z'than, also 
old Norse tala (instead of tahi-la), old High German za-la, zdhl( number) zalon, z'dh- 
len (to count), just as irep.TrdX,eiv comes, though with still greater clearness, from 
irefx-Tre (5), and just as the Sanscrit cdtai (numerare) is derived from fata (100). 

" We pass on to the stem of 5. As dec-ster, with a formation in si, refers to decern, 
the old High German vin-star (sinister), with the same formation (Grimm, II. p. 297), 
refers to vin-f (Gothic jin-strs ? to fin-f). We find the same stem in the Sanscrit vam-as 
(sinister), which refers to the stem of pan-chan with a softening of the p. The Latin 
sin-ister takes an s, which is a deviation ; but there is an instance of the same transition 
in sim-plex, sin-gulus, sem-cl, nay, we have an immediate interchange of© and * in the 
Sanscrit vina, Latin sine, although perhaps we must here infer an earlier sr, or original 
kv, as in the stem we are discussing : we cannot imagine an immediate interchange. 
Finally, there is no other way of explaining the word dpicrrtpo*, which stands so 
isolated in the Greek language, than by supposing fapurrepos = rin-ster, with a change 
of n into r. We have above recognised the same stem in hn and hr, and the inter- 
change of the liquids is sufficiently well known. Consequently, the word dpi-dfio*, 
hitherto referred to dpco (on the derivation in -fl^os, see Buttmann, II. p. 315), dpiQ- 
fxeiv = Trefnrd^eiv, must belong to this root, and must be connected with opi-or^of, 
as za-lnn is with zl'-so. It must be confessed that no traces of a digamma are found 
in dpiTTtpoc or dpidp.6?, but this proves nothing against the former existence of that 
letter in this, as in other words. We obtain therefore the following table of the ex- 
pressions for left and right. 

T6. CtKd. 

vci mas dak-shot, 

vin-S'tar, tai/t 

sin- is dec-s-ter, 

fap-ia-Tepot ceK-ai-Tcpo? (Horn)." 

[We do not at all agree with Lepsius that the only way of explaining dpinepo* U 
to connect it with vitistar. On the contrary, it seems infinitely more natural to conclude 
that as in the phrase hr* aVrl&a ■ to the left," so in dpi<r-Ttp6v we allude to the wea- 
pon of defence carried on the left arm, so that the root will be that of *fdpn*, fape-ni, 
F>//oo)s, &c. Germ, tear, tcthren, fc& i^Graff, I. p. 900 , Sanscrit rri, ,\c. Similarly 
sittis-ier refers to the sinus toga', which was on the left hand (Pott, Zdhlmethode, 
p. 139)]. 

"The notions of pointing, receiving, fce. are, as we might expect, not to be found in 
the stems for 'five' and 'left :' but the finger belongs to the left hand as well as to the 
right, and while ituc-rvXoc and digitus refer to ceKa and decern, the Gothic^/fyjrr*, old 
High German vin-kar, refer to Jimf and vinf. The formation in k (comp. Gothic 
juggs, old High German jun-c with jun-ior, stren-ki, stren-ge, strong, with stren-uus, 
&c. Grimm, II. p. 2S7 ML) shows itself in the verb fin-gan, fan-gen (Gr. II. p. 00, nr. 
603; I. p. 1023, nr. 1>\ and rin-gan (capere) bears the same relation to Jig -grs that 
hin-than {capere) does to han-Jus." 

* " Just as there is a break after taihun tihund and a return to the simple httnda, 
the Romans, when they got beyond 100,000 in their money-reckonings, left out this 
Bum and said only decies arris, instead of decies centena tnillia a*ris, and 1 stst<.rtium was 
in the reckoning equivalent to 1600 sestertii, when it was joined to decern, undecir 
and to 100,000 sestertii, when connected with decies, undecies, I 



Ceap. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 273 

for 9, -which is also, I think, though not so distinctly, derivable from 
the stem kvam. It has here, as in irefi-ire^Jimf, old High German vinf, 
thrown off the k, and appears as vam. We start here from the Greek 
ewea, which stands for iu-veFafx, as we see from novem, navan, niun. 
The Greek form is distinguished by the prefix eY-, which is wanting in 
the other languages. In this we are immediately reminded of e-KaToY, 
which appears more entire in the Sanscrit eka fata, 'one hundred.' 
There is a form ekona or -una peculiar to the Sanscrit, (originally it was 
eka vinct, 'one without/ 'one less') which subtracts one from the 
number which follows : ekona mnqati or una vin$ati, 19- Similarly, 
there might have been an ekona dacan, or una dagan, for 9 ; the da fell 
out, as in vingati for vin-da-gati, and there remained ekona-kan or 
ekonavan, which corresponds to the Greek iwepau, or unavan, which 
by dropping the u becomes navan, not em and niun" 

This disquisition anticipates all that remained to be said on 
the tens and hundreds. 

163 The words yiXioi, 1000, and {xvpioi, 10,000, are merely 
expressions for large but indefinite numbers, like the Latin mile, 
i.e. m-ile = oiuL-i\ia, "a great crowd;" whence miles (mil-it), 
" one who goes in or belongs to a large body" (See Varro- 
nian. p. 215). The connexion of -^iXioi with ^tXo?, "a heap of 
fodder," is self-evident : and it is equally clear that xjlXos is con- 
nected with ^€(0 (^e'Fo)), just as ^etAo? is with ^aw (ya.V'oS), and 
tcavXos with icaiw, kclFm, Kauco. That it has nothing to do with 
the words xXotj, ^Xwp'?, &c. as Pott supposes (Etym. Forsch. I. 
p. 141), is shown by the length of the first syllable. The inti- 
mate relationship in meaning which subsists between -^eco and 
yiXo\ will be felt by any one who reads such passages as Odyss. 
XL 588 : cevopea o v^nirerrjXa KaTaKprfiev ^e'e KapTrov. The 
same is the case with juvpioi, which, with a difference of accen- 
tuation, is used in the best writers in a general and indefinite 
sense. Thus we have /uaXa ixvpioi, "a great many," /uvpia 
<T7rou$)i, " excessive eagerness" (see Buttm. Ausfuhrl Sprl. 
§ 70. Jnm. 15). This word is connected with /j.vpco, a verb 
which expresses the falling of water, and is especially applied to 
a flood of tears. Compare Hesiod, ao-7r. 'HpaxX. 132 : 7rpo- 
ofiev pev Octvarov t ely^ov xal Sdicpvcri fxvpov, with Soph. 
(Ed. Col. 1253 : Si ojmfiaros clgtclktI Xeifiwv Sd/cpvov. The 
derivation of the idea of a large number from the sight of 

T 



274 THE NUMERALS. [Book II. 

water falling in infinite drops is too obvious to require any 
remark. 

164 We must now turn to the ordinals, and, in discussing 
them, we will include an inquiry into the modes of expressing a 
superlative common to the Greek and cognate languages ; an 
inquiry which might indeed be postponed to the third book, but 
which may be conveniently discussed in this chapter, as the com- 
paratives have also been touched on here, and as this will give 
us an opportunity of explaining three words intimately connected 
with the numerals — /leaos, >],ukjv, and aXXos. 

It has been mentioned that the ordinal of the second num- 
ber is Seurepos, and it will be observed that this word contains 
the comparative suffix -repos explained above. This compara- 
tive suffix is, as we have seen, from its origin peculiarly 
adapted to the expression of a relation between two persons or 
things, especially of the relation between farther ami 
Hence, the ordinal of the number two would naturally be ex- 
pressed by affixing to that numeral this comparative termination, 
for in that case a relation between two only is implied. But 
when the relation of nearness is applied to one out of a greater 
number, we find that a different termination is affixed, and 
toto? is the word used when we are speaking of the nearest 
out of a given series, that is, " the last," considering them as in 
a state of motion from the tt w the ending 

-raros is the most common of those which are used to ex} 
the superlative degree in Greek. This form points at om 
a reduplication, and would lead us to suppose that there must 
have been at some time a superlative form in -ros only. The 
ordinals in the common Greek writers are -ptoTos (or -rrpoTepos 
when only two are spoken of), ceurepos (or Seuraro?, when 
more than two are spoken of), Tp'iros, rerapri -ros, 

euros, tficofJLOs, oycoos (or oy&oFos, as the analogy of the 
Latin octavus would lead us to infer), t : i ercrrof, i 

e'tKocTTOSj &c, e/caTo<7To'<>, CictKocrtocrTos. \c yi . uvpioa- 

tos. Now in all these, except -ct^oyoof - 

(which, like octants, exhibits r for m ; cf. ipOMj 
Spofiosjt the termination is ~o<. The same termination is found 
in the Sanscrit chaturthas, sltash-thas, and in the Latin quartus, 
quintus, sewtus ; all the other Latin ordinals except w w n rfm 



Chap. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 275 

(which is merely the participle of sequor), octavus (for octa- 
mus), and nonus (for novimus), end in -mus, an equivalent to 
which is found in the Sanscrit pancha-mas, sapta-mas 9 ashta- 
mas, nava-mas, daga-mas. As fio? and to? can have no con- 
nexion with one another, we must conclude that they are both 
allowable forms of the ordinal termination. They both imply 
that the thing specified is the last of a series going on from the 
speaker. The syllables fio?, mus, mas contain the element jxe 
of the first personal pronoun. The syllables to?, tus, thas, as 
Bopp has properly observed (Vergl. Gramm. p. 393), imply 
motion from a place, and the Latin termination tus is constantly 
found in that sense, as in coeli-tus, "from heaven," sub-tus, 
"from under," in-tus, "from within." The common Sanscrit 
terminations for the comparative and superlative are -tara, 
-tama (Latin -timus), which are sometimes written -dhara, 
-dhama, as in a-dhara, " the lower," a-dhama, " the lowest." 
We have also the synonyms a-dhas and a-tas, between which 
stands our termination -thas with the same meaning. This 
termination is found directly in Greek in such words as %v-to? 
(intus), vog-to?, " from afar," &c. But the more usual form in 
which it appears is Oev (=6e?, Bopp, Vergl. Gramm. p. 250), 
which bears much the same relation to to? that we have seen in 
the Sanscrit forms -dhas, -tas. Now the meanings of these 
terminations all apply equally well to the ordinals or super- 
latives, whether we consider them as indicating generally sepa- 
ration or removal, or as denoting motion from the subject. 
Thus also the termination applies very well to such words as 
€kcig-tos, "the very one," "the one by himself," which is 
formed as a superlative from eica?. If these remarks be well 
founded, then -to? must be the proper form of the superlative, 
and -tclto? merely a reduplication of it, just as we have both 
Tpi-TCLTo? and Tpi-To?. The force of this termination perhaps 
appears most evident in the word 7toX\oo-t6?, which means 
" one taken out of many," and hence, by a very natural tran- 
sition, "very small;" for, when a given whole is divided into 
many units, the smallness of the unit will of course depend on 
the number of them. The word also signifies " the last of a 
long series," as in Aristoph. Pax, 559 : 

ao~7rao~ao-Qat Ovfxo? rj/ulv e.GTt ttoWocttm y^povto, 

T2 



276 THE NUMERALS. [Book II. 

i. e. " after so long a time," " in the last of so long a series of 
'years;" the converse of which is oXiyoaros ypouos (Soph. 
Antiy. 619). These meanings arise naturally from the signifi- 
cation which we have given to the affix, and we do not know of 
any other means of explaining the word. We have also a very 
striking proof of the correctness of this view in the ordinary 
use of the superlative in Greek, where we should expect a 
comparative according to our idiom. Thus we have in .Eschy- 
lus (Persce, 180) : eco^artju /ulol cvo yvvaiK eue't/uove — els o^/iv 
fidXeiv — fieyeOei twv vuv evTrpeireaTdra tto\v, where these 
two visionary women are supposed to be the first of a series 
including all the actually existing women, with whom they cer- 
tainly would not be classed were there not something in the 
nature of a Greek superlative which renders a construction like 
this necessary. The same also appears from the common Greek 
idiom Tre/xTrTov clvtos, " with four others," &c. 

Id.") Although the G recks generally nipuiSMNl the comparative 
by -Te-pos, there was another method which they adopted 1 
frequently in the OAK of disyllabic adjectives terminating in -po* or -uc 
This was by affixing the termination -mnt. There was, bowever, a 
great difference in the etymological structure of these and the other 
COmp&r&tives. For while the termination -tc-jkh is appended to a 
fixed case or adverbial inflexion of the positive, the suffix -io>i' = << 
added, like other formative adjuncts, to the crude or uninflected form 
of the noun. This fact, which we first pointed out in another place 
{dr. Or. art. 2G9 sqq.), explains all the peculiarities in the form of 
the syllable immediately preceding --repot, in which the traces of the 
original adverb are more or less distinct according to the influence of 
euphonical and other like considerations. The quantity of -. 
variable, the first syllable being short in the old epic port-, and 
afterwards; in this variableness it stun n the ana' oscrit 

terminations -tpor, -ij/th'tti. and the Latin -tor, one of which has the 
first syllable always long, and the other always short. Some of the 
comparatives thus formed admit of an anomalous contraction, which 
requires some notice. Thus rajp* makes comp. - 
^'jo-to?, but Toy/toi' is often contracted into Baram*, neut. Oaavov. 
•Similarly fiaBvs makes fSacra-tav ; fipa$m t fija m wm : crttv; 

/unK-po?, /jLCio-crwv ; 7ra^u'?, ird<T<rii)v. To these may be added MWW from 
«7X'» *ad fiakkm* from paXa, In all these cases there has hi 
process of assimilation, like that which has taken place in the bar) 



Chap. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 277 

Verbs in -o-crco *. In the case of Odo-o-wv, yXva-a-cav, /xa'o-trwj/, and TraVo-wi/, 
there has been an assibilation of the k sound, the aspirate in the first 
word being transferred from the end to the beginning of the syllable, 
according to a principle before explained. The second letter in all 
these words is a representative of the c, as is also the case in a\\os, 
alius, ueVo-o?, medius, cpvWov, folium. From the accentuation of 
aa-a-ov, daaaov, and fxaWov, it may be inferred that in Attic at least 
the first vowel is long by nature, and it may be doubted whether 
these words ought not to have the iota subscriptum, the i being trans- 
ferred to the first from the second syllable, as is indeed clearly the case 
in Kpeicrcrutv, /jLeij^wi/. 

To ascertain the meaning of this comparative suffix, we must recur 
to what was said in the last chapter on the connexion of the Greek and 
Sanscrit terminations — to?, iya. It appears that these endings express 
a quality or relation, and so differ from the comparative-ending only in 
this, that the comparative properly denotes a relation between two 
only, whereas these terminations express a relation generally. There 
is reason, therefore, to believe that these terminations are only weaker 
forms of the comparative ending in -twi/, just as the terminations of 
med-ius, al-ius, clearly relative words, are only slight variations of the 
comparative-endings in -ior (more anciently -ios), neuter -ius. In fact, 
as we shall show in a subsequent chapter, the original form of the 
genitive was -toi/=-o-toi/, which was more usually apocopized into -to, and 
as the qualitative adjectives in -to? were derived from the latter, so the 
comparatives in -twi/ = -tot/-? were inflexions of the former. The meaning 
of the ending -mv is quite in accordance with this derivation. It does 
not imply excess, like the suffix -repos, but only a considerable amount 
of the quality indicated by the adjective — rather more than less — and 
this is often the force of the adjectives in -io<; and of the Latin compara- 
tives in -tor, which may be added to formations in -ter; cf. dex-ter-ior, 
ex-ter-ior, &c. We recognise the same force in our ending -ish, as 
brack-ish, "rather salt than otherwise." 

166 The word medius is perfectly analogous to 'IStos; the first 
syllable of medius is the first personal pronoun, just as the first syllable 
of 'fiios is the third. The word " middle" expresses that the subject, 
the here, is considered as equidistant from two other localities, and is 
therefore properly expressed by a variety of the first personal possessive 
pronoun. This possessive in Sanscrit is written madiya, the word 
signifying " middle" is madhya. In Greek the dh or th of the Sanscrit 



* See Book III. Chap. 1, and Book IV. Chap. 4. 



278 THE NUMERALS. [Book II. 

is assibilated into <r, as a-ios from 0eo'c, and the i or y is represented by 
the second <t of /jieo-o-o?, an assimilation which we often find. We do 
not hesitate to recognise this word in the second part of fj-aiav. The 
first part bears the same relation to cid, Latin di (di-midius "through 
the middle"), that the first syllable of u-/^c?<? does to cvo. The same 
preposition also appears in the first syllable of tj-^epa and ij-fxcpo^*. 
By an assimilation very like that which has taken place in ^utWo? for 
/jieoio?, we have aAAo? for aAioc, with the same ending signifying quality 
or relation. This is clearly identical with the Sanscrit anya (for an/ya, 
from ana the demonstrative) and the Latin alius. The interchange of 
the liquids /, n, in Greek and Sanscrit, is well known ; it is also 
common among the dialectical varieties of the Greek language itself 
(Buttmann, Ausf. Spraekl. Vol. I. p. 74). If the connexion between 
aAAoc, alias, and anya is admitted, we cannot hesitate about referring 
to the same origin the Latin distinctive pronoun illc or alius, which 
stands therefore for inia or inlaw, and differs from alius = aniu*, only 
as the Latin prefix in differs from the Greek did; cf. dv-rjpi 
in-nwm run, ike. The // of Mi-Jut, ul-tra, Ore. is merely a result of 
the contact witli / : BM Vat . p. 217« The long o of olim is 

confined to thofl hen one of the liquid- •- 

p. 146). In d\\ij\u)v (from d\\ut atom*) one of the A's is absorbed 
in the long vowel* jn-t a- the i i- M nit tod in fdfrtf bemad from the 
separative partible a and alias. The Sanscrit synonym anydnya — * 
anya is melted down into one word in a somewhat similar manner. 

It may be objected to tin- resolution of utrroc and aXXot into forms 
so analogous to the qualitative ending in -kk on the one hand, and the 
comparative in -<W on the other, that there i< actually a form of q\.\oc 
(ckXAouk) ending with the former affix, and a comparative of acVo*, 
namely, n-ca-aiTepo^ (supcrl. neaairaTOi). With regard to a\\o?cK we 
have only to say that a reduplication of the ending would be quite in 
accordance with the analogy of the Greek lan_ h we 

were not entitled to suppose that thi- >k plate after the 

word had, by assimilation, lost the outward features of its original 
form. In Sanscrit an-ya and an-ya-tani arc synonyms for M other," 
"different." In fact a Wo? is rather a distinctive word, than a compa- 
rative like etc/xk: thus the grammarian - II. p. 

876- 1.4) : oAAoc ati' Ctrl 7rAcu):'aM' \eytTcit MM tTri aWoiov kcit^z 
en-epos he €ir\ hio. The same may be said of pevofrc pos : for alth 
)Lteo-io9, medius, have unquestionably a comparative mear. the 

general use of the word, it may have become necessary to ha\ 



\ § 150. 



Chap. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 279 

separate form to express more strongly that one of two objects was 
nearer to the middle point than the other. In Sanscrit, madhya has 
a superlative madhyama, like the Latin medioximus. We have before 
remarked on the connexion of "<ro? and "ilios, which are both analogous 
in meaning, as the latter is in form also, to jueVo? (fxehios). It is ob- 
servable that 'Zeros has a comparative lo-airepos, and "Sto? a comparative 
Ihalrepos, The former might be explained by the existence of the 
word iVa?o9 (the name of the orator), which bears the same relation to 
«ro<? that TptTaTo?, &c. do to TpWos, &c. But we are inclined to believe 
with Buttmann {Ausfuhrl. Sprachl. § 65, 5. Anm. 6), that the par- 
ticular form of the antepenultima (that is, according to our theory, the 
particular adverb to which the ending -repos is attached) was often 
chosen by the speaker or writer arbitrarily and to suit his own ear. 
Thus we have from dV/xei/o?, a perfect passive participle, dvpevtareposy 
aapevaWaTa, and dcr/xeveaTaTa, 

]67 "When the Greeks formed the comparative in -W, they em- 
ployed a superlative in -ict-to?. Similarly, in Sanscrit a superlative in 
-isht'h'as corresponds to a comparative in -iyans or iyas. It will be 
worth our while to examine these forms a little more minutely. Most 
of the Greek, and many of the Sanscrit, adjectives, which form their 
comparatives and superlatives in this manner, end in -us or -r(°)-s. 
"Why the former should prefer this method it is difficult to say, but 
one may easily see why the latter, which already contain part of the 
ordinary comparative-ending, should repudiate the common termination. 
The fact, however, is, that it is only by a substitution of the ending -us 
that adjectives in -ros pass to the qualitative form in -iw». That is to 
say, those Greek adjectives which already end in -po-$, and those 
Sanscrit adjectives which have this or any other consonant-suffix, drop 
it in the comparative, which is formed as if from an adjective in -us. 
Thus, alo-x-pos makes ala-^-iav, e-xd-pdi, 6^0-jW, &c. In Sanscrit the 
vowel of the new positive is always affected by guna : thus, kship-ra 
f* swift," makes kshep-iyas ; kshud-ra "little," kshod-iyas ; du-ra "far," 
dav-iyas ; yu-van " young," yav-iyas ; sthu-la " thick," stkav-iyas, &c. 
"We think the long syllable in the penultima of these Greek and 
Sanscrit comparatives, is occasioned by the coalition of the final vowel 
u, from which they are always formed, with the i of the ending. In 
the words Qdaro-wv^ y\v<r<r<av, &c. the final u has been elided, and the 
short i as usual changed into y, whence the assimilation. There are 
three instances of a somewhat similar kind in Sanscrit : pri-ya " dear,'' 
sthi-ra "firm," and sphi-ra "swollen," form their comparatives by 
adding -yas to a guna of the roots, thus, pre-yas, sthe-yas, sphe-yas. 



280 THE NUMERALS. [Book II. 

The reason of this is obvious : for otherwise there would be a concur- 
rence of eiy = eiiy, which would not be allowable. 

In compliance with the custom of all writers on grammar we have 
talked of a superlative in -lct-tos or -ish'-th'as. If it were true, as 
Grimm supposes {Deutsche Gramm. III. p. 583), that the superlative 
is properly formed from the comparative, it would be necessary to infer 
that these two syllables constitute the ending of the superlative as such, 
and that, in the' Sanscrit at least, the syllable ish was a contraction of 
-iyas, and this is Bopp's notion (Krit. Gramm. (far Sanskrita- 
p. 113). To us it appears quite unnecessary to derive the superlative 
from the comparative in any case. Nobody will assert that the more 
common comparative ending -ta-ra, -re-pos, is contained in the cor- 
responding superlative; why then should we suppose that the other 
comparative is? The comparative mpiCOBM a relation between two 
things: one is farther than or beyond the other (ta-ra), or bam ■ 
certain qualitative ratio to it (i-ydhs). The superlative expresses that 
the thing is the last in the series, proceeding from (-to) the obj. 
to (-ma) the subject, or both (-ta-ma). Tl are rarely distinct, 

and need not be derived from one another. We believe that this rape** 
lative-ending -io--toc is simply the termination -ros, which we have 
already spoken of, appended to an adverb in -** The adverb in -<c, 
by the side of which we frequently find an adverb in -a (ef. mfya, po'yic, 
,uc\«, aoXic, &c), seems to be an abbreviated inflexion of adject 
-v- or -W-. The v is turned into 4 which probably a! 
it in the complete termination -ail Of ftail before the 1- WM 
thus the Sanscrit root sril is represented both by »*-«•* and S >pm ; fetf, 
the root of viar, appears in <p6-io and jilius, ipoi^ifie-i 
efxv in Boeotian Greek (Apollon. it J p. 864), 'OiAaft^F 

appears as 'I\e»t or Oikek (Hermann tU MM Or* *lo" 

At any rate all comparisons in -nov and -«ttoc seem to be ultimately 
referable to positives in -uc, -cw, or to adverbs in -it. Although these 
forms in -w or -nil do not exist, they may be pro a nm ed a, poc 
from the analogies pointed out by Buttmann (Ausni/trl. 8prl \ 
Anm. 6): namely, by the side of nan-pa*, al<T X -po<, and 1 
have the forms pip-*-** (in which the root-syllable is guna'd as in the 
Sanscrit superlatives, and in paW-<r <), al<r X -v-"i* and 

Similarly, k«\\iW, wrWUcrot, though immediately connected with 
K«.\o ? -K*ac-\ec, most probably refer to a by-form m«\-u •*»-«■ 

after the analogy of tto.Xvc, ttoWo'c, Trpau'c, iroaoc, fee. ^ e d 
however, agree with Buttmann in regarding the terminati. I 
-oc as originally the same. On the contrary, the terminations in -»*, 
as will hereafter be shown, contain a distinct pronominal addition to 



Chap. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 281 

the crude form of the word, while in the ending -o? the nominative 
suffix is immediately attached. It is no slight proof of the durability 
of these suffixes, that Sanscrit words in -us or -u are always represented 
in Greek by corresponding adjectives in -u? or substantives in -v : thus 
for the Sanscrit svddus, prithus, urus, agus, laghus, mrldus and madku, 
we have the Greek »/Bi/s, TrAct-rus, eJ/jJs, wku's, e'-Aa^u?, fipalvs and fxedv. 
The Sanscrit bahus has two Greek representatives, ftadv? and Trap's, 
just as akis stands between e-yis and o<£<5, or 7^?z between <pav (<p6v-os, 
eire(pv-ov) and 0ai/ (Qdv-aros, dv-t]<rnu)) (Benary, Berl. Jahrb. August 
1834, p. 229). There are cases, in which the superlative termina- 
tion is -o(t-to? ='Cos-to?, as in 7roAA-o<r-T09, for which we might have 
had 7toAio-t<k, as may be seen by a comparison of o'A<yo<r-To<? with 
oA/7«t-tos. For the form ttoAu<? admits of an adverb in -«, as 7roAAo? 
does of an adverb is -as, and perhaps, after all, the difficult word 
T/3t7roAt(TT05 in Soph. Antig. 857, may contain a remnant of this other 
superlative of 7roAv<?. The name 'OSuo-o-eJs = 0\vo-a€ us or 'OA«ro-eu? points 
to an original oAtyeJ?, which would fully account for oAfyo-ro? (see 
Kenrick, Herod, p. 281, and Varron. p. 104). The terminations -re^os, 
-TCIT09, are sometimes appended to adverbs in -i<? from by-forms in -eu?, 
as in AaAiV-rejOO?, TTTw^V-Tepo?, dpirayla-TaTO^, &c We must not 
confuse this with the fact that adjectives, in -»?<? or -*/t<? and -ei/r<?, and 
even some in -tav (oi/-?), -if (-*k-?), regularly form the comparative and 
superlative in - ec-repos, -e<r-Ta7-o? ; for in these cases we have remains 
of the adverb in -w<?. Nor does the apparent analogy of magis favour 
the derivation of ^eyicr-ros from an imaginary comparative fxeyu for 
fieyiav; the comparative of mag-nus has suffered all sorts of abbre- 
viations : in major the gi has become j as usual, while magis has lost 
the u of the ending ; the g has become z in the Zend mazista, and has 
yanished altogether from the French mais. There is no reason what- 
ever why there should not be a form /ueye-us, as well as fxeye-Bu^. On 
the contrary, the existence of neyicr-ros is a reason for presuming the 
existence of /xeyeJ?, just as we might presume the existence of "Apevs, 
if we did not know it, from the superlative apia-ros, and as a positive 
vasus has been inferred from the Zend superlative vahista (Benary, 
Berl. Jahrb. August 1834, p. 230). In fact, the adverb juoyis, as 
we have already mentioned, is itself an argument in favour of the same 
supposition. We find end-re po<; by the side of waer-To?, because, as 
we shall see, e«a is an adverb as well as e/ca?. So also some adjectives 
in -u? add the terminations -repos, -tcito? to their neuter used ad- 
verbially, as well as employing the other adverbial form in -is. 
Cf. y\vKVT<XTO<; with y\vK-i<r-Tos. 



CHAPTER III. 
THE PREPOSITIONS. 

168 Independent value of prepositions as positional words. 169 General view of the 
Greek prepositions according to the elements of which they are composed. 
170 Eis = ey-s and ev. Apparent use of ws as a preposition. 171 Upo, trpo-t^ 
irpo-TL, dv-Ti. 172 'E-n-i and dfiffn identified with alhi and ub. 173 Their 
agreements in meaning with each other. 174 The use of e-rrl in composition to 
signify mutuality or intei change, also points to its affinity with dp.(pi. \f~i The 
same appears also from its use with the dative to signify combination or co- 
existence. 176 Etymology of e£. Use of €k6ui'i<tku3 and tK<pipu>. 173 
and irapd. Connexion of the latter with ircpi, irpos, prce, prater, and per. 178 
Ucpl and the Sanscrit pari, para. 17'J 'Vto and iirip. 180 Sid and cv<r~. 181 
2to and nerd. 182 Kara, how explained by Bopp. 183 'Avd and Kara are 
properly correlatives, and are most satisfactorily examined together. 1 
dv, d, and d-rro as negative prefixes ; Kara as an affirmative. 18.j The inten- 
sive d\(pa. 188 "A i' and km used correlatively in the same way as dvd and Kara. 
187 Position of dv and xev in the sentence. 

168 T)REPOSITIOXS arc pronouns or positional words in 
J7 the strictest sense of the term. They express rela- 
tions of place, and in their ordinary use are employed to denote 
the relative positions of visible objects. Grammarians tell us 
that they govern cases, and it is the prevailing practice to 
arrange them according to the cases which they are said to 
govern. But this is palpably erroneous : for in all languages 
which have any inflexions a case may express by itself any re- 
lation which the addition of a preposition could give to it, and, 
in languages which, like the Sanscrit, have a complete assort- 
ment of cases, many relations of place are invariably expressed 
by the cases without any particle prefixed. Such would have 
been the fact in the Greek language too, but the rules of 
euphony, convenience, the influence of writing, and a multitude 
of other causes, have contributed to mutilate the terminations of 
the nouns as well as of the verbs, and thus prepositions, the force 
of which was originally included in the case-endings, have come 
to be prefixed for the sake of greater distinctness, just as the 
particular noun is placed after the pronoun, called the article, 
in repetitions, and just as the nominative case is prefixed to 
the verb. 

169 There are eighteen Greek words which are commonly 
reckoned as prepositions ■ six monosyllab. -f>6, 






Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 283 

7T/009, avv } and twelve dissyllables, dn(pi, dvd 9 dvri, diro, did, 
€7T i, Kara, nerd, napd, irepi, virep, vwo. We shall consider 
these according to the relations which they express, and not ac- 
cording to any arbitrary division of former grammarians*. Since 
the prepositions retain their original meaning, as words indicating 
positions and directions in space, more characteristically than 
any other pronominal words, and also present the simplest com- 
binations of the original elements of the pronouns, we will, pre- 
viously to examining these Greek forms separately and in detail, 
endeavour to point out their etymological analysis in a sum- 
mary manner, and to explain the general principles of their com- 
position. 

It has been stated before that the primitive pronouns are 
three in number, expressing respectively the positions here, near 
to the here, and there, and that different modification of di- 
rection or position may be denoted by combining these original 
stems with one another or with the particle la or ra. On 
examination it will appear that all the Greek prepositions, with 
the exception of Sid which is a form of the second numeral, are 
compounds of at least two of the primary elements, or of one of 
them with -ra. We have already adverted to the principles 
according to which we would arrange and classify all pronominal 
compounds (§ 130). After a careful dissection of all the pro- 
nominal forms with which we are acquainted, we have arrived 
at the conclusion, that if any one of the elements of position 
is combined with -ra, it indicates motion and continuation in a 
direction of which the element in question represents the point 
nearest to the subject; and that, by subjoining any one of the 
pronominal elements to any other of them, we denote a motion 
or continuation from the position denoted by the first element 
towards that indicated by the second. Thus we have seen, that 
the second element when prefixed to -ra (as in ka-ra) expresses 
motion onwards from the position indicated as near, so as, in 
fact, to coincide with a word indicating the third position (ta, 
or even ta-ra) ; and that the first element subjoined to the third 
(as in ta-ma) expresses motion or continuation from the third 



* The object of this chapter is to discuss the signification rather than 
the syntax of the Greek prepositions : as a supplement to the cases they 
are fully treated in the Greek Grammar, articles 470 — 488. 



284 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book H. 

position towards the first, so as to coincide with the second 
position (cf. fini-timus, &c). We shall find this method most 
amply illustrated bj the Greek prepositions. Of these 7ra-pd, 
ire-pi, 7r-po, 7r-/oo-9, are compounded of the first element and pa. 
In the first, which is also written ira-pal, we find both elements 
in the simplest form. In the second, in which traces of a heavier 
ending still remain, the vowel of the first element has as-umed 
the lighter form e, according to a principle which will be more 
fully explained hereafter. In ir-po and ir-po-s, which are in 
fact one and the same word, another element has been subjoined 
in the $, indicating motion or transitiveness, and probably a 
shortened form of the affix -09, -aio, which plays an important 
part as the sign of the genitive case. In consequence of this 
addition, the root-vowel has been dropt before the liquid, and 
a medium weight given to the vowel of the termination. The 
forms Tr-po-Tt, iro-T[ y also used for ir-pd-s, are compounds, one 
of the preposition ir-po, the other of the simple element of the 
first pronoun, with the element of the second under the form 
n = 9 (§152); and both, therefore, denote (the former more 
strongly) motion from the first to the second position. A similar 
form is /ue-rd, which is compounded of the first and third elenK 
and signifies "with" as a connexion between the here and the 
there, and " after" as denoting an approximation to their union. 
The third pronoun is subjoined to the second in nt-na, as it is 
to the first in fxe-rd, and the meaning which results is ana- 
logous. In the Sanscrit the first element is appended 
to a form of the second; the meaning "with," which resul 
explicable in much the same way m the nmill 
If the latter expresses " with" as implying a junction of the 
here with the there, so §a ma may convey the - of idea 
as implying an union of the near with tlu Wti shall 
by and by how this differs from <jvv = Fa-v. The :ions 
v-tto, v-ire-p, are related as fa is to ta-ra ; the latter expresses 
a continuance of the direction implied by the former. It must 
be observed, however, that the tinal vowel of vwi, like that of 
diro, irpo, indicates the loss of the genit: that the full 
form was v\j/, or v-nos — v-oder. The first syllable of i'-tto is 
a vocalization of the second pronoun Fa or wo, In San-crit it 
appears as u in u-pa, and in Latin as tu in ftfr-6. Of the 
cessive mutilations of this stem from sva to hi, i. we I 



Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 285 

already spoken, and we have also hinted the general tendency 
of the aspirated labial to vocalize itself into i as well as u. 
We shall, therefore, have little difficulty in recognising it in the 
Greek v, the Latin su, or even in the Sanscrit u. According to 
this analysis v-wo should signify a direction from the immediately 
near to the here, and v-7re-p a continuation of motion in that 
direction ; we shall see presently that this agrees very well with 
the common use of these prepositions as the correlatives "under" 
and " over." The element a (e), must be the ultimate form 
either of ha from Fa, or of na. There are many cases in which 
this element appears in combination with an existing na, and we 
must suppose in those cases, either that it is a mere prothesis 
like the e or o in e-fxe, 6-$ous, or that it is the pronoun Fa pre- 
fixed to na. As there are occasionally traces of a lost digamma, 
we might incline to the latter explanation, which is particularly 
applicable to the case of prepositions compounded with na. Now 
there are three Greek prepositions in which we have the com- 
pound of a or e and na: — a-vd, eU = €-1/5, and e-»\ The idea 
of farness is strongly conveyed by the first; the last and 
shortest form conveys simply and explicitly the idea of locality ; 
and in the second this is combined with the idea of motion. 
The element a (e) appears in three other prepositions, d-iro, 
6-7ri, and €-% = e-/c?. In these compounds there is reason to believe 
that the a or e is the residuum of the element na. For other- 
wise we must have an unmeaning reduplication of the idea of 
nearness in the preposition e£, and a-iro would, on that sup- 
position, be identical with v-wo = Fa-7rd. The lighter vowel is 
chosen in the two latter because their terminations are heavier. 
The two former are indicative of a direction from the distant to 
the here : the latter of motion from the distant to that which 
is near. The first and third have the cognate meanings "from" 
and "out of:" that which comes from the distant hither ward 
comes " from," or, if through an intermediate spot, " out of" it. 
The signification of ewl is "upon" or "across;" the vowel of 
its termination, as well as that of ire-pi, points to an original 
expression of locality by way of case-ending. A comparison of 
airo, a\f/ (d-7ro5), ir-po, ir-pos, convinces us that both a-iro 
and ir-po originally possessed the final s, which we have men- 
tioned before as the index of transitiveness. 'Av-t\ and an-cpl 
are compounds, of which the first part is ava. The latter part 



286 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book II. 

of dv-Ti is the same as the termination of irpo-rl = 71750-9, and 
is therefore equivalent to the sign of the genitive case. The 
termination of d/x-(pi is a mutilation of the second pronominal 
stem, which is often used to form the locative or dative case. 
In ^Eolic and Doric d/x-(pi is written ciLL-Tri, but we regard this 
as merely a dialectical corruption. It is clear from dfx-(pcv = dvd 
Sua, that (pi for a(pi is the more genuine form. A similar but 
more general corruption has taken place in e-rri, the last syllable 
of which does not appear to be a case-variation of the ending 
of d-7ro, but a substitute for (pi, since in its proper meaning 
e-7ri is strictly locative. If therefore the first syllable e is a 
residuum of civ-, we may trace ciLi-(pi and e-rrl to a common 
origin, and we shall see that their use is not so very different. 

170 We commence our separate examination of the Greek 
prepositions with els and ev, which we believe to have been 
originally identical, and which express the simplest and most 
elementary notion of locality — the being in a place. In the 
Sanscrit system of cases there is one which by itself expresses 
this relation, and therefore it is not to be wondered at that there 
should be no Sanscrit preposition corresponding to ev. Now in 
the Sanscrit pronouns the termination of this K01 
thus, tusuiin, '• in this," I. "in what?" "in the 

same," i/asmiii. u in what," M " in (.-very thing." The 

pronouns of the first and second person are exception- 
form their locative- in I, like the bulk of the nouns*. 

Bopp supposes (VergL Gramm. p. 831) that the termination in 
-i-n is of later origin than that in -/. and that the final n is 
merely a v ^(peXKvariKov, or an arbitrary addition. We do not 
believe that v e^e.Wo-nKoV in Greek wo: Merely capri- 

cious termination: there is no reason why an n should be added; 
and it is very easy to see, on the contrary, how time might I 
caused an abbreviation of the ending, which is so liable to become 
evanescent (i 114). Besides, the n>e of the full termination in old 
words, like the pronouns, in Sanscrit, and its appearance in the 
Greek and Latin pronouns are to us sufficient proofs of its being 



* Those Sanscrit nouns which form their locative in ( * arc no rai 
from the general ending in 1, for in all those nouns the crude form ends in 
a, and I = CM, 



Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 287 

the most ancient form of the locative. The Greek pronouns, in 
which this termination is found, are e/uiv, tc'lv, tiv, iv, elr, o<piv, 
(piv, \j/iv, Tjfxii/, vfuv, TTplv, &e. In Latin it is even more exten- 
sively used, though in accordance with the genius of the lan- 
guage it is generally changed into i-m, except in compounds. 
Olim is obviously the locative of ille or olle, and means " in that 
time" The same appears with regard to the other adverbs of 
times quom and interim. Enim is the locative of some lost 
pronoun analogous to the Sanscrit ena, and means " in that" = 
" for," just as sin means "in this" = "if," the one pointing to 
something that has been mentioned, the other to something about 
to be mentioned. Enim, which is related to nam, just as tango 
is to contingo (Bopp, Vergl. Gramm. p. 534), is a compound 
word like the Sanscrit a-na, ena, e-ta, e-ka : compare the 
Greek vvv } vlw 9 voa(f)i 9 with /ceT-yo?, rrj-vos, a-va. The same 
termination with the same meaning is found in istim, istin-c(e), 
illim, illin-c{e), hin-c(e), intrin-secus, extrin-secus, quin, in-de, 
utrin-de, un-de, subin-de, dein, &c. The first part of peren- 
die, which, as we showed before, is formed like the Sanscrit 
paredyus, or aparedyus, from a pronominal adjective signify- 
ing " other," or " further," and the common word " a day," ex- 
hibits the locative of the adjective very clearly, as does also 
the Sanscrit equivalent apare = apara-i. It is obvious that 
this termination -in or -en is identical with the Latin preposition 
i-n, which from the disuse of the locative case is always em- 
ployed to express the simple notion of locality. The difference 
of vocalization need not prevent us from identifying ev with in. 
The Latin in may express the meaning of all the Greek com- 
pounds of a- or e- with va, and even the negative prefix dva 9 
which is a formation of the same kind : e. g. dvd /ueoos = in- 
vicem ; eU tyjv ttoXiv = in urbem ; ev ty\ 7ro\e< = in urbe ; 
dv7ip&fio<$ = in-numerus. We must therefore be contented to 
suppose that the first part of ev = i-n is the ultimate weakened 
form of the second personal pronoun, the stronger form of which 
appears in the Greek locative i-va, " where," and both stronger 
and weaker in the forms analyzed in the last chapter but one. 
There are traces of this locative of the second pronoun in the 
prepositions elv, eivi; and in this pronominal sense ev itself is 
often used in the best writers. Thus, Sophocl. (Ed. Tyr. 27 : 
ev o 6 7rvp(p6pos 9eos crKrjxj/as eXavvei. And thus we see why 



288 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book II. 

the first and second personal pronouns, when it was necessary to 
give to them that more marked and definite expression of local- 
ity which is conducive to their distinctness as numerals, were 
occasionally combined with this form of the third demonstrative 
pronoun. 

That eh and ev are essentially the same word has not 
escaped the notice of Greek scholars. In Pindar we have ev with 
an accusative case expressing motion to a place, where we should 
certainly find eh in Attic (Pyth. II. 11, and 86. V. 38. Kern. VII. 
31), and there are passages in which eh with an accusative is 
found instead of ev with a dative (Porson ad Kurt p. Phc 
1381). It might be suggested that eh = fit was the basis both 
of e? and er, the former omitting the v, the latter the ?. But it 
is not necessary to regard them in this light. We consider them 
to be related simply as fieh, /mev, Seh and ceV ; nam- 
$£v, and iw are three locatives, and petf, ceh and eh are three 
transitive forms incorporating the idea of locality. That eh ex- 
presses motion to a place (not unlike -ce), while ei> ex pr omo s 
nothing but locality, or the abiding in a place, is to be 
plained from the addition of the element ff, which is also a mark 
of the nominative or relation of subjectivity. The termination 
7i((i)s appears also in the Latin preposition tra-ns. 

There is only one passage, so fir as we know, in which the preposi- 
tion eh has occasioned any difficulty. It i- in Ettri] 

ToSpOt c' V/3f}l<TT(U KCfc K6/1U? OvUOVfievOl 
TO 7rpoa(\r. 

from which Virgil has taken \\\ 

id, XII. 104), and which is also imitated by £lian im. 

II. 20, ami rV. 28, whore we ha .v cU Ke'pac). We think the 

line in Euripides explicable from the idea of u looking toward-," implied 
in the classical use <>f eU, and from the passage in his ILL < 
where a bull is described re vwra neU Kepas xa^£^/i\cx«i' 

With regard to the so-ealled usage of m as a synonym for 
need only be observed that this adverb is constantly employed by the 
best writers with prepositions of motion like t.\\ tirt, - 
the latter, followed by an aeeusative. so that the three words are I 
Talent to uk with a participle, and the construetion is explained in 
the common grammars by a supposed ellipse of the participle. This 
course, is an unnecessary hypothesis ; but it is generally easy to see that 
there is an ellipsis of the preposition tt.uk in the apparent use of m for 



Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 289 

ek with the accusative, which is generally restricted to the names of 
persons. Thus we read (Deraosth. Phil. III. p. 113): ek OwKe'as ws 
7rp6<> o-vwjLctxovs eiropeveTo^ where ek OwKe'a? strictly speaking denotes 
the name of the country, whereas m vrpos o-vfx^d-^ov<i is a personal 
reference : from which mode of speaking arose the use of w? alone with 
the names of persons, in nearly the same sense as ek with the names 
of things; e.g. Trpeo-fieis Treirofxcpev w<s fiaaihia for to? irpo*; fiacriXca 
(Demosth. Phil. I. p. 54). 

171 The most elementary notion of situation next to that 
of mere locality is the notion of that which is before us, in which 
the notion of forwardness, or motion forwards, is included. The 
simplest word for expressing this in Greek is 7Tjoo, which is a 
compound of the first pronominal stem under the form pa with 
the termination ra, signifying, as we have seen, motion, and 
conveying the idea of beyond. This word, like eU and ev, ap- 
pears among the numerals; for a superlative form of it (wpcoTos) 
is used as the ordinal of the first number. Another form of 
irpo is irporl (Sanscrit prati) or ito-ti, where rt has taken the 
place of the genitive -9. That ir-po-s is only the fuller and more 
genuine form of ir-po appears as well from the comparison of 
<x-7ro', if, suggested above, as from the fact that ir-p6<s, under 
the still more complete form irdpos, is used as a synonym for 
irpo. The idea of motion, conveyed by ir-pos or ir-po-ri, has 
been before explained; the form irpos combines with a word 
expressing here, the syllable ra indicating motion, and the ter- 
mination s, which has much the same force (compare ek) : irpo- 
tI contains the same affix in a fuller form, and dv-ri, which is 
all but a synonym of irpo, also terminates in this genitival ti = 
6ev = s- As pa ultimately = va, and as a-va = Fa-vd, the only 
difference between ir-po-rl and d-v-rl is that which is indicated 
by the first syllable ; namely, the starting-point in 7r-po-Ti is the 
here, in d-v-ri, the near. 

172 We have already suggested that e-7rl and d^-0/ = 
dvd-(pi are by-forms of one and the same preposition. ' If so, the 
primary meaning of both must be superposition combined with 
an idea of juxtaposition, and this resolves itself into the ideas of 
upon and around. Before we examine this meaning we will 
point out the connexion between these particles and their San- 

U 



290 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book II. 

scrit and Latin synonyms abhi and ob. Wilson's account of 
abhi is as follows : "Abhi is a preposition and particle implying 
(l) superiority in place, rank, or power (over, upon, against, 
above), (2) proximity (near), (3) separation (severally), (4) 
wish, desire, (5) conjunction, particularizing (to, with respect to). 
Thus, abhi-kramitun, to overpower ; abhi-gantun, to approach, 
abhi-khyatun, to speak to; abhi-bhava, disgrace; abhi-ldsha, 
desire ; abhyagnin, on the fire." From this abhi we have the 
adverb abhitas, " near." The conjunction and inseparable pre- 
position api, which is a still nearer approach to the Greek ew'i, 
occurs as a preposition before a few roots, and seems to signify 
'over;' the roots dhd, 'to place,' nah "to fasten," receive 
the meaning " to cover" when this particle is prefixed. The a 
of api is usually omitted; e.g. pinaddha, ''covered," "clothed. v 
As a conjunction, we very often find api by itself, without any 
rejection of the a, in which case it signifies " even," " though," 
"yet," "assuredly," "moreover," "therefore," "also;" it is 
likewise an interrogative particle; the compound hi Bfgai- 

valent to quupiam, or, if preceded by the relative, to qweunqu* 
(Wilson sub v, ; Bopp, KritUche 

Sprache, p. 55 ; and GUm p. 73). So that api and 

abhi seem to be modifications of the same word. This view of 
the connexion of er<, aMs, and apt, is supported by the common 
usage of eVi, which always conveys the idea of nearness or 
approximation, even when it is followed by an accusative and 
signifies motion. Now we may fairly conclude that the nasal 
has fallen out in abhi for amb/ti = dacpi just as in • 
om/3^09, in ubhau = a/i0a>, a mho, &e. The identity therefore of 
iwt and abhi farther confirms the connexion between e-rri and 
diucpi On the other side t'-i coincides so remarkably in some 
of its applications with the Latin ob, that it is difficult to suppose 
that the Greek and Latin prepositions can have had different ori- 
gins. Thus optimum from ob manifestly denotes uppermost, and 
therefore stands like supitm ut and wmmim in complemen: 
opposition to infimus and imus. Here we have ob with the com- 
mon meaning of eiri, " upon." But it corresponds to the other 
meanings of enl and d[i<pl, as Festus tells us (p. ITS. Midler): 
" ob piwpositio alias ponitur pro circum, ut cum dieimus uti 

obsideri, ob-vallari, ob-signari alias pro ad ponitur, ut Ennius: 

ob Romam noctu legioncs ducere ctxpit, et alibi ob Trojatn 



Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 291 

duxit." So also in the fragment of his Telamon quoted by 
Cicero (Tusc. Disp. III. 18): Hicine est Me Telamo, modo 
quern gloria ad coelum extulit, quern adspectabant, cujus ob os 
Graii or a obvertebant sua. (Compare the eiri-GTpeirTos aioov of 
iEschyl. Choeph. 350.) The same may be said of the use of obeo, 
"to go to," "to visit." The English preposition " upon" conveys 
much the same idea as eVt in such passages as Horn. Od. V. 17 : 
oi Kev niv 7refX7roiei/ eir evpea vcora OaXdaarjs. Now it is pretty 
clear that ob is a shortened form of amb. Thus obba stands by 
the side of d/ufii};, and Festus has told us that there are many 
usages of ob in composition in which it corresponds in meaning to 
d/uL<pl or 7r€pi even more than to iwi : compare obsidere urbem 
with the Greek '(pe^eaOai on the one hand, and 7repiKaQrja6ai 
kvkXw to reT^os on the other : if ob-scurus reminds us of eirl- 
(jkios and ob-edio of €7raKovu), ob-esus (bassus) suggests djucpi- 
\a<pr)$, and ob-erro may be translated by 7repnr\avcofxai ; and if 
occupo corresponds to e7ri\anfidv<*), so does ob-liquus to dfxcpiXo^os. 

173 But we must now show that enl and dfi<pl agree 
occasionally in meaning with one another. The most striking 
instance of this is furnished by the syntactical usage of eirl with 
the genitive and dative as corresponding to that of d/u(j)l or 7repl 
with the accusative and dative. With the genitive case, e7rl 
denotes, as we have elsewhere shown*, superposition with sepa- 
ration. The latter part of the meaning belongs more imme- 
diately to the case itself, but of course the preposition must be 
able to reconcile itself to such an application. Now there are 
two modes of connecting the idea of superposition with that of 
separation. The first is when we imply that the separation is 
total, but that a line drawn over one object will pass over the 
other. Here then we denote direction or motion at a certain 
height or distance : e. g. a ship at sea was spoken of as up in 
the air (nxeTeaypos) ; hence such phrases as 7rXeT»/ eirl 2a/uoi/ 
(Thucyd. I. 116) ; and past or distant time supposes a reckoning 
upwards, as we shall show farther when we come to the tempo- 
ral augment; hence we have such phrases as eirl Aapeiou eye- 
vero (Herod. VI. 98). It is clear that we might say, with a 
slight difference of meaning, ifkelv d/ncpl ^djmov, and dn<pl tov 



* Gr. Gr. Art. 483. 

U2 



292 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book II. 

Aapeiov yjpovov. The other mode of considering superposition 
and separation together is where we signify that the whole of a 
superimposed object does not rest on the supporting surface. 
Thus we imply only a partial superposition when we say that 
planks are laid across piles fixed at intervals (Herod. V. 16: 
'input €7rl twv aravpcov ecm/fce), or that burdens are placed on 
the head or shoulders, so as to extend beyond them on both 
sides (Herod. II. 35 : o\ /xev enl rwv K€(pa\ewv (popeovcji, at ce 
ywaiKes enl twv wfiwi/). Hence such phrases as eirl Opovou 
KaOi^eaOat, e<p' 'iwirov oyilaQai, because in sitting and riding the 
legs hang down by the side, and the Spartan woman gave her 
son his shield with the words : fj rdv >j eni Ta9 (Plutarch. Lac. 
Apophth. p. 241 e). Much in the same way, we find d/u(pi used 
with the accusative, as in Eurip. Pktm. 122: da-nic dfx(pl f3p*> 
y[ova kov(P'l(wv. With the dative e-rr\ and dix<p\ give many 
traces of a cognate meaning ; thus we can say with the same 
signification of proximity ooceovrt? eVi ^rpvtiovi (Herod. VII. 
75), or d/u(pl Sivais Evp'nrov (fyh. T, <>')• -^ s however dft(pi 
has retained its original form more completely than e7r<, we 
must expect that the combined meanings M up and about, or 
around," will be more consistently retained by the stronger word. 

174 There is • u-ry remarkable reference to the original meaning of 
eVi and d/Mpi, when the former is naod fan composite »n to signify mu- 
tuality, an interchange, a running of one thing into another. As this 
meaning of M has not been sufficiently noticed by Greek scholar- 
shall illustrate it by examples. In this sense M is frequently prefixed 
to a\Ao?, or some word like it, and the origin of the nullin g BOH 
be the same as that of d\\tj\wv, with which indeed it is combined, if we 
may adopt Hermann's very probable emendation of Sophocles (Antiy. 57): 

Tp'iTOv 6 dt€\(pio Cvo fxiav ROV tjutpav 

CtVTOKTOVOVVTi, TO) Ta\tt«7roy>a>, fjiopov 

koivov KaTeipydaavT eraAAif Aot» ^€fto7v. 
The expression of mutuality or interchange by juxtaposition seems to 
have been the result of a natural love of brachylogy or tin 
mode of expressing our meaning. When \ they hurt one an- 

other," we mean that A hurt i?, and also that B hurt A : which would 
certainly not be expressed by saying v * the one hurt the other." Simi- 
larly in Greek, if we wrote a\\ should merely 
expiess that the one party killed the other, but if we put the two 
pronouns together and write uKXm aXXowc (aAA#X<m) arrow, m 
press that the slaughter was mutual, that there were killers on both 



Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 293 

sides. It is therefore by an obvious contrivance for the purpose of 
saving a superabundance of words, that, whenever reciprocity is in- 
tended to be expressed, the subject and object are placed in immediate 
contact, in order that the hearer or reader may combine them both into 
one idea of agency. The fusion which has taken place in dxXtjXiov is 
only a further extension of the juxtaposition. In Plato, Besp. TV. p. 
444, we have uV aXXtjXwv twice by the side of aXXo uV aXXov. It is 
precisely the same case with phrases like irpo 6 tov ev6r\<rev and irpos 
aAAoV aXXov. This expression of reciprocity, by creating an idea of 
contiguity or contact, is sometimes extended in Greek to an expression 
of identity. This appears from the use of eauTov?, <xvtov<;, for dXXtiXov? 
(see Hesychius and his commentators sub v. eat/rous). In the passage 
of Sophocles quoted above, we have avTOKTovovvTe for aXXriXoKTovovvre, 
and farther on in the same play (145), we find *a0' avToTv ZiKpaTeh 
xdy%a<; <rTt]<ravTe for kot aXXtjXwv. In Plato (Parmenides, p. 133 e) 
we see the grounds of this usage more clearly : a\x' ov rd ev rj/jiTu Trpos 
€K€Tva Trjv Zvvajj.iv e^et ovhe ineTva Trpds v/ids, aXX\ o Aeyco, avrd avrcov 
Kctt Trpos av\d eneivd T€ ecrrt, k<x\ TCt rrrap t]fx?v tdVauTco? Trpos eavTa^ — 
that is, dxXt]X<av Ka\ irpds aXXt]Xa. We do not very well understand 
what the author of the a-wayuyt] Xe^ewv -^p^a-i/jLoiv (Bekkeri Anecdot. 
p. 378) means by asserting that the converse is the case : dxXqXuv dvTi 
tov eavTwv. outok YjVpi7rihrj<i kcu QovKvhiZr)?' na\ irov Ttves aXXrjXiov 
eyevo-avTo, dvr\ tov iavrwv. The passage of Thucydides here alluded 
to is as follows (II. 70) : o re o-7ro? eTreXeXo'nrei, k<x\ aXXa t€ vroXXa 
ttreyeyevrjTO avTodi rj^rj /3pa>'crew? irepi dvayicaia*;, Kai Tives KCt\ dXXqXwv 
eyeyewTo. It is here simply stated that the Potida?ans were reduced 
to the necessity of feeding on human flesh : of course aXXtjXwv is not 
used in its ordinary signification, for there could certainly be no recipro- 
city in such an action as that referred to in the text; but still less can 
any reflexive meaning be intended. Thucydides perhaps considers the 
Potidaeans as one body, and intends, by the use of aXXtjXcov, to indicate 
that they fed upon the corpses of their fellow-citizens : this is the only 
way in which we can comprehend the interpretation given in the crvva- 
7017*7. There are other passages in which aXXtjxcov cannot be inter- 
preted with any reference to reciprocity. In Odyss. XII. 102, dXXrtXtav 
must be equivalent to eTepwv if the present punctuation is retained : 

tov 3' eTepov o-KOTreXov yQaixaXuiTepov 6\j/€i, 'OBucrtrev, 

irXri<riov aXXrjXtov Kai nev Zio'icrTevcreias. 
But it is better, perhaps, to understand it as if it were written ol 
a-KoireXoi TrXri<ri6v elaiv dXXtjXcov, putting a full stop at the end of the 
first line. In such words as aXXrjXov^o^, aXXrjXov^la^ the idea of reci- 
procity is merged in that of contiguity or union. 



294 



THE PREPOSITIONS. 



[Book II. 



Besides eVaAX^Xo? we have eTraWoKapiros and eVaWoKauAo? in 
Theophrastus (ift^. Plant. III. 18), with the same meaning of reci- 
procity. The use of iiraWdaaeiv and its derivatives, in the sense of 
alternation or interchange, is very common. Thus in Homer {Iliad 
XIII. 359) we have : 

Tw o' epicos Kpareptjs kcu opouov iro\e}xoi.o 
ireipap eiraWd^avre^, iV diKpoTepmc-i Tavvaafiv, 
L e. " alternating the rope of war, pulling it now to one side, now to 
the other, fighting with various success." The metaphor is taken from 
a game, in which two people tried their strength by pulling at a rope, 
which is also alluded to in Iliad XI. 536 : 

ev&a <T(pi kcito. laa fid^tjv eTavvcrcre Wpovlwv. 
The Homeric eiroi-^eadat also ex; iprocity, especially when it 

means "to walk backwards and forwards in weaving:" comp. <Vto» 
i-noi^ofxevrjv (Iliad I. 31) with Pindar's larmp iraXipftdiiov^ dcovs (Pyth. 
IX. 18). 

The word ivatoai 1 by Herodotaa (I. 70 to expn 

interchange of matrimonial relationa between two families: not ydpmv 
eiraXXctyijv iwoiijouf WXvdrrca ydp eyvtaaav covvat «f» BvyaTepa 
Wpvtjiuv 'AvTvdyei tm Kva^dpeta irate l. < Mi the >imilar word cvaXAo^it, 
sec Wyttenbach on Plutarch [Moral I. 2, p. 885). In Clue 
etriyaixia is used (Herodot. II. 147); it also denoh - 
nubii between tn or partiee in a state (Wolf •/•/ Ihmosth. 

Leptin. p. 282), The word eVaAAo-nw is need to express an inter- 
change or interlacing in a material Benae in the foil - : to 

pev €<tti Kapyapolovra avrm» — rd ti dveiraXXanTa — Kapy^apv, 
ydp ecrrtv u<ra CiroXXoTTCi rovs ocoitck; tdw o£e7<; ( A ri~ 
Au'nn. I. c. t. p. 501 Bekker) ; dpytm* t«J» vcv/m*» rj c«raXXo79« "* the 
interlacing of the ends of the muscles" (Aretams, p. S4 n, Boerhaave); 
and a line or two lower down in the same page, dXXqXotat e ra.Waf i 
etc xiao-pov <r^»;'jnnTo«r, kt interlacing with one another like the letter \. 
In a metaphorical raXAaTvcw is applied to express verbal am- 

biguities; thus, Xcnophon, Memlll. $. § 1 : /j>/ -ni\ o x6yo< ewaXX 
tt lest your words be perverted." Aristot. Polit. I. 6, (p. 1255, 1. 13 
Bekker) : airtov Be Teurrir? cm</ ) < 7 : >'/ T »/<Te^«> , ? nat o itojo tov? \070vc t 

\arreiVj on eirci &ia«Wrr«»» ?e ^w^<? tov'twv twi- . t. \. 

"that which makes the arguments run into one another and inter- 
change. ...for if they were kept distinct.. \v. En :' 
(poreptQir is very frequently found: im 
dyayeTv rm kdyo* (TimaTOS, /. . /' 
Hesychius. Plato, J2utkydtm*t 9 p> 500 D: o 
piK€ tov Xoyov. — Retp. V. p. 4-79 B: to?* €k tok co-Tiao-ecr.* * 



Chap. 3] THE PREPOSITIONS. 295 

<pOT€pi£ov<riv eoiKe — na\ yap Tavra e7rafX(f)OTepi^eiv. — Scholiast, ad Ari- 
Stoph. Pac. 849 : eirajxcpoTepi^ovTUi'i XeXenTai ko.\ Trpos to TTpdy/xa ko\ 
wpds to dareXyes. Id. ad Plutum, 635 : Trai'Qav yap enajX(pOT€pit\iva-as 
Ae'fet? edriKev. The word also occurs in the sense of "to fluctuate/' 
"to waver between two parties or opinions:" eirafxcpoTepi'^eiv, to jxrj 
-rrayud"? 'ev tj fiovXevecrdai kou irpaTTeiv^ aXXa ku\ Tote teat tocc ciavoel- 
o-dai (Bekkeri Anecd. p. 41), as we see in Thucyd. VIII. 85: cpdei- 
povra Twi/ TIeXoTrovvrjcriwv Ta Trpdy/j-aTa p.€Ta AXKijoiabov Kai CTra/x- 
<PoT€pi\jovTa. Plat. Phmdrus, p. 257 B : "va koi 6 epao-Trjs ohe auTou 
nrjxeTi eTra/jLipoTepifyj. If it be objected to the connexion between eVi 
and d/x(p\ that the compound iwafxcpoTepi^a} could not in that case be 
formed without tautology, we need only remark that eVi and d}x(p\ had 
become in time different, though cognate, prepositions, and their use in 
the same compound is not more remarkable than that of ob and amb- 
in the verb obambulo. 

The same idea of reciprocity is conveyed by e7rafxei/3eiv and eVa/^ot- 
QaVm. It may also be inferred that eirix €l P a m the sense of a reward 
or punishment contains the same notion; eiri^eipov. dvTair6Zo<7i<; 
Hesychius; Tdiri-^eipa. tov /xicrdov, to? d/jLoi(3d<;. Suidas. Hence 
iEschyl. Prometh. 327 ' TotavTa ixevToi ttJ<; dyav v\j/tjydpov yXuj<r<rr]<;, 
npo/jLrjdev, TdTri-^eipa yiyveTai. The 28th line of the same play: 
ToiavT dwrivpco tov (piXavQpwTrov Tpotrov is explained by the Scholiast : 
tu t»/5 (piXavdpooTrias eiri-^eipa ToiavTa croi eyeveTO, probably, as Hem- 
sterhuis suggests {ad Lucian. I. p. 106. p. 370 Lehm.), with reference 
to line 327- Plato, Resp. X. p. 608 c: tu ye /xeyia-Ta iir^eipa Trjs 
dpeTtjs Ka\...ddXa. In Sophocles, Antlg. 814, ovtc £i<pewv eiri-^eipa 
Xa^ovfra, punishment is implied : but in the Greek idea of punishment, 
that of an equivalent or quid pro quo was always included. The word 
eirt^eipa is of course intimately connected in meaning and, ultimately, in 
origin with eTn-^prja-dai, "to have an habitual interchange of kindnesses 
with any one." Thus, Herod. III. QQ : $v £e ywtj Ka'/jir/, wo-ai/ros al 
e Trixpeco/xevai /xaXiaTa yvvaTxes TavTa toIcti dvhpaai iroievart. Thucyd. 
I. 41 : a^luxriv -yapiTo^ Tolavhe r\v ovk eydpo\ ovTes wcttc pXairTeiv 0J8' 
av (piXoi ooctt €7Tixprjdai dvTiZoOrjvai t]/x?v ev tw irdpovTi (pajxev yptjvai. 
Plato, Legg. XII. p. 953 A : dvayKOua jxev m oXiyia-Ta he eiri-^piafxevovi. 
The same meaning of reciprocity is conveyed by eirifxa-^ia^ " an alliance 
for mutual defence," as distinguished from ^u/x/xa^a. Thus, Thucyd. 
I. 44: ^vfXfxa^lav jxev /xr] 7roir)<rd<rdai, uiaTe tov\ avTOv\ eydpovs na\ 
(piXovs vofxit\iv...eTr ifxa-^iav Be €7roitf(ravTO, Ttj aXXtjXwv f3orj6e?v. V. 48 : 
apKetv ty\v 6 7r ifxa-^iav^ dXXtjXois fioqde'iv, £uv€7ri<TTpaT€veiv he /xrjhevi. 
Ammon. 7rep\ diacp. Xe£. : SujUjua^eTi/ koi eiriixa'^e'iv hiacpepei' ctvlx- 
fxa^eTv jxev yap Xeyovaiv to <tvv eavTols^ <pr)<r\ AtBu^o?, e"iT av\o\ eirloiev 



296 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book II. 

woXefxiois e\o e repot erria-TpaTevoieu' eirtikaye'tv [ce] ore tovs eiriovTas 
dfxvvovTai /xdvov (according to Valckenaer's emendations). Words formed 
with the preposition ewt are also used of actions which take place on 
the borders of two countries, or on debatable land: for then a reci- 
procity, a motion in both directions, a hin und her, as the Germans 
say, is implied. Thus, etrf pyaa'ta is "a communion of husbandry 
tween two neighbouring states," " a mutual right of ploughing in one 
another's lands:" and emvofx'ta is the same with regard to pasture. 
Xenoph. Cyrop. III. 2. § 23 : errtyatxtas ctj elvat koi ewepyaa-'tas ku\ 
eirivofxiu<; kol\ firifxa-^iav ce koii/»;V, el tk dciKoitj diroTfpovs. Plato, L 
VIII. p. 813 c: Ttoi/ re dWonv trept koli ctj tcai eir e py atria* avfxird<rtj<: . .. 
o? o av €7repya^t] Tat ra tov yeirovos virepfta'tvav toJc opovs. Ar 
Poltt. V . 4, 5 : Ttnv eCiropuyv to KTtjvt] diro<r<pdFas Xadtav trapa tov 
woTafxov cTTtvefjiovTa*;. The verb eviWpew is a!- lien a common 

trespass on the part of a neighbour is spoken of. as in Demosth. i/ I 
//(•/. m, ]). 1274: na\ toui/ 7€iToVa>i> e Trii/f fxovTtav dixa na\ f3aCt{orrvi> ctd 
tov xtapiov, rr/i' a'ttxaa'tav Trepiu)Kocofxr](T€ TavTtjv. From the fact that the 
debatable land between two couir rally left untilled, e-rep- 

yaaia is also applied to the cultivation of such land, or generally to the 
appropriation of sacred or public pr I. IS, (p. 

1874 a, Bskk*): in epyd&aa-d at u t Y u'w' am cr-jnun-ui. Diodor. Sicul. 

X^ I. 23 : ot ce 4>o>k6k €7T€ pya<rdfi€vot troWtjv Ttjs If pas ^oapac. 1 
not observing ibis use of M in com 

know, has miemterpiuiot] an interesting passage in JEsohyltt (. 
m mmm m, 444) : 

yvvaiKos alj^ua npeirei 

irpd tov (pavftrros \dptv £vvaive<rai. 

iridavds dyav o fli]\v<; op as f VlPf /CCTOM 

Ta^viropos. d\\a ra^vfxopov 

yvvatKoytjpVToi oXAvTOJ «\f09. 
Without dwelling on the absurdities of the commentator-, it will be 
sufficient, after what we have already said on the meaning of erm 
to translate the passage. The Chorus says, "It i;- in aeeordance with 
the disposition of a woman" (ao Ckotph. 680 : - ; i ■ 

tdjQuilR connected with atrrm root d\'<-. a< c.hi^iu/ i- icr<ru root 

hpax-) k * to express her gratitude before the good luck really appears. 
From excessive credulity, the boundaries of a woman's mind are I 
encroached upon. But a good report set on foot by B woman per 
by a speedy fate." Her - used by a strong, but very intellig 

metaphor, just as in v. 1077 of the same play [• mre- 

<rta<; oSov MKd^^junw?). Similarly Menander B 
opovs VTrepfiaivets, yvvai ('ItY>€?a SO) ; Cf. Plat. Zjjy. p. v 



Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 297 

above. Another word of some difficulty, in which we believe eVi is 
found with this sense, is iiripafiSofope'iv, which signifies to gallop, as 
applied to a horse. This meaning is generally supposed to be derived 
from the pd(3lo<;, or riding- whip, with which the rider struck his steed 
in order to quicken its motion. Passow compares it with ewia-eieiv, 
which is used in much the same sense: but we are convinced that 
this last word is derived from the act of shaking the rein in order 
to urge on the horse, a practice to which allusion is frequently made 
in the Greek writers. Thus, Soph. Antig. 109: 
(pvydda irpohpofxov o^vTepco 
Kivtjaaaa %a\ivu>, 
which the editors' have generally misunderstood. Euripides, Iphig. Taur. 
909 : wo-0' alfxarrjpd <rr6fxi l-KefX^aXeiv spot. The Furies put their bits 
into the mouth of Orestes, and, by shaking the rein till the snaffle was 
covered with blood, urged him to furious flight: see Alcest. 495: x a ~ 
\1v6v eixfiaXeiv yvdOou. The passage in Xenophon in which the word 
e-rripafilocpopeTv occurs, is as follows (de Re Equestri, VII. 11) : fxe-rd he 
TavTa tov avro(pvrj htaTpo^d^ojv hia^a\(ar] t du aXviroTCLTo: to o-w^a 
kcu eh to €7ripa(3Zo(pop€?v rjhia-T du dcpiKVolrOj eireihriirep kui airo rwv 
dpio-Tepwv dpyeaOai evhoKifAWTepov, a>h' dv fxdXi<TTa diro tovtiav dpyoiTO 
el hiaTpo-^d^ovTo<! ^ueV, ottotc dvafia'ivoi tw he^iio^ Tore crtifxaivoi tw 
Yttttu) to eiripafiho(popeiv. to yap apurrepov fxeXXwv a'tpeiv ck tovtov av 
dpxoiro. Now it is quite clear from this passage that e r mpaf3ho(pop€'ii> 
applies to an action, not of the rider, but of the horse, and this 
action is the gallop, for the whole passage is about the change from 
the trot to the gallop. The Greek word for " to trot" is, as we see 
here, hiaTpo-^d^etv^ "to make two wheels," for, as every one knows, 
when a horse trots, he makes semicircles with his legs first on one side 
of the body, and then on the other : so that the hind and fore feet on the 
same side occasionally touch. Hence Aristotle mentions it as a fault in 
sculpture if the artist represented tov Yttttov d^cpta tcc he£id 7rpo/3ef3\ri- 
kotu (Poet. XXIV. 4). To this Virgil also alludes in the Georglca III. 
192, when talking of breaking the horse: 

At, tribus exactis, ubi quarta accesserit sestas, 
Carpere mox gyrum incipiat, gradibusque sonare 
Compositis, sinuetque alterna volumina crurum. 

Which Voss, with his usual accuracy translates " und erhebe die week- 
selnde Krumme der SchenkeW That Virgil is here talking of the trot is 
farther obvious from his allusion to the gallop, which immediately follows : 

turn cursibus auras 

Turn vocet, ac per aperta volans, ceu liber habenis, 

iEquora, vix summa vestigia ponat arena. 



298 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book II. 

It appears then that the word which expressed the action of trotting 
was derived from the appearance of the horse's legs in trotting: accord- 
ingly, we should expect that the same would be the case with the word 
expressing the gallop. Now the primary idea in pdfilos is " beating," 
" striking," " an instrument to strike with*— pdaauv, pairlgiv ; and it 
appears to have been one of the chief functions of the pajlioZxos, or 
pa ftoo(p6 f >o<i, to inflict the punishment of -tripes ; see Thucyd. V. 50: 
vttS tui/ paficovx<*v 7rA>;yrt«? e\afiev ; and when a horse gallops or car 
he strikes the ground a f with his fore and hind feet. This, 

therefore, is expressed by eTrtpaficofpopelv. 

17.") The use of nri to signify combination or coexistence ma;, 
be considered as a trace of thi lion's original identity with ap<pL 

Thucyd. II. 101 : WKO<rxoP* vo% dc(\(pt}v luaeiv ko\ ^pr;>aTa cV a 
Soph . Ant /;/. 5 5 5 : ovk i w* dfipiroi* ye tok Ifuik \ o y o 1 - 1 
eVl yjroyotm fewageir. Enrip. J i» aa^amran ptj\oivi. 

this way M a especially on I when dishes are 1 

together: thus Alistoph. Equit, 707 ' W r$ <pdyox farr a*^M 
, : /' |frr eV »/ *+•* 

tir 1 avruK Acharn. 835: rai . III. U. 

; 2 : «\ti»,y«* J*? ™ aao. «>,. r (/ .vi eVi ™ <t;t«j, - 

and even in metaphorical «] ! " ■ 1 «*** says (Pjf**. H . 

187 Bo //<): 

flfuOeOUrut Wo9o9 irpocrtaitv Wpa 
va<K "Ao'youc, 11M Tjva Afi7r ouevov 

Tilv dulvcvvov wapd fiarp) ncveiv altava trevaorr , a\\ e*i teat Vavarf 
<pdp}uiKov taXXitrn fw evpe<r&at <rw u.Woic. 

-Juno kindled in the minds of the heroes ■ 1 

Argo, so that no one | hind and remain 1 

mother's Bide, leading the sodden, insipid lift which : 

but that each might strive to obtain in company with his mates a 

l >n ing or relish even for death itself, in his own glory and renown" 
(On this sense ofopenf, see Pindar, O^ray.VIL 163. Ihn . 
SophocL Pkiloct. 1 '■ p. « 'l llitc 

a mistake of Matthia (Gr » that M has this 

force in sentences like Si sVl — awl wwrj 

uka. if &e eVc<reX0o»au 
x,n,, (Herod. IV. 154). Here «wl has the e Illil y 

as a stranger, in which sense Schiller, in The - . / tfc BtU, 
naturally calls a step-mother M the stranger:" 

An venvaister Statte schalten 

Wird liebeleer. 



Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 299 

That such is the meaning of ew« when applied to a step-mother is proved 
by the v e-rreo-eXQoda-a in Herodotus, and by the following passage of 
Euripides (Alcestis, 305): 

kcu /jit] V 17*7 /**/<? roTo-Be jj.r]Tpvidv tekvois — 

€%dpa <yap tj V 10 vara fxr]Tpvia -renvois 

Tor? Trpoade. 

176 We now proceed to the consideration of those pre- 
positions of which the leading idea is motion from or out of some 
given place. The shortest and simplest of these is e'/c, or e£ , 
which is written e or ex in Latin. Various conjectures have 
been made with regard to the origin of this little word. Pott 
supposes (Etym. Forsch. II. p. 183) that it is connected with 
the Sanscrit vahis {extra) ; that the -his is represented by the 
Greek -£, and that a digamma has fallen out in the Greek word : 
he recognises the same root in the Sanscrit ava (off, from), and 
considers ovk to be the same word with avak (deorsum). Har- 
tung (Partikeln, II. 81) looks upon e/c as a subsidiary form of 
ovk. It is true that ovk and e/c are the only words in the Greek 
language which ever end in k, but it must be recollected that 
one of the words is written with a k just where the other throws 
off the k, and as this k is the only letter they have in com- 
mon, it would be rather rash to assume their identity on such a 
ground as that. We reserve the consideration of ov, ovk for 
the next chapter. It is clear to us that the etc, ef (e/c?) bear the 
same relation to one another that subsists between ev and eis 
(eV?), and that ef is the original and proper form of the word. 
It is perfectly analogous to «\//, the old Homeric form of airo, 
and there are words of great antiquity into which e'£ enters. 
It has been the lot of "this preposition more than any other 
to suffer mutilation when used in composition. Thus we have 
K-povvos and K-p^vrj from eK-peeiv, and, what is more to our 
purpose, £eVo? from e^, and the locative e? = ev<$ = ev(o)$. Comp. 
etranger, extraneus, straniero. We have no doubt that ef is, 
as we have mentioned before, a compound of the demonstrative 
stem a or e, in this case a mutilation of na, with the second 
pronominal element under the form -kis, so that, according to the 
principle of composition before explained, it expresses a removal 
from the there through that which is near to the here, and 
therefore naturally expresses "out of." We have still more 



300 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book II. 

mutilated forms of it in the Gothic us, Sclavonic iz, Lithuanian 
isz, old Frussian and Lettish is (Grimm. III. p. 255); for we 
have already seen that the Lithuanian sz at any rate is a repre- 
sentative of the Greek guttural (above, p. 177). The adverb 
vahis, with which Pott connects e-/c-9, should rather be com- 
pared with ax//-, abs, and the Sclavonic bez. 

For our purpose this preposition presents little that is deserving of 
notice. Its meaning is generally fixed with great accuracy, and it 
seldom occasions any difficulty. The only word in which it- 
appears to be really anomalous is UBrqvKCi*, which, though at first 
it might be thought a synonym of cmori, "to die the death." is a' 
used to signify "feinting," "seeming dead." Thu- Hornet iym, XVIII. 
100: drdp pvt]fntjp€<: dyavot ^eTpa<: dua<ry_t> m enQavov — which 

is precisely our idiom "died with laughter." Soph. TVttfiftm. 568: 
fudutja-Ktav <?' o dtjp ToaoZrov cftrt, tt the monster, M li Mting 

away, said just so much." Pl;r XII. p. .050. a: to? It irpo- 

Oe<rei<: irpwrov pev pt) fiaKpoTcpov yjpovov evCov ytyveo-dai tov o;\ei 
tov re eKTedueuTa ko) tov optm? Tt " the apparently dead,** 

as Opp osed ftO "the really dead." 1 1 ij>] : na\ 

(geOavc vvrrcucit, /it/!. 

A : i<nn. 569). Plutarch. n: k(it<. 

V\j/OV* ttVOt, ov yevopevov Tpavfxaro<: d\\u Tr\t]yrj<: povov, c£t6ai'< 
TDiTauw tjCt] ircpi rav tii^ck ai/rac an I M. VIII. 

7 i TOV d\^dpcvov \(im<( -,iwra, f.Va lUvrot 

Kn\ (iTTuOitjrrncii'. HnydkUMl e£ee\i i i i " t \tnro$vprj<rcv. The origin of this 

meaning is the opposition of the o utw ard tad mot intrinsic 

and real* It is very well explained by Eostathine in hie note on the 
passage of Homer just quoted : &fXo» W «'c dtp€\*><: mm yXtmim 

iiyav ye\daai yeXtoTi tK$a9Ci9 \eycrat, tjyovv f£«, kcu, •»* fin-fir, ciri- 
Tro.Vaj'u? Oaifur, sat ov koto tvcik Th 

nts some peculiarities of rhile in ■ mon ap- 

plication it Signifies to carry out a corpse to burial, the el ieh, 

by the nature of th rl of concealment and seclusion ( si 

shown by the Latin words as-j :hic/?7/<.< I -d<T<r€i*), 

on the other hand, it means, with more continuous referei 
origin, a publishing abroad or promulgation of that which ought n 
be concealed. The former meaning needs no ilh.- it is as old as 

Homer (//. XXIV. 786); it is I by the legal phras 

Athens (eiceVepca> avroBoBwrrm, Demosth. p, 1071. 2) : and is represented 
also by the Lai With reference to this Beam I leans "a 

funeral," and perhaps there is truth in the suggestion that JBsehyl 



Chap. 3 ] THE PREPOSITIONS. 301 

Eumenid. 910: twv Svaro-efiovvTcov V encpopiorepa 7re\ot, means "mayest 
thou rather carry off the impious as corpses" (see Miiller, Eumeniden, 
p. 178). The other meaning of incjiepio is found in such passages as 
Eurip. Hippol. 650 : vvv o' al fxev evdov Ipwa-iv at Kauai Kand (3ov\evp.aT\ 
cfw 8' €K(p6povai Trp6<T7ro\oi. From this sense we pass easily to that of 
commemoration or celebration, as in Soph. Track. 791 : Tir ej-tjveyKas, 
u tckvov, \6yov; hence it means in the middle voice, "to carry off for 
oneself to get the credit of, or to be celebrated on account of some 
thing." So we have in Soph. Electr. 60 : t! yap fxe Xv-nel toZQ' orav 
\oy(jp davcov tpyoiai o-toflw, Ka^eveynid/nai xAeo? ; Trachin. 497 : f*eya 
ti <rdevo<; a Kuirpis eiKpepeTat viicas del. Demosth. p. 178, 7« tov }>oneiv 
ev Xeyetv ty\v $6£av encpepovrai. Xen. de venat. 1, 15: lo^av evaefielas 
e^rjveyKaTo. In the signification " to lead out of a crowd, to conduct 
from a confusion of surrounding objects to a definite end or goal," e\(pep(o 
is used both transitively and intransitively. Thus, of a road or path, 
Plato, Phced. p. 66 B : Kivlvvevei rts uxnrep drpaTro^ excpepeiv qfxds fxerd 
tov \6yov ev rrj <rKey\sei : of a scent in hunting, Soph. Aj. 7 : ev he <r 
eK(pepei kvvos AaKan/r/9 a»5 tj? evpivos /3a<m, and intransitively of the 
fulfilment of oracles, Soph. (Ed. Col. 1424: dpa? ra roiJS' ovv to? e\ dpdov 
encpepei fxavrev/jiad\ o<? <r(p<ipv Bdvarov e£f dfxcpcnv dpoeT. So we say in 
English, " a road leads to such a place ;" " this conduct leads to certain 
ruin," &c. For the similar employment of lid, see above § 150. Another 
use of incpepu) is to express that something has been cast on shore, from, 
or out of the sea, as Eurip. Hec. 701 : ttovtov viv egtjveyne wovtios kaJ- 
Swi/. "We mention these significations, not because they are at all un- 
known or recondite, but merely because their connexion is inadequately 
recognised by commentators and lexicographers. 

177 The prepositions ct7ro and irapd also express motion 
from a place. The former corresponds to the Sanscrit apa ; its 
original form was a-7ro'-s, for dy-7ros, or vcl-ttos, and as such it 
denotes motion from a distant object to the subject. This etymo- 
logy is in accordance with the distinction always observed 
between ct7ro and e£ as denoting motion from the surface and 
interior respectively of a distant object ; for in a-7ro we go 
straight from the remote to the here; while in e-£ we pass 
through intermediate proximity. The preposition irapa is related 
to the Sanscrit para, and as a compound of the first pronoun 
pa — ma (compare 7re-&x, fxe-ra) with -ra denotes primarily 
motion from the subject, and, by a secondary sense, conveys 
generally the idea of motion connected with that of closeness, 



302 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book II. 

and may even signify motion to the subject. For para we also 
find apara, which is only the comparative of apa, that is, apa 
with the suffix -ra, which we have before explained ; there is 
also a superlative parama (see Schlegel's Indisclie Bibliothek. I. 
p. 362). In its ordinary use, para is an indefinite pronoun, 
and is equivalent to a\\os, alius, the relative meaning of which 
we have before discussed. When we compare para, par, irapd, 
irepav (Sanscrit param), Tre'ipeiv, per, peren-die, with ir-p6-u 
7ra>os (Sanscrit pur as), prai, pro (Sanscrit pro), irpw-l, (whence 
pru-ina), on the one hand ; and irepl, Sanscrit pari, on the 
other hand, we shall find it impossible to believe that the Greek 
prepositions irpo, irapd, and irepi, and the Latin pro, pro, 
par, are not etymologically connected. Nor is there much diffi- 
culty in reconciling their various meanings. The essential part, 
the expression of the here, is the same in all the words which 
we have compared above; the only variation is in the affix, 
which is written ro-s, ra, ri. Let us examine the force of these 
terminations in the Greek : (1) tt-joo', or ira-po- 
which is before the subject;" tt-^o-c, -rr-po-ri denotes -motion 
towards that which is before the subject" when joined with the 
accusative: -mere direction" when joined with the genitive*; 
and -closeness" when joined with the dative; in t ollo- 

c;ltion u | very natural transition, "adding," 

or -supeiimpo^nir:'' I fl \ wapi is found with the same three 
eases, and in its general use corresponds pretty nearly to tt-^o-9, 
except in its use with the genitive, when it invariably means that 
something is taken away from some other thing rue there 

is an appearance of the same force in such pi 
Tixfc, fL>)Tp6s\ " on the lather's, mother's side," o\ - itos, 

" blood-relations," cure BifwmK wpii dkA « «- oin - 

missioo from Jupiter" (Iliad I. 8 ~P°s 

dvfiptoir'tcv uiro&'ferm, "proceeding from men" (Eun r . 
625), and in the other examples cited by Matthur ; but the more 
general use of Tr-po-s is unquestionably to denote motion, not 
from, but 10, a place before us: (3) ire-pl generally 
when joined to the genitire, '-relation:" when joined to the 
dative,' -closeness," "on," "about;" when joined to the a; 

* On the va-ue us- l » ith the geoitta Gr - 

4<o. ObB. 1. 



Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 303 

tive, it denotes " motion or extension around," and answers to 
the question "whither?" or '-'where is it moving?" We see, 
then, that the general difference in meaning between 7r-oo, 
7ra-pd, 7T€-pl, is very slight ; indeed in some cases their mean- 
ing is so nearly the same, that one of the three might be 
substituted for either of the others without materially affecting 
the sense. Thus, with the dative, in the sense of apud, we 
have irpos ^earj Tp. dyopcj. (Sophocl. Track. 371, comp. ev 
fiecrri To. dyopq, ibid. 423), irapd TvpavviSi (Pind. Pyth. IT. 
159), Trepl ^naifai irvXyai {Iliad XVIII. 453); with the accu- 
sative, in the sense of secundum, " with respect to," we have 
TeXeos 7roos dperrjv (Plat. Alcib. I. p. 120 e), Trovrjpos -ire pi 
tl (Plat. Resp. V. ad init.) ; and in the sense of propter, " on 
account of," we have 7roos wv rrjv b\j/iv raurrjv rov yapov 
tol tovtov ecnrevaa (Herod. I. 158), e/cacrros ov irapa rrju 
eavrov dfxeXeiav oierai fiXd^etv (Thucyd. I. 141). We have 
another proof of their identity in the way in which the Latin 
prepositions are used to express the meaning of these three. 
Thus prw, which bears more outward resemblance to 7ra-pal, 
is used as a synonym for Trepl in prat metu, irepl rdpftei: per, 
which externally resembles Trepl, is used as a synonym for 
irapd in such phrases as irapd tovto, per hoc : also pra-ter, 
the comparative of pros, in ira-pd $6%av, prater opinionem; 
praz is also used for irepl in such sentences as irepl iravruov, 
prm omnibus ; also pro3 and per are sometimes synonyms ; 
Cf. non possum pros fletu (Cic. Att. XI. 7), and neque per wtatem 
potis erat (Ter. Eun. I. 2, 32) : per is used in Latin, where 
7rp6<$ is in Greek, to express the person called upon to witness 
an oath : and 71-009 and per are used in the same way with a 
neuter adjective in an adverbial sense : compare irpos rdyos for 
ra^ea)? (Plato, Legg. VII. p. 810 b) with per taciturn for tacite 
(Virgil, JEneid IX. 30): Trepl and per agree in the intensive 
sense : compare TrepiKaXXys with perpulcer. 

178 There is one use of the preposition nrep\ which is not found in 
any of the cognate prepositions, except in the Sanscrit pari. These 
words frequently mean "round about," like the Greek dfxcpl, the German 
w, and the Latin circum; and irep\ designates, by an association 
which we have already explained, not only that which surrounds, 
but also that which is surrounded. The former meaning is due to a 



304 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book II. 

connexion of the ideas of closeness and removal in this word : the last 
vowel seems to point to the fragment of a case denoting rest, and the 
termination ra indicates motion. It may, therefore, be surmised that 
the whole word denotes motion confined to a sphere of action not far 
removed from the subject. The other meaning has, perhaps, arisen 
from the wider signification of ira-pd, which seems to denote simply 
motion from the subject ; and this has generated the ideas of " going 
through," "piercing," "boring a hole," conveyed by ire/)/, and its deri- 
vatives ire'ipta, irepovt'^ iroptrtj. That Tr€p\ does bear this meaning 
appears from a well-known line in Sophocles (Ajax, 890) : 

iv yap ol "^duv\ 
7rt]KTuv too ey%o<; irepnreTes Kartjyopti. 

Lobeck approves of the interpretation of Eustathius (p. 644, 7) : - - 
'/>oK,\r/? tyX 0<: ireptTreTts elireiv eToXpLrjacv^ <j» irepnri'mwKCv A7a<r. This 
interpretation has obviously been 1 by two other bines in the 

same play — ircirTu-ra ropce irep\ vtoppavria £i<f>€i (815), and Ktvrat upv- 
(palw (paayavio ireptirrv^tj': (883). But these passa_ •thing to 

do with the propel interpretation of weptwerm in t! one: the 

construction of that line is obvious, and though it is true that w«/»l 
generally denotes thai which is round any I not a round hole, 

it does not follow that it may Oo4 ha\e borne the other signification 
also. Lobeck quotes the following passages in illustration of the fins in 
Sophocles; .lllian. // \ An. XV. c. 10: uyKicrpa ireptwayevra to?c 
l^dvai ; Liban. D<cL Tom. IV. p. 10S1 : oSorret t»] cdpri vfpiwt'tpoirrai; 
Chrysostonij Opp* Tom. III. So a : tarry to £«£<k irtpieirftpc. But 
the age of the authors quoted renders their authority of little value: 
indeed tin 1 passages prove no more than that these writers understood 
the line in Sophocles as we do. and had probably met with other 

passages like it. The following snsloflinn are more to the purpose. It 

will not be denied that the ideas of "boring."' u pieH mdness," 

<S;c. are mixed up in the family of WOlds which includes Top-os, -rdp- 
i/<k, Top-€vo), rop-pos, Ti-Tpa-u> y Ti-Tpalvw, Tpttt» y Ti-Tptaaum, Tpau/ia, 
Tpu'w, Tpvirti, rpvrruu\ flfco. Now these words are unquestionably con- 
nected with one of the simplest wor ■':- ling UyonJ, or mot 
we mean the ending -tOTO, -repos, discussed in the last chapter. The 
analogies between this set of words and tlu - g extends 
in many directions, both in Greek and Latin. In the I 
have Tt. oc, terminus, t/\ms, by the side of wf'pac, -rtpnw 
(irepdu)), "the object of a journey," "the place goa ha words 
re/9/tuz, 7T€-\ac, also signify •* an end," "a termination" in general, and 
verbs signifying" to end." or "finish" are frequently used in Greek to 



Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 305 

express a journey: thus dvvo-eiv tov "Alav (Soph. Aj. 606), where 
Lobeck quotes icaTai/vVas ef 'E. e? A. (Herod. VI. 140); reXew ewi to 
repfxa (Lucian. Trin. §20); 'A0»jW UicepSiv (Athen. II. p. 47 c); 
Teptxa P'ioio nut es j3a\(33a Treptj<ra<s (Oppian. Cyn. I. 512) ; oVtoui/ ek 
Ttiv vTrepwav irepalvov (Galen, de Usu Partium, IX. 3, 508). By the 
side of Trepan, Tepfxa, we have the by-forms 7reAa?, reAo?. In Latin the 
adjective teres is applied to signify roundness in general ; in se ipso 
totus, teres, atque rotundus is said of a sphere in Horace {Sat. II. 7, 86). 
Compare Ausonius, Id. 16 : mundi instar habens, teres, atque rotundus. 
It is also applied to a net, either because the ropes which composed it 
were cylindrical, and drawn through holes, or because it was full of 
holes, namely, the meshes. If the former is the true explanation, which 
is more probable, we may compare teres with ireipap, the Homeric 
word for a rope {Iliad XIII. 359). There are two Latin words which 
involve the combination pa-ra, and which are interesting, not only in 
reference to the combinations just mentioned, but also as bringing us 
back to the liquid form of the first element— we allude to pars {par-t-s) 
and paries {pari-et-s). We cannot doubt the affinity of the former to 
its Greek synonym pe-pos, or /xe'-Ao?, which we shall discuss in a future 
chapter; division or partition, as we shall there show, resolves itself 
into the idea of a line proceeding from the subject and cutting another 
fixed line. The analogies, which we have mentioned above, are suffi- 
cient to show that the same or a similar idea may be conveyed without 
any reference to the subject, by the mere combination ta-ra, and it is 
easy to pass from ire-pa-a to Tretpu), nopo?, &c. The notion of piercing 
through and separating into parts very soon suggests that of distri- 
bution and division ; and from this again we get the sense of discussing 
and declaring at length : we see this especially in the verb ei/SareTa-flcu, 
which Hesychius translates by dtrofxepi^eiv^ but which is used by So- 
phocles {(Ed. T. 205) to signify celebration or commemoration by word 
of mouth, and by iEschylus with the similar implication of repeated 
mention {Sept. c. Theb. 578, and apud Platon. Republ. II. 383 e; cf. 
Soph. Tr. 791). The same is the case with the Latin dispute, and we 
are disposed to seek a similar explanation for the solitary form ireirapeiv 
(Pind. Pyth. II. 57), which Hesychius explains as signifying "to 
display or exhibit" {Treira peTv eVBer^at, <rr]fxrjvai' ireirapeva-iixov. 
ev(ppaa-rov, <ra(pk\ and which we regard as an obsolete aorist of irelpw. 
We recognise the sense of separation and division in paries, "that 
which goes, or is a divider" (cf. se-paro, &c.) ; for paries is properly a 
party-wall common to two chambers, or standing between two houses: 
thus it is applied to the divisions in a labyrinth, e.g. in Virgil, JEneid 
V. 588 : fertur Labyrinthus habuisse parietibus textum eweis iter; and 

X 



306 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book IL 

to the walls between two houses as distinguished from the outer wall ; 
e.g. in Tacitus, Annal. XV. 43 : nee communione parietum scl 
quceque muris \jedificia~\ ambirentur, where the last word refers to the 
technical term ambitus, which was probably used thus in the seventh 
of the Twelve Tables: tutor vicinorum a?dijieia ambitus parietum ses- 
tertius pes esto (Dirksen, Zvcolf Tafel Fragm. p. 565, V 
p. 159)- We must not be led by an apparent similarity of sound to 
seek for the meaning of paries in the Greek words vedpoco*;, -irapa- 
o-Ktjvia, where the -rrapd stands in a sort of opposition to wept (7 
the Greeks, 6th edition, p. Ql52]] aqq. notes), and where there is rather 
an implication of lateral motion. The same is signified by the military 
term Trapnnrevu), which means " to move cavalry along a line of battle." 
either for the purpose of ch -ition from one win:: to the 

other (Arrian. Anah. II. c. 9> § 1)» for the purpose of 
flank (Id. ibid. III. c. 13, § 2), or for the purpose of % the 

movements of a line of infantry (Id. ibid. V. c. 16, § 1 : e\ kvk 
Trapnnrevwv avtirave rovs irf^ow'c). Doderlein. who ha> seen the 

Msion between parito ami port, lias not o 'he connto 

beiweOB the hitter and iujii". hut ha- ce an affinity 

between munis- and Mo<JK*, which < he same root as fie'po* 

(Syn* unil Fttnn. V. ]>. :;.')(». N I does 

DOt apply to mnm liich denotes the outer wall of a 

or h (iridiums muro& ei nutnia pan- 

diuius i<r/>is, from which Nicbuhr WOvJd infer I distinction of buildings 
witliin and walls around a city //. ft, II. note 80), a distin 
which is not home out by the practice of t! 

that Bmmi and ma HM come from the MB uvta^ mceniu, which 

we have discus I d in am>ther part of this book, and that the only 
difVerence between the words is that I "a wall'* generally, but 

city-wall or fortification in particular. 
If we place this meaning of separation by the side of the other signi- 
fications of 7T- ; that the meaning of the Sai. 
proTroan jta ra = often is noi by all <•!' them, and that 
they are all merely moditications of the expression of dicer yomd 
considered in immediate connexion with the subject ; from this gllNBoV 
mnaninfl all their OSee may be explained, the separate 
only different cases of the 5 >un. This pronoun occurs 
directly in the Latin fMT, which is equivalent to alter (Pott, Ftym. 
Forsch. II. p. 2:>0), and we may it in the compounds perm" 
die ("on another d of another cor. 
)7r<//. Gramm. p. 541). and, perhaps, in the Greek -d-. 
dotus says (IV. S3) : rov<; *Yir€p{3op€ov<; ireu\^ai <fxpoinra? ra Ipm 



Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 307 

Kopas — d/na Be avrrj<ri d<r(pa\iti<; eivenev ireix^/ai tow 'Yirepfiopeow twv 
daroov ai/Boa? trevTe irojxirovs toutou? ol vvv Tlepcpepees KaXeovrai. Some 
suppose this word to be another form of nepupepees : Guyet (on Hesy- 
chius sub v.) suggests that it is a synonym of proceres: and Niebuhr 
(Hist. o/Eome,l.-p. 85) connects it with perferre. "If," he says, "it be 
but allowed that the people called Hyperboreans may have been a Pe- 
lasgian tribe in Italy, the possibility will, perhaps, be nearly'turned into 
certainty when it appears that the title of the carriers was almost a Latin 
word." Now there is no objection to consider irep as standing for irepi in 
this compound ; see Bockh, Not. Crit. ad Find. 01. VI. 38. ad Fragm. 
p. 631 ; and compare irep-Qw with per-do, which is related to per-eo as 
ven-do is to ven-eo. We might, however, be contented to suppose that 
the word merely signifies "the strange" or " foreign carriers." That Trep- 
cpepee? is connected with (pepta appears from the word (pepovaas in the 
passage of Herodotus, and by the names Amallophori (Porphyr. de 
Abstin. II. 19), ov\o(p6poi (Servius ad Virg. ^En. XI. 858), also given 
to these personages. There is yet another Greek word in which we 
recognise this root, namely Trep-irep-os (TrepTrepevoixai, Tvepirepe'ia). This 
word, which is evidently a reduplication, means a strange, out-of-the- 
way, absurd person : compare the Latin perperam, perperitudo. 

The intensive meaning, which we find in irep\ and rrep, may be 
thought due to the idea of perfection and completeness suggested by the 
circle or sphere : thus Plato, Timceus, p. 33 b : k<x\ a-^fjfjia Be, eBwKei/ 
(6 0eo?) avTcp (too ko'o-jUw) to irpeirov kcli ^vyyeves * tw jap ra iravT 
ii> avTta £(oa irepie^eiu /jlcWovti £(ou> irpeirov dv e'trj a^rj/j.a to irepiei- 
\rj(p6s ev aura) irdvTa dirocra a-^t]fxaTa' $io k<x\ (r<paipoei%6<; etc fxeaov 
iravrr] irpos ra? TeXeura? t'croi/ cnreyou nai Ki/KAoreoes ccuto crop- 
vevaaro iravrcov TeXewruTOU d/jLoiorardu tc avro eavrta a-^t]fxaT(ov. 
But the same idea of completeness is found in -n-e^a?, which derives 
it from the other and perhaps earlier sense of Tre/x', namely, that 
of " going through," " piercing," " faring to the end ;" and we believe 
that this is also the origin of the intensive meaning of Trepi Com- 
pare the case of cid (mentioned below) and the English use of 
"throughly," "thorough-going," "through and through," &c. 

179 It is easy to see that v-7ro, v-7ri-p x and their San- 
scrit and Latin equivalents u-pa, u-pari, su-b, su-per, are related 
to one another precisely in the same manner as the Sanscrit 
a-pa, a-pa-ra; that is to say, the latter preposition in each 
case denotes a continuation of the direction indicated by the 
former. If V7rep is actually formed from v-tto, the vowel o, which 
represents the loss of an original s, as in a7ro, 71700, &c. has only 

X2 



308 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book II. 

suffered the usual attenuation in point of weight. We have 
already endeavoured to show that v-7ro, ($u-b, u-pa) is a com- 
pound of the second pronominal stem with the first, implying a 
motion or continuation from that which is immediately near in 
the direction of the subject. From this analysis it appears that 
v-wo differs from a-iro only in supposing the point from which 
the motion commences to be near to instead of far from the 
subject, and, in fact, the most prominent signification of upa is 
"near," or "by the side of." It does indeed also denote " infe- 
riority ," but in a great many cases it approaches nearer to the 
meaning of e-n-l as implying superposition, or indeed position 
generally. We believe, then, that v-tto primarily implies only 
a motion to the speaker from that which is near to him, the idea 
of "under" not being in any way directly conveyed by it, 
except so far as the Greeks habitually spoke of things near 
them as to. €(nrocii)v = Tu ev ttog\v ovtu, or rd ev ttogI eiXeJ- 
fxeva (Herod. II. 76), Hut when by the addition of the suffix 
-ra this direction is continued beyond the subject, the ideas of 
"upper" and "under" arise from the correlation. '"!--<.>. su-b, 
v-pa arc related to i-wip, irij as | 

tives to comparatives. A similar relation subsists between the 
Gothic ?(/, nfar : thus in Ullilas, Mark iv. 82, vtt6 n)v gkiuv 
avTov, "' vnd> r the >haduw of it." / skadau 

and Mattlt. x. 24, ovk eart /uadtjTtjs v-rcp rov ciddaKa 
ovc6 3ov\o? iwip Tor Ki'i'ior ui rov, M the disciple is not al 
his master, nor the servant ab As in the Gothic 

version " nist siponeis ufar laisarja : nih ska. ■ fraujin 

seinamma." Now "over" and "under" are both comparat: 
the former being, in fact, identical with ufar. The simple 
method of explaining this difference is, to suppose that 1 
vpa, vf originally signified " up," M upon, ' like iwi and 
and then, according to the proper use of the suff -ep, 

super, upari, ufar, would mean M upper," as the companv 
of the other set of words. The meaning of the words "over" 
and "under* is this, that the subject considers himself as a 
point in a vertical line, every point in the line, reckoning from 
his feet, being considered as " under," and every point in the 
line, reckoning from his head, being considered M 
that the subject is the positive, and those two w^ 
paratives, not in relation to one another, but to him ; tln> 



Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 309 

is, that when the relations of "over," "under" are expressed 
bj comparative forms, as in English, German, and Sanscrit, they 
contain different roots : for " over," fiber, upari, have no etymo- 
logical connexion with " under," miter, antar. But " over" 
and "under" are really opposed to one another; they are rela- 
tive terms, and are expressed as such, when, as in Greek, Latin, 
Sanscrit, and Gothic, they stand as positive and comparative 
degrees of the same word: so that, although "under" is ex- 
pressed in these three languages by a word signifying " up " or 
"upon," it must be recollected that what is "up" in regard to 
one thing, is "under" in regard to that which is "upper;" 
just as to tivi crvve\9ov kcu ttoiovv, a\\(o av TrpoGireaov, 
iraayov dve<pdvr] (Plato, Thecetet. p. 157 a). 

180 The preposition Sid is merely a form of the second 
numeral : compare ctaKooioi for cia-eKO&ioi, with TpiaKoaioi, 
&c. Accordingly, it generally conveys the idea of " penetrat- 
ing," "dividing into two parts." That the same root should 
express both the division and union of two objects is an instance 
of the association by contrast to which we have before drawn 
attention (J 53). Aew = S-Feco means to " couple two things, 1 ' 
and the converse idea of separation is manifestly presented to 
us in the word Svco " to penetrate," which, of course, belongs 
to the same origin, for in this word the vowel is always waver- 
ing between v and t, as we might expect, according as the labial 
is omitted or vocalized. 

In Bi-Su/kos, a reduplicated form, we have both ways of writing the 
root. We have remarked before on the Sanscrit dvimatri, which stands 
between bimater and Si/utfrw/o. It is from this connexion with the 
second numeral that li^w is a synonym with dfji(pi<rf3rireu). The sepa- 
rative force of ltd is strongly expressed in such compounds as Zicupepw, 
Btao-^o), Zidvhixa, &c. In Sophocles, Ajax, 511, it is clear that <rov 
cioi(T€Tai fi6vo<s uV Spcpavio-Tiov fxrj (piXcov cannot be referred to such 
phrases as SicKpepeiv fiiov, aliova. We have elsewhere shown (Proceed, of 
Philol. Soc. I. p. 164) that Herodotus, who was a constant imitator of 
Sophocles, has indicated the true meaning of the passive liacpepeadat 
here, namely, that it refers to the embezzlement and spoliation of a 
minor's goods by his dishonest guardians : cf. Herod. III. 53 : f3ov\eat 
Tt\v re Tvpavvida e? aXAoi/s irea-eeiv kcu tov oTkov rod iraTpo\ biacpop^deura 
paWov rj auro? <r<pe direXdtau e%€iv ; with I. 88 : moXtv tc rt}v <rr}v btap. 



310 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book II. 

irdtjEi Kai yj>Y\\kaTa rd ad cicupopeei ; and Lobeck has quoted Dio Chr. 
Or. XLI. 506 C : vr 6p(paviaT(av ciaaTraadrjaeTai, which is obviously an 
imitation of the passage. The preposition cid is sometimes used em- 
phatically, with this separative force, in the verb cia<palvu3. Thus we 
have in Pind. Pyth. III. 44, Kaiofxeva o avrw cdcpave irvpd, of a cloven 
flame; and in Thucyd. IV. 108, i\l/euan€voi<; T»k WQrjva'mv cwd/xea)^ 
em\ Toa-ovrou oan varepov cic(j)dvr]^ all the emphasis falls on the preposi- 
tion ; the meaning is that the subject-states " were mistaken in regard 
to the power of the Athenians, by as much as that power afterwards 
appeared different from their notion of it" (on the force of the oarj 
after ew\ roaovrov, see Greek Grammar, Art. 555). In Latin the 
numeral adverb ck is written bis, the labial sound being alone retained, 
but, as a preposition in composition, the Greek form, ck or cd. m 
tained, the final letter when not preserved being represented either by 
a lengthening of the t, or by an assimilation with the fir>t letter of the 
word with which it is compounded. Thus the Greek fotm is preserved 
in dis-ce<L>. 4\$ rumpOj &c. ; it ifl softened into r in dir-imo ( 
it is assimilated in dif-frro (cia~<pepu>). Qta-a-^i^ia) ; and r 

sented by the long i in di-lanio (cja-o-Tra'oi), di-midi/i* (o«- 
txi<Tv), &c. The form in s is ■ .. but only in one - 

that of scj)aration, weakness, ami, consequently. n to 

that which is good. In thifl sen-e the connecting vowel 
though in Latin the form is generally not altered in consequence of this 
signification. In Gothic tut IB used in this sense (Grimm, II. p. 768); 
this is because toll is the form of ck in that language. L r. 20, 

li-^oaraatai is translated tri.<- 

sition or second numeral, call it which you will, in t cannot be 

better shown than by comparing cvs-uatjc, with the Sanscrit dur-manae 
(comp. dir-imo) and Persian dus/i-)neu, which have the i idea- 

tion. In Latin we have dir'-jicHis (cW-^t^»/<), dif-Pimo (ci*-<£>; 
eve. : and the same prefix appears in French words like tVi Mfli. "evil- 
stars," drs-ordr<\ " dis-order," ( /< - tt violation of hann 
There is one case in which 4H has sprung directly from the Greek 
for Dcs-dt'tnona is merely the Italian form of -W-cai'iioi-a, the accusative 
of the name given to this unfortunate heroine in the or ; _ rian 
story from which Cynthio borrowed his novel. The accusative form i- 
of course the usual one in Italian. So Shaksp m merely 
Homer's Chryseis, represented, however, as the daughter of 
and not of an Asiatic priest of Apollo. Sometimes. M in Ut, the labial 
only is represented, /v, re-sanus, uuless we prefer to consider 
these words as representing the element r ( /, in <i-r /, M out of." which 
seems at any rate to be contained in M ttifmimm [l iUm 9 



Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 311 

Eng. Tr. p. 189). Under the form fa we have lid in an intensive 
sense, for the same reason that irepi, per, bears that meaning also. Thus 
£dxpv<ro<; = %idxpv(ro<;. It is a strong proof of the connexion of this 
'(a with lid, B«s, SJe, that tjx-fxev^ is generally used as a direct synonym 
for lv<r-fxevri<;. Compare also ltai-Ta with vi-ta, on the one hand, and 
Ijari on the other. So too we have feuyo?, jugum (diugujn), Zeus 
(gen. A(o'<?), Ju-piter (Diu-pater), &c. The dental alone is retained in 
some words, as in ld-<rKio<s = \jx-<tkio<z (lido-mos), and lid itself is used 
in this sense uncompounded with any word. Iliad XII. 104: 6 d' 
eirpeire nai lid rrdvrcav. In Sanscrit this preposition also assumes the 
form vi-, like the Latin bis, ve, as well in the more original significa- 
tion of disjunction or separation (thus vi-yoktun, disjungere), as with 
this intensive meaning (thus m-mahat, " very great"). 

181 The preposition gvv, %vv, always signifying " in con- 
junction with," does not require much discussion. There can be 
no question about the connexion of its first two letters with the 
Sanscrit preposition sa-m, and consequently with the pronominal 
stem sa (Grimm, II. p. 1018). AVe have the former in 6 /mod, 
a/ma, simi-lis : we have the latter in aa-<pr]s, from aa and (pws 
(compare ev-yevri<$ from yevos, d-aQevr/s from <jdevo<$), and pro- 
bably, though in a mutilated form, in such words as a-Xo^os 
= a-a-\6^09, " same bed ;" d-$e\<po$ - ad-$e\<pv$, " same womb ;" 
&c. (Bopp, iiber der Einfluss de Pronomina, p. 10). The 
Latin cu-m is of course connected with £uV = kctuv, as koivos is 
with %uvo$, and the Gothic ga is another form of the Sanscrit sa 
(Grimm, II. p. 751). The u in av-v, cu-m is a remnant of the 
original labial in the element Fa, cr(pa. 

We must not identify the final -v of a v-v with the m of cu-m, 
sa-ma, D| , o-fxov, d-fxa, &c. ; nor must we forget the distinction 
between av-v and yue-xa. The Sanscrit sa-ma, is obviously a 
compound of two pronominal roots, the one belonging to the 
second element, the other to the first. Consequently, while the 
full force of the two elements was perceptible the word expressed 
a conjunction of the near with the here; and this was the simplest 
form in which the mind of man could conceive an union. Just 
so fjLe-Tci was a compound of the first and third pronominal roots, 
that of the first person being, however, put foremost ; thus, al- 
though the idea of an union in general was still conveyed by the 
word, this idea was combined with that of a motion from the here 



312 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book II. 

to the there, and it is in this sense that fierd signifies " after," 
when joined with the accusative, the case of motion. But, even 
with the accusative, the idea of companionship or continuit 
retained. Thus we have ped' 7j,u€pai> " in the day-time " (Eurip. 
Orest. 58), iierd ward? "in the night" (Pind. Xem. VI. 12). 
The Homeric /ic-a(pa, a synonym for neyj)i, is used with the 
genitive in the sense of " until " (Iliad VIII. 508). This word 
is a compound of the first and second pronominal roots, just as 
fxe-rd is of the first and third. It has no affinity with fteypi, 
which is connected with fianpos, as dy^pi is with dupds. Mct 
found as rait in German, by a mutilation not unlike that of cum, 
from sama. On the other hand, <jvv = Fa-y is merely a combi- 
nation of the second element with the third under that form of the 
latter, which is used as the expression of the mere locative. So 
that it approximates in meaning to ev, with which it is ultimately 
identical. This is consistent with the distinction which we fa 
elsewhere laid down (on Soph. Antig. 115, G) between ji-i/ and 
nerd ; namely, gvv denotes c ><>n, or n 

spot; whereas /xera irnpl 

182 The preposition ra-rd is a form perfectly analogous to 
/uLC-rd. The first part is, M we have seen, the second pronomi- 
nal stem under the form ku. On this element Bopp makes the 
following remarks >is8 &c, p. 5): "vara appears 

to be of a relative nature, like the Latin qui, in such phrases as 
kclt tt£/«)\ Kara yiw,at]i', where Kara would be translated, in 
Sanscrit, by the relative adverb U'lthii, ' tfl, 1 * like.' which forms an 
adverbial compound with the folloi :ive; thus fOtki 

k(hnan), ycUhd-vidki. In phrases like ra ra, it 

corresponds to the German j>\ the pronominal signification of 
which is obvious. We may often translate Kurd very pro; 

by (wie), Mike," a- arepa cvpt'iaeis. ov Kurd Mt- 

&pa$drf)i', &c. 'not like If.' ntr e/mrToY, 'like myself/ o\ 
KdO' >/,uus\ 4 those like us,' oi raff torrov, * those in the time in 
which he was.' ne'i^u>i> i) kcit ater than like a 

man' [gi neral. the relative nature of 

hard shows itself, more or less, wherever it is construed with 
the accusative; it is worthy of remark, too. that the Semitic 
prefix ka. the primitive meaning of which is 'as, 1 ' lit 
corresponds to Kara cum accusatiro f in consequence,' ' according 



Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. SIS 

to/ 'nearly,' before numerals, and so forth). With the geni- 
tive, Kara is more of a demonstrative nature, and ' under ' is 
related to the opposed ' over/ as this side (diesseits) is to that 
side (jenseits), extra to ultra. In respect to the form, Kara 
appears to be a relict of the primeval period of language, a 
property derived from the original abode, and not formed ac- 
cording to the principles of the Greek language itself in its 
present state : the Sanscrit, too, has a form which exactly cor- 
responds to it : namely, katham, ' how ?' to which, in respect to 
the omission of the nasal, Kara stands related, as e. g. the accus. 
TroSa to the Sanscrit and Latin padam, pedem. With the ex- 
ception of katham, there is only one pronominal-derivative with 
the suffix tham, namely, it-tham ' thus/ Besides this, however, 
there is a cognate suffix tha, which occurs in only one pronominal 
formation, namely, in a-tha, which signifies ' but/ ■ then/ ' after 
this/ ' hereupon/ and with which the Greek el-ra is perhaps con- 
nected, with the introduction of an «, just as the interrogative 
stem ka has also assumed a similar form in the compound /cei-yos, 
and in the abverbs kcI-Oi, Kei-Oev." 

There is not a little vagueness and confusion in these observa- 
tions, and Bopp has, in some measure, begun at the wrong end. 
The relative meaning of the element Ka, like all subordinate 
meanings of pronouns, springs from its originally demonstrative 
force. As a demonstrative this pronoun expresses a position 
near to the subject ; it is this idea of nearness which constitutes 
the relatives, reflexives, indefinites, interrogatives ; it is this 
which generates the idea of relation in general : for what is 
relation but a sort of juxtaposition? The word ci-tra, which he 
mentions, gives the true idea of Ka-rd, though a little more 
strongly. The Sanscrit katham does not correspond to Kara, but 
to Trodev, KoQev ; and the termination -tha in a-tha is that found 
in eV0a, &c. We can scarcely comprehend what Bopp means 
by saying that Kara is not in accordance with existing Greek 
analogies. The termination of Ka-rd is merely the third personal 
pronoun, which constantly makes its appearance in the Greek 
language either by itself or in the pronominal compounds. 

183 In order to understand properly the various uses of 
Kara, we must consider it in immediate connexion with dvd, 
which is found as its equivalent or counterpart in almost every 



314 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book II. 

one of its significations. Thus, if we have Kara rov iroXenov 
(Herod. VII. 137), we have also avd rov iroXefxov toutov (Herod. 
VIII. 123) with but a slight difference of meaning : we have both 
dvd arparov (Eurip. Phceniss. 1309), and K ard arparov (Iliad 
VII. 370) : and both dvd and Kara are used with numerals to 
give them a distributive signification. As counterparts, am, dvuy 
are used to signify " up," " motion up f Kard, kutw, " down," 
" motion down." 

If we examine d-vd more minutely, and compare it with Hard, 
we shall arrive at a satisfactory explanation of their correlative 
use. We have already remarked that the ultimate pronominal 
form d- must be referred either to the second element Fa or to 
the third va. When therefore it is prefixed to this latter clement, 
as in the prepositions d-vd, eU = e-i *, and er, we must either re- 
gard it as a strengthening prefix, like the e in eV, icm 
or as the other element Fa. For a compound particle, indicating 
a relation between two positions, could hardly be made up of a 
reduplication of the .ement. Without inquiring here 

whether the same explanation is applicable to the prefix in - 
6-Sovs, &c, a comparison ind the 

= ini-na. furnishes a strong presumption in favour of the opinion 
{]i : M ^ t ] ic c lie initial element is a mutilated 

remnant of the second prOBOU FaJ and when we discover 
u-va-%, which, as we shall see afterwards, is derivable from 
was Fo-wif in Homer's time, and that in all probability it con- 
tains the same elements as the Hebrew % h*-h»-l:i, which with the 
exception of the reduplicative first syllable corresponds to its 
svnonvm e-yto-vn. we have as much cvidcr 
tins ultimate refinement of etymological analysis, to convin 
that the full form of d-id was a compound of Fa and .a. Con- 
sidered under this point of view, there ought to be no difference 
of meaning between t-y, av-v. and «->•«'. which are equally com- 
pounded of the second and third element : and, in poil 
there are manv correspondences in tlie on of the- tions. 

We shall be able, however, to show that in the existing stal 
the Greek language, the latter part oi " denoting 

distance, was alone regarded, and in like manner that all the 
stress was laid upon the first part of Ka-rd. namely, va = 
denoting proximitv. Consequently in the prepositional Bf 
Kard - ire-r-ra, the direction implied is I - near us, 



Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 315 

and proceeding to a point not necessarily distant. In d vd, like- 
wise, a direction is signified ; and both the first and last points 
may be regarded as distant, though the line itself may be parallel 
to that denoted by Ka-rd. And thus we find that dvd and Kara 
may be used in a similar way with the accusative, that is when 
direction or extension is implied, according as we suppose, for 
the moment, that the direction or extension is near or far. But, 
when they are used with cases which imply fixedness or position, 
the emphatic syllable is alone considered, and that is, in Ka-rd a 
word denoting nearness, in d-vd a word denoting distance : but 
up and down are conceived as distant and near respectively, 
for we say "up there," but "down here;" therefore, when a 
point is implied, dvd means up, and Kara down. 

184 The preposition dvd occurs, either separately or as a 
prefix, in almost every language of the Indo- Germanic family, 
and there are few words which have more varied functions to 
perform. It is found even in the Semitic languages ; for the ne- 
gative lib and the prohibitive bit are clearly connected with the 
prepositions *?K_, "b = ev, in (see Masl'il le-Sopher, p. 15). In 
Greek this particle appears not only as the dissyllable dvd, but 
also under the monosyllabic forms va or vrj, and dv, and even 
without the characteristic nasal as the prefix d- or e-. Similarly 
the Sanscrit ana is reduced occasionally to the initial a, and na 
occurs separately in Pali, though it is used only as a termination 
in Sanscrit and Zend (Bopp, Vergl. Gramm. p. 531). This 
latter element stands independently in Latin, in the words nam, 
(Bopp, Vergl. Gramm. p. 534), num, nun-c, ne, ne, rii, rii, non ; 
in Greek, in the words vv, vvv (compare av-v, sa-m), vat, vr\, vy\-, 
&c. In Sanscrit the full form a-na is used as a negative prefix : 
thus anapakdra " harmlessness," "freedom from hatred and 
malice," is compounded of ana and apakdra " evil doing." It is 
both in this sense, and as an augment indicating past time, that 
it is shortened into a. The same is the case with the Greek dvd. 
We have both dv and va or vn as negative prefixes ; we have dvd 
so used as a prefix, and separately, in the form dveu, with a 
very similar signification ; we have d for dv as a negative prefix*, 

^ * On the supposition that the first syllable of a-va is the element Fa, 
it is obvious that the negative prefix cannot be this syllable only : it must 



316 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book II. 

and we have e- for dvd as the verbal augment. That va is not 
a mere abbreviation of d-vd, like the modern Greek cev for ovcev, 
appears from the fact, that dv is found with the same privative 
meaning as va and dvd ; and in the Greek d-iro (a-\//), d-rep 
(a comparative form), &c, as well as in the Sanscrit a-pa and 
a-va, we have a for na. In a different application of the same 
pronominal combination we have seen above that the Hebrew 
'hani, when used as a verbal prefix, is shortened into 'he, and 
that Vtenesh becomes 'hish. With regard to -va we must remark 
that the primitive meaning of this stem is sufficient to account for 
its negative use, without assuming that when so used it is merely' 
an abridgment of d-vd. We have before pointed out the idea of 
separation, removal, distance, conveyed by the words viv, rda-<pi, 
1/00--T05, &c. ; this power of the element -na is so forcible, that 
when appended to the element ka. ■which is the strongest exj 
sion of proximity, it converts it into a pronoun (kci-vos), denoting 
distance in a very marked manner. It is to this same idea of 
distance that we owe the meaning of negation contained in 
for after all, what is a negation but an expression of farness or 
removal? and what way of negativing have we in our own lan- 
guage more decided than the common u far from it ?'' 

It is on this account that wc also find «r» ind njwnjM with a 
negative meaning both in Greek and Sanscrit Tims the v 
mentioned above, which is oomp i ind kri u to m 

signifies f * evil-doing," M injury," in perfect analogy with tl. I 

ovtev airo tov civOptoireiov rpoirov ire iroitjKafxev (Thllcyd. I. 70). It is 

this use of awo which has given occasioo to the employment of uVo«caAe«» 

in ■ bad sense : thus Soph. rrot icam 

trraarov £wainov diroKaXovin-e';, u calling him by way of abase." A 

toph. .ln>", 1263: a«tM r &07CVCM fawt (r. 

read (MroKeXmcapev). Xenoph. Mini. I. ito? 

Tf/c ofuktat uictOov cuwpavoCtirnK eawrmw awe«caAo. 

flhrCfcaXCk I. 6. § 13: tro<pt<rTa? atayrep wopvoi* dm 



be a remnant either of ava the fuller form, or of va. the vh;. 
acc o rding to the general principle. We prefer the former alterna 

and the same may have been the view - when he proposed the 

following thesis : "partieulam privativam apud Gneoosa prineipio unam 
dv fuissc ; cetcras. qua reperiantur, formas secundum euphonise leges 
inde nataa esse 5 ' (J<- Toimlit B sd ealc). 



Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 317 

Gorg. p. 512 c: o>? ev oveilei diroKaXea-ai': dv p-Yi^avoiroiov. Andoc C. 
Alcib.Sl, 10: aXXovs oXiyap-^iKov^ — diroKaXeu Eurip. Iph. 1354: o'i fxe 
tcov ydfxcav dirtKaXovv fjcr<rova. Plut. Moral, p. 204 F: dvata-dijrovs Ka\ 
fiapfidpovs direKaXei. Thecetet. p. l68 D : x a P l6vri<T ^ v Tiva " 7roKaA ™ , 'i 
which Schleiermacher properly translates " nannte er nicht dies einen 
schlechten Scherz ;" Demosth. Fals. Leg. 47 : Xoyoypdcpov? roiwv koi 
<ro(pi<rTd<s diroKaXwv. Aristides, Tom. II. p. 383 : diroKaXeiv aXa^ova 
(see also Stallbaum on Plato, Gorg. u. s.). The meaning " up," with 
which dvd is so often found, is only another modification of the same 
idea, for highness and farness are related notions. This is shown by 
the word aYexa?, which, we conceive, is a compound of dvd and e»<a<?, 
although Doderlein supposes that it is formed from dvd, as irep)^ is from 
Tre^', and that it is related to eVcas in sound only (De aX(pa intensivo, 
p. 12). Bbckh has endeavoured to show (Nota? Crit. in Pind. Olymp. 
II. 23) that ai/«os always means " upwards." Plutarch says that the 
Attics used dve<d^ for duta, and dvenadeu for dvuOev (in vita Thesei, 
CXXXIII). One would think that there must be some distinction 
between dviaBev and dvetcadev, and that the latter was the stronger of 
the two, from their use in iEschylus, Choepk. 421, though Lobeck (ad 
Soph. Aj. 145, p. 148) looks upon this as one of many instances of a 
mere redundancy of expression: "neque negari potest/' he remarks, 
"de vocabulis idem valere, quod de foliis dici solet, nullum unum 
alteri perfecte simile esse, sed hasc discrimina plerumque delitescunt." 
The Scholiast on Aristophanes (Vesp. 18) says: dveicds 3t dvr\ tov dvu, 
irdw eicd? nai eh ityos, which we believe to be a correct statement ; the 
word implies both height and distance, as in the line of Pherecrates 
emended by Valckenaer (Diatrib. in Eurip. p. 285): tout* ri ea-nv ; w? 
dveKai to Kp'iftavov : and this is also implied in the passage of Pindar 
on which Bbckh is commenting : otov deov fxoTpa Trqxirri a'i/eica? oX/3ov 
vxj/rjXov^ i. e. ne/jnrr] aveicd? ware v\j/r]Xov elvai. 

As dvd is used negatively, so is Kara used affirmatively. But in 
this case, at least in composition, the opposite of Kara is often d-rro: 
thus, Kard-Qripi, " to say yes," drrd-Qnui, ci to say no." As opposed to 
koto-ku'w, " to express assent by nodding," we have both diro-vevta and 
dva-vevm with the contrary signification. The simple d- was also a 
direct opposition to Kara, as Thucydides plainly announces (I. 123) : 
ov yap 817 iretyevyoTes ravra ctti rrjv nXe'io-rovs Stj ftXaxj/acrav Kwra- 
(ppdvrjaiv K€^coptiKaT€, ^ €k rov ttoXXovs a(paXXeiv to evdvTiov ovofxa 
d-(ppoavvrj /jLeroivo/jLaa-rai. 

185 If d-vd, va, and d are all used in a negative sense, it is 
equally remarkable that they are all three used with an intensive 



SIS THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book U. 

meaning. Of the uses of dvd and d in this sense it is unneces- 
sary to give examples ; Doderlein, we think justly, considers nt 
yareoi (dyaOos), v^iufiot Ojcus), vtjXtr^ (<iXrrffc)i i>;7recai/09 
(qirelavos), vrjrpeKW (drpeKws), i/>?xuto9 (ttoX^tos), vwXeue? 
ieiXelv, comp. ov\a,ws), to be instances of the intensive signifi- 
cation of i»j (Be dXcpa intensivo, p. 21 foil.) 

The prefix d is also used in a collective signification, but then 
it is only a corruption of d, Sanscrit sa, and of course does not 
belong to the root na now under discussion. 

It is unnecessary to point out the al on tnat 

the intensto a is "n shortened form of ayav. Doderlein at: 

reconcile the negative Mid DEWOBfC OSSl 0* a U ' «"- 

[«0,p.24): "1 oonsidei th:it by ssorl ofahi 

privative lias been turned into an WCm (nimiet'is) ; JW 

in those words in which a b pnl for u-; for th ft thing 

h nearly the H»M U it- 

n. Thus, among the 1 1 «i he ^ 

ttttfcmJ ddll, in Pindar, he who mak 

I in a pri ■ 'l'I ,raN 

^ and l'n,'ir in •! -tiw and inter '«<** 

and lit (!<>>!€**, in: 

Mike excluded Iron t> 

eonneet the privatise H-uiricati.-n of this par- 

augment I P 1 ^ 

fixed to (Sanscrit) verba in order to form i ;fie <^ 

1 do not know, hut this 1 know, that it U prefixed in th -nner 

to noun- With tl tive tad prh 

instance, mAm, happy (not miserable), awes 

afofa, weak (without strong It won! 

contrary fco the general practice of languages, if bj 

aata^fth exceeding the primary **• particle </. the 

Sanscrit had also signified one • h(U ^ Wl 

,,</— but who is not now inferable, not Mm d - I that case 

there might have been a closer connexion between i I nd a 

preterit, "than would he evident at first BBf m other f 

particle a expressing in ita primitive 
in a seeondarv sense indicate past time, that is 

enee of the action or quality with I *1 time. One 

might ask why in th- well employ D the 

future tense, for neither in thk 
pressed by the verb, actually exist : but the usage 



Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 319 

despotic, arbitrarily employing its means without controul. Another 
objection could be taken against the original identity of the negative «, 
and the a expressing past time, from the case of the first being em- 
ployed in Greek under the form of a, the second under that of an e, so 
that different forms answer to different meanings. But it is very often 
the case, that one original word produces, in languages originating from 
others, two, three, or more words, with slight variations in form and 
meaning ; and this practice has particularly contributed to the copious- 
ness of the English language. For instance to stay and to stand have 
the same origin, both are variations of the Sanscrit root sthd to stand. 
/ stay agrees with the German verb ich stehe, signifying e I stand/ of 
which the preterit is, ich stand (I stood), which is considered as a new 
root in English." In our opinion the negative and intensive significa- 
tions of o- are alike due to the notion of "farness," which we have 
pointed out as the primary one of d-vd, i/a-, and d-; and with regard to 
the fact, which we admit, that the augment e is the same as the prefix 
a, this may also be explained in the same way, for the idea of distance 
is inherent in that of past time. Doderlein's explanation is not incon- 
sistent with this view of the case ; for the ideas of distance and diffi- 
culty are intimately connected with those of abnegation ; thus we say, 
"far from it," for "not at all;" and we shall show in a future chapter 
that wrong-doing is often specified as an excess. No one can doubt 
that fxd\a and uoAz? are connected with malus, and that /idyi? and 
juo'x0o9 spring from the same origin as /jiiyas. So, too, we understand 
Virgil's iniquo pondere rastri as referring only to excessive weight ; 
and in-gens = v-rrep-tyvt'js, means " over-grown," i.e. of excessive mag- 
nitude. 

186 But by far the most important of the correlative uses of dud 
and Kara is their appearance in an abridged form as aV and KeV, with 
much the same functions to perform. That the aV, which appears in 
conjunction with verbs, expressing the apodosis of a condition, is in 
reality the preposition dvd, appears clearly enough from the use of that 
preposition in the old poets under the same shortened form (Bockh, Not. 
Critt. in Pind. p. 387). It is also sufficiently obvious from the use of 
the prepositions, eWi, which bears the same relation to dvd that irpo-Ti 
does to 7rp6, and dfx-<j)i, which stands for dvcupi, as dfx^w does for 
dva-(p(a = dva-hF(o. It is altogether a matter of indifference whether 
we regard d-v as the locative of the mutilated pronoun d, or consider 
the v as part of the suffix -i/a, for the v of the locative is simply this 
suffix in a mutilated state. 

The identity of the preposition d-vd and the particle aV was some 



320 THE PREPOSITION [Book n. 

years ago recognised by Hermann, who, in his laborious treatise on the 
particle «V (Oputcul. Vol. IV.), explains the use of the particle from 
the sense of secundum, "according to," in which dm is found ; thus, 
he says, eftov\6,xr]v au cl ekta/up is equivalent to e,lo\,\6nnv dva tovto 
el elvvafitjv. He connects km with au, on the ground that o«r kc deo* 
ireveWrjTat is equivalent to o<? ho3 Oco* t*tw* i& nr au With regard to 
the meaning of the particles & and one, he think- that tin ~e two w 
like Sew, ttou', and re, are only M many in odHWtttio al of the idea of 
probability. The explanation h by Bi nnann is quite in-uffi- 

. but there can be DO doubt that to ■ the HMO particle as aw, 
and that bfl ifl right in OOmpniing K« With «»£ W« -hall Bh0W in the 
next chapter that not only mu, but Ti and voi^ in which he recognises 

nilarity of ineaninj. ' '- 

was also 

,1 with tard, and that the fint BjIU 

the oldei Greeks instead of the more long in which the 

preposition appear* in I 

BO far M W8 kttOW, by Ad..]: fessor of Mat n the 

(ivinnaMtini r WB thli 

K< 1 ,. tod that kot bni arisen tmon ham Mage than I 

tl„. oainie of the- onto. Welcker, in hi- noiio f W 

(AV, nccof the 

hull. EZHTH2 1-13: 

TA2 KA THN 2EAEYKIAA, Webei thereto inrei 

tion Of <'.. Mid M (iti)j {r ' ,n ■*■* K - * Jl 1,im in 

thinking that m, Mom^ U cognate and paral! 

lieVO, however, that M kcv i 
but that the latter juent and lei _ 

not resulted from the independent ' the oris 

referred to), the longei fblD WOnld have retained the €, as in 

fi-TOj K« H 

It is in accordance with all that we know of the origin of prepo- 
Bitiona, to Bnppoee that they would naturally and necessarily be used 

• D 2 Jlujllilfrnll Aft tm? t Gjfmnasii Totfvmmi Sub- 

9mm e the publication 

of the former edition we to rf in obtaining I .uable little 

>, with the following notice '.he author rrtw Dr <t \V. M -er. the 

or of the Torgan Gym • l v Jan - i™ P- chr - 18tt - 

(}. W, Bt. M The red off** of Weber's argument, although it doc* no* teem to have 
occurred to himself, is to prove the independent exittOM "«» prepoeitioa 

equivalent to its offspring I 



Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 321 

by themselves as cases of pronouns before they were employed as 
supplements to the cases of nouns, when those cases had, by the 
mutilation of their endings, lost their original significance. We observe 
remains of this use not only in classical Greek, but even in modern 
French and Italian. In the former we find almost all the prepositions 
used in their primary sense as adverbs of place : thus we have eV, 
"at the same time" (Sophocl. (Ed. Tyr. 27, quoted above § 170); 
%m, "in addition" {(Ed. Tyr. 183: ev V aAo^oj, iroXial r eVt juaTe- 
pe<;. Antig. 789* Kai <""' ovt ddavaTiav (pvgijxo^ ovleis, ovd' d/xepiuv 
eV dvOpwTTwv; see however, Matth. Gr. Gr. § 584 rj.) ; irpd^ "in ad- 
dition" (Plato, Resp. p. 466 e: Kai Trpoe 76 agov<ri, Demosth. Philipp. 
I. p. 47 : TciXav-ra kvevr\KovTa ko\ piKpov rt irpo?) ; or even two at once 
in Homer, as in Iliad V. 66 : tj he hid -rrpo durtKpv Kara kxxttiv vir 
oa-reou fj\vd' ducaKtj. That Kct-rd and d-vd are also used in this way is 
well known: thus we have in Herodotus (I. 208) : tj fxev Irj e^ava-^ospee, 
Kara uVeo-^ero Trpwra, and (III. 86) : ol eg, Kara <rvvedt]KavTO, irapi\~ 
<rav eVt twi/ 'ittttuv : — and in Homer {Iliad XYIII. 562) : fxeXaves 8' 
dva fioTpve? fiaav. In Italian and French the prepositions ne and en, 
both signifying " in," are used as general adverbs of relation with the 
meaning " of this," " from this," " with regard to this." It is gene- 
rally supposed that these particles are derived from inde, as y is from 
ibi (Grimm, D. Gr. III. p. 746. Raynouard, Gr. d. I. langue Rom. 
pp. 86, 268), and there is no doubt that this was the origin of their 
use; but the forms themselves show that these adverbs were eventually 
superseded by the preposition included in the Latin in-de. 

Although av may be considered as essentially the same with the 
preposition aW, its correlative kc* = KeV, kc, always appears without the 
superadded element of the third pronoun, which is subjoined to Ka-ra, 
and is moreover used as an enclitic or unaccented and dependent word. 
This need not create any difficulty. We have already mentioned that, 
when Ka-ra signifies "down" as opposed to "up," the stress is laid 
entirely upon the first syllable, which designates the point at which 
the direction commences, and declares that point to be in the proximity 
of the subject. We have also seen that this syllable alone is retained 
even in cases when the meaning is not "down," but "along" or "in," 
as in the inscription quoted from Chishull by Welcker. In the oppo- 
sition, therefore, of xev to aV, considered as an opposition of "near" to 
" far," of antecedent to consequent, of protasis to apodosis, we should 
expect, not merely that they would use that syllable alone which con- 
veyed the meaning "here" as an antithesis to aW, but also that a 
shorter, more dependent, and subordinate form would be used for the 
first sentence, as opposed to a stronger and more decided one employed 

Y 



322 THE PREPOSITION [Book II. 

for the latter member of the period. The use of m» and mrj like that 
of all the other particles in Greek, is a proof of the early tendency and 
striving of that language after clearness of logical gg pWMW It il 
true that the moods of verb,. ^ well as the I capable 

of expressing, without any outward helps, all the BO* din- 

cations of meaning. But they cannot do this with sufficient distinctQeeB, 
even when they retain the full force of their intl 1 when, 

in process of time, fthfl ending is overbalanced by the body of the v. 
or sacrificed to the IftWI U I uphony. r 

the different loeal relation- 01 Ww«l p» **& 

the different modal relation- D* WtU wMwrt partic! 

adeooe 01 BobeeqiMaee of tK nces. One of the 

seof 

particles or pronominal word- &W thi- purpose, but no one of these 
- ii u-ed with mure efficacy than tllOM two fragmentary] 
sitions of which we are DOl - The older 1 

both & and km tQ <xpr 

the later Mthofl cmploy.d only the form 
have r-tated a 1 would, il •■ " in : 

• •;„ t | iat ■ but | d.-p- nd.nt wcrd. it 

tl u . sum M n and ti, ra and »«c, which ar 

.ith it, and Ng 
:. !,v imp] perhapr-." Ii N i- an ciicli: 

MM, tin" relati D them tt* >ainc 

Bubost) hetw.eu Mi and ,b . In ■ «"•" closer ' 

than illy tap] • tiu> 

hypothetical propu>itimi. In I illu-r case WB bftl 
an indefinite antecedent. Thu- in £*>« W K«) Pi • ■•reea, 

IB indefini- 
tk tuvtu c f n r n as any one did these I 

NYOU ld • ftd man," tlu W M the iodcfil 

cedent to the rclatiw 

particles ntWJ! :uul V wWch aro Wh oi ■ * 
latter befog in fact a n -iduum of MR, ■ the 

apod DM, wW* ii : 

the lOOtl ty 00, 0tMNb ■• *"** &-**»*• SO). 

In Sanscrit the intimate eoniu x B the hypetl;. 

tlvo nnt town net only by tl 

,„/,//, but fcbo by the occasional parallelism of the relative and 

-if:" thus in th '• **■ find: >**-« 

blmvi; bhavi cAfe-M tad-anya: 

not be; if it will be, this [is] net otherwise." Wl 



Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 323 

in the first sentence, and na\ in the latter, which is the common con- 
struction, the meaning conveyed is, that what is affirmed generally 
(re= "in any way") of the former, is amrmed in the same way of the 
latter (/ecu = "in this"). When tc appears in both sentences, the 
meaning is, that what is affirmed in any way of one is predicated in 
some way of the other. Similarly, we should expect (l) that *e would 
appear in the hypothesis and dv in the apodosis, with this meaning — if 
such were "in any way" (kc) the case, then "in that case" or "farther" 
(d-vci, dv) such things would follow : or (2) that keu would appear in 
both, with this sense — if such were "in any way" the case, then "in 
some way" such things would ensue. We frequently find both of these 
constructions in the Epic and Lyric poets, as in the following examples; 

(1) Homer, Odyss. VIII. 353 : 7rak dv iym <re leoi/jn per ddavdroicri 
Qecnaiv, e'l Kev "Aprj^ o'I^oito, XP eo<i Ka ' ^eoyxoi/ aAu£a<? ; Pindar, Nem. 
IX. 34 : XjOOju/ft) kev vTraairi^iav — eKpivas dv nivCvvov o^eias ai/Va?. 

(2) Homer, Iliad VI. 50 : ruiv Kev toi -^aplaaiTO irarr\p aTrepeia-t 
diroiva> e'l kcv e/xe £0001/ ireirudoiT em vt]va\v 'A^atan/. Hesiod. apud 
Aristot. Eth. V. 5 : e" «e irdOot to k epe£e, diKtj k We?a yevoiro. There 
appears to be a particular attraction of the indefinite KeV into the 
protasis, as might be expected from the generally vague nature of 
hypothetical sentences. Even dv is appended to relative, or, what 
is the same thing, hypothetical words in the Attic dialect; thus, we 
constantly have eaV, orav, 09 dv, &c. : and kcv seems to have been 
similarly appended to the conditional particle by the Cretans, as we 
may infer from the gloss on ftaT-nav = Fat-k-ai/, in Hesychius, and from 
the Doric collocation u'I-ku. In Homer and Pindar we often find ne in 
the hypothesis without any corresponding ne or dv in the apodosis. 
Thus in Iliad XIX. 321 : ov /xev yap ri KciKWTepov d\Xo irddoifxi, oJ3' 
el Kev tou TTctT-pcK aTrocpdi/jLevoio TTvdolfiriv. Pindar, Pyth. IV. 263 : el 
yap t<5 ofous ogvTOfxcp •jreXeKei e^epetyai Kev pL€yd\a<; B/juo'?, alvxyvoi Ce 
01 datjrov eilos, Kctt (pQivoKapiros eoTaa CiSo? \f/d(pov irep avrds, — where, 
however, ku) stands as a sort of substitution for the kcv which might 
have appeared in the apodosis. The fact is, that the hypothetical 
particle, in its older and stronger form, is itself a relative word, as will 
be shown in the following chapter, and even el, which is generally its 
representative, and which is more immediately connected with 1, where 
the idea of nearness is not so strongly expressed, may always be re« 
ferred both in origin and meaning to the second pronominal element. 

As there are instances in which ko.\ is found in the first of two 
correlated sentences, and tc in the second, the enclitic kev might occa- 
sionally be expected to appear in the second sentence in opposition to 
dv in the protasis : the instances of this construction must be very few; 

Y2 



324 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book II. 

the only example, with which we are acquainted, is in Pindar, Xem. 
VII. 89 : el o avro k<x\ Oeos dv e^ot, ev tip k edeXoi — evrvx^s vaieiv. 
It would be better, however, to read dve\oi, with Thiersch and Bockh, 
for the meaning clearly is — " if a God would condescend to, would put 
up with, would not disdain, the law of good neighbours," a sense which 
dvex 03 k ears in Euripides, Hecuba, 119: Kaavdvcpas dvex^v XenTp' 
'Ajajxejxvwv, and Sophocles, Ajax, 212: m\ ae, Ac^ck lovpidXwrov, 
(Triplets dvexei dovpios Ataf. 

187 One of the best proofs of the correctness of this view, with 
regard to the meaning of dv and mv, is the place which these particles 
occupy in the sentence. Neither of them can appear as the first word, 
but they are always placed in immediate connexion with the con- 
ditional word, when they appeal in the protasis, or in that part of the 
apodosis, in which the reference to the hypoth< - bI distinct and 

prominent, in other words, where the antecedent would be most likely 
to stand. The formation of the compound conditional particles fiaUav, 
cuica, ear, ©Tar, &C. ifl ■ sufficient proof of the attraction of kcV and & 
to the conditional words: the following will serve as instances of the 
mode of placing AV in the apodoaia. When then is no reason f i 
appearing in other poaitiona, aV always follows the predicate: thus 
Sophocles, Ajam, 550: u> -rraT, yevoio -rrarpdc 6uTi/^c'(TTf^o«r, tu I u\\ 

enow tea) yevot' dv ov koko'?. I wish expresi ad by the fir-t 

yevoio, and the second signitie- the result of a condition ; in the oppo- 
sition therefore of the two repeated words, the ftV should immediate ly 
follow the second: M may you be, fee* and you will be in that case, 
&c." But in the following paonagCj whan there is a similar opposition 
of the optative proper to the optative with our, the antitl ween 

the two negatives, not between the two verbs, and therefore the d* 
appears immediately after the direct negative am\ to which the indirect 
pij is Strongly opposed; Sophocles, Anti : ion. 686 : o*r m 
eTTiarauuiv Xeyeiv. u I should not even in this (/. c. if I knew how) be 
able, and I pray that I never may know how to any, ft©/ The 
negative o», and the cognate particle ofr, exercise an attraction upon dv 
in the apodosis similar to that which it experiences in the pi 
from the relative and conditional words. Than, we very often find the 
collocations ovk dv, ov& a*,o¥T dv, ovttot dv. .Sic. and m is often drawn 
away from its verb by the influence of amwl OOBBpare D m -then. 
Olynth. I. 13 : ri ovvdv r« etiroi ravra fceyftt ' >/nth. III. 14-: 

Tl OVV dv Tl<? eCTTOI (TV 7*Oa>CM -UVT (490U (TTpClTHdTlKd \ PlatO. V/maOf. 

p. 202 i> : ti o& av, tV'<'i- e «l »"^f -K « Th* reason for this is obi 

the particle ovv refers directly and specially to what kas 



Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 825 

the particle av must of course have the same reference in questions like 
those we have quoted. In general, whatever word in the apodosis is to 
be expressed with most emphasis in reference to the conditional sentence, 
whether that conditional sentence is expressed or understood, this word 
is followed by av: Herodotus, III. 119: Tarpon he kcl\ fxrjrpo\ ovk eV< 
/nev ^wovtcov, a3e\(/>eo5 av aAAo<? ovh'evt Tpoirio yevoiro. Thus also 
qualitative adverbs, like t/Sew?, eiKOTws, Tcr^a, M ct ' ;v£0 " ra ? & c v on which 
the emphasis always falls, are invariably followed by av unless some 
other word with a stronger attractive power appears in the sentence : 
Plato, Protagor, p. 318 a: t/Sew? av (prion irvdea-dai. As words ex- 
pressing opinion about or information on a subject have all the effect 
of qualifying adverbs or predicative words, we find that they also 
attract the particle into their immediate neighbourhood : Plato, Phwdo, 
p. 101 E: <ru 3' elirep el tuv <piXocr6<p(av olfxai av ws eyoo Xeyco 7roio??. It 
is prefixed to the word of thinking when the emphasis falls upon a 
word before it, as in Plato, Bespublica, I. p. 333 a : Trpo's ye vno^fxa- 
rwv av olfxai (pair]? KTtjanv, or if a relative word precedes, as in Thucy- 
dides, I. 22 : w? 3' av eloKovv efxoi — to. heovra fxaXicrra eiVen/, or ovk, as 
in the same author, II. 89 : ovk av tjyovvrai — avdiaTavdai tj/j-ds. If 
emphatic adverbs occur in the same sentence with the verb significant 
of opinion, the av as a particle of reference is naturally enough re- 
peated with the different predicative words; thus, in Thucyd. II. 41, 
we find : hoKeTv av /jloi tov avrov avhpa eir\ irXelcrT av e'&rj, Kai perd 
j£apiT<av fxa\i<TT av evrpaTreXios to <rw/xa avrapKes irape^ecrQai, The 
most curious and most instructive instance of this hyperbaton is the 
intrusion of av, which belongs to an optative following, into the phrase 
ovk o73' el = vereor ut. Euripides has ovk o!V av el Treiaaifii in two 
passages {Medea, 91 1, Alcestis, 49), but it is clear that the necessities 
of the metre have obliged him to misplace the particle, which certainly 
ought to follow the negative, as appears from Plato, Timams, p. 26 b : 
eyw, a fxev \6e$ rjKovaa, ovk av ot3' el lvvai/jir]v airavra ev fxvtjfxr] iraXiv 
XafteTv, and from the somewhat similar passages in Demosthenes, de 
Pals. Legat. p. 441, 21 : oJ3' av ek ev o73' oti (prjo-eiev, and Prooem. 
p. 1423, 14: ovlev av rd vfxeTep' ev ot'3' oti fteXTtov <r%oit]. The uv 
appears unattracted in Aristoph. Aves, 1018 : ovk o73a y el (pdalrj^ av. 

The particle kcv is distinguished from av by its tendency to assume 
an early place in the sentence. It is put before many words to which 
av is regularly subjoined ; thus, as Hermann justly remarks (Opuscul. 
IV. p. 7), if Syagrus (Herodotus, VII. 159) had not been desirous of 
making a line »J Ke fxey cofxwgeiev 6 HeXoTrtht]? 'Ayafxe/mvcov in imitation 
of Homer's fi kc fxey olfxwgeie yepwv 'nnrrjXdTa TltjXevs (Iliad VII. 125), 
he would have said 17 peya av co/jiaygeiev. 



CHAPTER IV. 
THE NEGATIVE AND OTHER PARTICLES. 

188 Grimm's remarks on negative particles. 189 Ma, fxi], vrj, vol, and ov-k. 190 
Interrogative particles, and their connexion with the negatives. /091 Particles 
used in answers to questions. 192 Inferential particles. 193 Other words 
indicating progression or continuance. 194 Copulative conjunctions sometimes 
due to the same connexion of thought ; 195 but generally derived from the indefi- 
nite and relative pronouns. 196 Identity of /ca and que. 197 Use of -re as an 
affix to relative words. 198 Different origin of T6 and toi. 199 Disjunctive 
particles. 200 Comparisons. 201 Distributive words ; pronominal origin of oj/. 
202 Temporal particles. 203 The concessive particle ye. 204 rdp and apa. 
205 The hypothetical ei. 

188 TN the last chapter we were led, by an investigation into 
JL the origin of the prepositions dvd and Kara, to make some 
remarks as well on the particles av and kcv, as on the negative 
uses of the word d-vd, and its abridged or mutilated forms. "We 
shall commence our inquiries, upon the important subject of the 
Greek particles in general, by a reference to what we said there, 
as a natural introduction to the extensive question respecting 
the words which express interrogation, negation and inference, 
which, we shall find, are all connected in the Greek and cognate 
languages. 

Grimm, at the end of the third volume of his great work, has dis- 
cussed this question with that extraordinary diligence and learning 
which he everywhere displays. We refer our readers to what he says 
with the greater pleasure, as this part of his work has been rendered 
accessible to the English reader, and commented on, by a scholar of 
considerable ability (Pkilol. Museum, II. p. 315 foil.). We shall 
make the German philologer's inquiries the basis of our own on the 
present occasion; for, although we do not think that he has seen the 
general principle by which all the phenomena are to be explained, and 
although he has in consequence fallen into some particular errors, such 
are his learning and indefatigable industry that we could not hope to 
add much by our own researches to the vast induction of particulars 
which he has collected and arranged. 

He commences by stating (III. p. 708) the distinction between a 
negation and an opposition ; the latter includes the former, but not rice 
versa. " The essence of the proper negation consists in the logical 
denying of a position. By the expression not mountain, not aood. the 



Chap. 4] NEGATIVE AND OTHER PARTICLES. 327 

position mountain, good is excluded, but it is left indefinite whether 
the opposite valley, evil, or the intermediate notion plain, middling, is 
to he supplied." He adds, "All negation proceeds from the grounds 
of the position, and presupposes it. The position is independent, the 
negation, necessarily refers to a position, and cannot be expressed as any 
thing new, but merely as a modification of the position. This modifi- 
cation results from an insertion in the positive position, which insertion 
in the first instance consists of the smallest possible particle, producing 
an effect both rapid and sure. By degrees, however, this negative 
particle is usually connected very closely with other words. Along 
with it we often find substantives that strengthen the sense, which can 
even take the negativing power from it to themselves." He then 
divides the simple negation in the Teutonic languages into two kinds — 
the consonant- form and the vowel-form. The fundamental letter of 
the consonant form is N. Thus, in Gothic it was ne, in High German 
nein = ni-ein (so non, anciently nenum, from ne-unum*), and in old 
English ne. The German nicht, English not, are compounds signifying 
no-thing ; compare the old High German neowiht, niowicht, nieht ; 
middle High German nicht, niht ; Anglo-Saxon ndviht, nduht, nauht ; 
English nought, not {Phil. Mus. II. p. 326). Of a similar formation 
is the Latin nihil = ne-hilum. The English no is a compound of ne, 
and the Anglo-Saxon a (Gothic ai, aio, comp. alpei, aevum), which 
signifies always ; ev-er contains the same element. The middle High 
German prefix en- does not we conceive arise from the old High Ger- 
man n for ni, nor do we think it is analogous to the formation of 
e/nov, ifxoi, ifxe, from /nov, pot, fxe (Grimm, p. 71 1). It is, we believe, 
the fuller form of the negation (compare d-vd), and is connected with 
the German un-, ent-, Latin in-. Grimm himself compares the old 
High German interrogative innu, inu, eno with the Gothic annu, and 
sees nothing strange in the substitution of i in old High German for a 
in Gothic (III. p. 757)- The vowel-form of the simple negation is a 
suffix -at, -a, or -t, one or other of the two component letters being 
occasionally omitted. This suffix is peculiar to the old Norse. It is 
probably, as Grimm supposes (p. 718), a corruption of vdtt, which is 
used to strengthen the negation, like the German wicht, and the funda- 
mental negation is omitted, as the French negative is before pas, point, 
rien, in pas un mot, point du tout, rien du tout. The prohibitive 



* Whether we accept this etymology or not, there is no objection to it from the use 
of the word as a mere negative, having no relation to unity in particular, e. g. in non 
multi, for in these compound negatives the adjunct is very little regarded. Thus, 
although it is clear that nemo = ne-homo, Virgil does not scruple to write nemo divom 
(JEneid IX. 6). 



S28 THE NEGATIVE [Book II. 

negation is in Gothic ni as in ni gret ! (jxij «Aa?e) ; old High German 
the same, as ni churi ! (noli) ; in middle High German the prefix en 
as en ruoche ! {noli curare) ; in Anglo-Saxon it is ne, frequently 
strengthened by a following na = rie-a (never), thus ne rep hu nd, 
" weep not/' Grimm's general conclusion is as follows (p. 743) : " On 
the whole, then, there are two sorts of negation. The one quite 
formal and abstract, which, though at first the soul of all negation, 
vanishes by degrees in its separate use, and only continues its influence 
in connexion with other particles. It is superseded by words which 
properly contain the idea of less, little, small, either quite concretely, 
or perhaps in a more abstract sense. At first they are only united as 
companions to the negative particle, and coalesce into an equally 
abstract form, of which our new High German nicht, new Netherland 
niet, English not is the most striking example. Frequently, however, 
they dispense with the simple negative, and make a formal negation out 
of their diminutive-sense, as is especially shown in the Norse kke. 
This interlacing of the formal, and, as it were, material negation, 
explains to us two phenomena : on the one hand, the repetition of the 
negative-particle, and, on the other, its complete dispensableness. If 
our new High German iceder (ncque) = old High German niic'edar, the 
middle High German wan (nisi) = newan, the Gothic ihai-nihdi : in 
like manner we have seen that also stoup ('an atom'), wint, tuivel 
('devil')*, and the old Nordish vartr ('demon,' 'genius') serve as 
negatives without any preceding abstract negation. The formal nega- 
tion is therefore unessential." 

If now we compare this ni, ne, of the German dialects with the 
Greek negative prefix vtj- and with the second syllable of d-vd, we 
shall have no difficulty in recognising their identity. TVe have before 
mentioned, that the middle High German prefix en- points to a fuller 
form corresponding to the whole of d-vd. The form (ne) of the simple 
negative occurs in Latin in the combination ne-quiJe?n with a word 
interposed, and also in the compounds non, neque, Sec. 

189 In the German dialects we have seen that the prohibitive 
does not differ from the simple negative : the same is the case in the 
Latin ne, except that the vowel is long. In Hebrew also the prohibitive 
^ involves the same element as the negative j$S (above, § lS-i). In 
Greek the prohibitive is /*>/, in Sanscrit md, and in Persian me. The 
analogy of the German dialects might lead us, at first sight, to seek 
for some connexion between m, and ne, as Grimm has done (p. 745). 



Just as " Devil a bit," is used in vulgar English to signify " not at all.' 



Chap. 4.] AND OTHER PARTICLES. 329 

But, when we consider that fxd and vrj are used in direct opposition to 
one another in oaths, and compare p\v and viv, the distinction between 
which we have pointed out before, we are compelled to seek for some 
way of explaining the word fxr] less obvious but less objectionable than 
that of a transformation of n into m. 

In the ordinary use of ixd and vr], the former refers to a negative 
oath, the latter to a positive one; moreover vai, which bears the same 
relation to vr] that la\ does to hrj, is always used in a positive sense, 
like the Latin nee. The question ti [xr\v ; is generally used with a nega- 
tive application ; r] fitjv, which is used as a form of swearing, is mostly 
found in a positive sense. With regard to fxd we believe, with Passow, 
that it is, in itself, neither affirmative nor negative, but gains either the 
one sense or the other according as it has vai or ov prefixed or under- 
stood. In our opinion fxd contains the element of the first personal 
pronoun ; it represents an original /xeV, which is used for ptjv in Hero- 
dotus, and bears the same relation to fxe-rd that kc? or kcv does to 
Ka-Ta : so that the leading idea is that of absolute nearness to the 
subject. If vai, 1/17, are, as we have no doubt they are, connected with 
the second syllable of d-vd, and the negative prefix vj, the idea con- 
veyed by these particles must be quite the reverse; for the leading 
meaning of viv, -%va, vrj- is, as we have already shown, that of " dis- 
tance," "separation." Grimm says (III. p. 767), "the seemingly 
negative form of the affirmative vai (Lat. nae /) is worthy of notice ; 
we might compare va\ and ov with the Gothic ne and jai, except that 
the meaning is reversed. If we take the Hessian a = n'd, in connexion 
with the Swabian et = net, and the identity between the negative and 
positive expression which occasionally presents itself, there results 
apparently a deep-founded identity between the negative and affirma- 
tive particle, which I purposely forbear to investigate farther." All 
prima facie difficulty occasioned by this fact vanishes when we 
recollect that the prefix vrj- is used with an intensive or affirmative 
signification, and in general " yes" and " no " are only emphatic exple- 
tives, which may be expressed by the two most definite pronominal 
words ma and na, signifying separation and distance, as well as by any 
one of those simple words by which we affirm or deny in our common 
conversation. Our own " yes" is simply the second pronoun, denoting 
" here," opposed to " no," the strongest form of the third element, just 
as 76 and Ka-Ta are used with an affirmative sense, in opposition to 
d-vd and a-7ro = dv-iro or va-nro* 

In order to explain fxrj, we must turn our attention to the other and 
more direct negative ov, and consider what are the leading and funda- 
mental distinctions between the two particles. 



330 THE NEGATIVE [Book II. 

There can be little doubt as to the derivation of ov, ovk. The only- 
question that could be raised, is whether we ought to derive it at once 
from the Sanscrit avak (deorsum), considering that an apocope has 
taken place in the form ov, which is Pott's opinion (Etym. Forsch. II. 
p. 134, comp. I. 273, II. 64, 183); or rather with Bopp (Vergl 
Gramm. p. 547, 8) connect it with the Indian-Zendic am, Sclavonic 
ow, and take the final consonant as a mutilation of -fi, -X', the 
Sanscrit -chi, -cka, Latin -que ; so that ov is related to ov-k, ov-yl, as 
ne is to ne-c, ne-que. "We have no hesitation in adopting this latter 
opinion, which, we think, is confirmed by the appearance of the muti- 
lated root au {av) (§ 138), with the signification of "removal," "sepa- 
ration," " contrast," which gives rise to the negative, in the Greek av, 
av-di, aO-Tt?, av-epvuj, &c, and the Latin au-tem, au-t, hau-t {hand), 
au-fugio, &c. (see Bopp, I. I. p. 546). A question might arise, 
whether we are to consider av, am, as simply the element xa, a form of 
tlje first pronominal stem, with the semivowel transposed, or this same 
element appended to another in a similar state of mutilation. A com- 
parison of aufcro, with ahs-tidl, ah-latus, and of a-xa with d-ir6, also 
used in a negative sense, and the difficulty of explaining the second 
vowel otherwise, induce us to believe that a-xa-k, o-v-k, are the com- 
pound preposition a-xa = d-iro = dv--n6, with the element Jca affixed ; so 
that a-va-k — ovK is really a combination of d-wo and if. The particle 
ovv = avam is an additional confirmation of this etymology of ov-k. 
Ilartung justly remarks (Partikeln, II. 3), that the double form ovv, 
toe, leads us, according to the analogy of oi5? = ak or aur'is, to a ground- 
form avu, which is clearly an accusative. "NVe find the element of this 
accusative in the pronoun cm-rot. It is doubtful whether the Cretan 
and Laconian word aJ<?, quoted by Hcsychius, is a synonym of avros 
or of 0J9. He says, aSs. avTos. KpiJTes kci\ AaV-wi/ec. Now we might 
suppose with Soping that avro? is the genitive of cue, as wVo? is of oJc. 
But in either case we have an analogy for the connexion of ovv with aT, 
and the Zend neuter accusative aom. If this be true, ov-k expresses ■ 
total disjunction, separation, denial; for as it means both "from" and 
"out of" (§ 177), it is even stronger than the Latin 7i-aut and non, 
and the Greek d-vd, in which the fundamental meaning is the same — 
i. e. distance, removal. Accordingly, if pd and fui are connected, 
must be put along-side of d-vd, vt]-, and we must expect to find the 
same distinction between ov-k and /wf as we have already observed to 
exist between vij and f.ia. The connexion in meaning between oil, dia, 
and aVo, is farther shown by the former being used, like the other two, 
as a sort of negative prefix, and even in proper names ; thus we have 
(1) OS™, "Mr Nobody," Horn. Od. IX. 366. Eurip. Cyct 540. ft 



Chap. 4.] AND OTHER PARTICLES. 331 

(2) OvKaXeyiov, " Dreadnought," or " Carefornought," Horn. II III. 
140. Virg. JEn. II. Sf2. Juv. III. 198. (3) OCto™, Utopia, " Weiss- 
nichtwo," " Kennaquhair," " Lord-knows- where." 

All scholars, who have written on the distinction between ov-k and 
M, have made it consist in this, that while the former denies abso- 
lutely, the latter denies relatively to some thought or opinion of the 
speaker. In other words, ov-k denies objectively, fxrj subjectively*. Now 
what could be better suited to express subjectivity than a word which 
contains, under a strong form, the simple element of the first personal 
pronoun ? Such a word is /mrj, a stronger form of fxd ; for /*a is opposed 
to vrj as nearness is to farness, and firj to ov-k as subject is to object. 
This root appears with the same notion of subjectivity in the verb 
fxdw-ijievM, of which more hereafter. 

190 We proceed to the interrogative particles. As we have dis- 
tinguished negation into subjective and objective, so Grimm considers 
that questions are either subjective or objective (III. p. 751): "In- 
trinsically considered," says he, " there are two sorts of questions, the 
one requires in the answer an expression of knowledge or opinion about 
something, without the necessity for any direct affirmation or negation; 
the other sort of question, on the contrary, desires the affirming or 
negativing determination of the answerer. In the former case the ques- 
tion turns upon the thing asked about, in the latter on the will or 
knowledge of the person questioned. The former may be called the 
objective, the latter the subjective question. The following are instances 
of the objective question : ' who is there V ' whom lovest thou V ' how 
did that come to pass V ' when did you see him V The following are 
subjective questions: 'is he there? 5 'lovest thou me?' 'will you go 
with me?' ' is he alone ? ' 

" This distinction according to the content of the questions is con- 
nected with the formal distinction which has been premised. Objec- 
tive questions are generally expressed by the sound, subjective by a 
suffix. 

" Inasmuch as the questioner does not know beforehand what an- 
swer will be given, all questions are naturally doubtful. The subjective 
question, however, is doubtful in a higher degree. The objective ques- 
tioner desires information, and may receive it in an infinite variety of 
ways. The uncertainty of the subjective questioner is tied to one of 
two possible answers, yes or no. Accordingly, we may add an 'or 



* For the distinctive syntactical use of oh and /xjf, we must refer to our Greek 
Grammar (articles 528 — 545). 



332 THE NEGATIVE [Book II. 

not V to every subjective question; in other words, it may be taken 
either positively or negatively. Instead of — ' is he there V i lovest thou 
me V it would, in many cases, be equivalent to say — * is he not there V 
4 lovest thou not me?' (the expectation of the questioner being the 
cause of preferring one mode of expression to the other). From this 
follows generally and at once a sort of connexion between the subjec- 
tive question and the negation, which the forms of the interrogative 
particles also confirm." 

The objective question is asked by the interrogative pronoun, or 
some word derived from it. We have before shown that this pronoun 
in Greek is, in its shortest and oldest form, k- (ki?, koc). The sub- 
jective question is expressed by interrogative particles, of which, 
according to Grimm (III. p. 760), there were three forms in the Indo- 
Ger manic languages : (1) the Gothic suffix -u, which he considers as 
perhaps related to the Greek ov ; (2) the Gothic suffix -nu, old High 
German -nu, Sanscrit -nu, Latin -ne, Greek /*»/, old High German -na ; 
(3) the Gothic an-, old High German in-, Latin an, Greek ovv, which, 
he remarks, are all connected with the simple negation. To these may 
be added the important particle dpa or dpa, which asks the questions 
apparently in a negative as well as in a positive way : this also seems 
to have been the case with ovk ovv. It is highly important to know 
that all the roots mentioned by Grimm, and the apa adduced by us, 
are used not merely as interrogative and negative, but also as inferen- 
tial, particles. 

We have pointed out before the co-ordination which subsists be- 
tween d-vd and Ka-To, in their various uses. We find them here again 
employed in expressing, the former, a subjective, the latter, an objective 
question. Or rather the root which enters into Ko-Ta, and which is 
found more simply in Ka, kcv, kc, is the same as that of the interroga- 
tive pronoun, which in some form or other is generally prefixed to 
objective questions: and both the successive mutilations of d-vd, as well 
as the whole word, are found as the interrogative particle in subjective 
questions in the Indo-Germanic languages. When the ultimate d- = dv- 
occurs in this use in Greek, it is strengthened by the particle pa, and 
becomes dpa = dv-pa. In Latin'we have an as a direct interrogative, and 
also -ne and num, the former being used as a suffix only. 

Although there is no occasion to connect the Gothic ?* with ov, as 
Grimm has done, it is true enough that the Greeks used the objective 
negation in these subjective questions, sometimes in a doubled form, as 
ovk ovv, sometimes alone, and frequently in conjunction with the sub- 
jective negation fxtj, as in fim9=f^-oSw 1 fxtj ov% ovtm e;^/, &c. This is 
easily explicable. We do not speak of the subjective negation in the 



Chap. 4.] AND OTHER PARTICLES. 333 

same sense in which Grimm applies the epithet to questions which may 
be expressed negatively. The subjective negation refers to the opinion 
of the speaker, the subjective question to that of the person interrogated. 
But although these subjective questions always refer to some opinion, 
will, or knowledge of the person questioned, they may express in them- 
selves, though faintly, an opinion on the part of the questioner. We 
find that in these cases the subjective negation, which refers to the 
speaker, is always prefixed. As a general rule, whenever ov is found in 
an interrogation, a positive answer is expected ; and the appearance of 
ny in a question presumes a negative reply. 

191 "When there is such a vacillation between the affirmative and 
negative modes of putting a subjective question, we need not wonder 
that there should be a similar ambiguity in the answer. Thus it is 
that vai, nee, obviously connected with the negative root -va, vrj-, are 
always used as affirmative answers, corresponding to the English "yes." 
The writer in the Philological Museum above referred to, explains the 
fact thus: He asks (p. 323) "may not this connexion between the 
positive answers and the negative root have arisen from the use of the 
negative, like our ' nay,' immo, or anzi (ante), in Italian ? which are 
negative, inasmuch as they object to the preceding phrase as not being 
strong enough, whilst they agree with its general meaning and enhance 
its force ? Certainly, in these cases, the negative and affirmative senses 
often approach very near to one another, as, for instance, in the follow- 
ing passage of Ben Jonson : ' A good man always profits by his endea- 
vour, yea, when absent, nay, when dead, by his example and memory'." 
The opinion of Pott (Etym. Forsch. II. p. 65) is much the same : 
l 'immo" he says, "nicht bejaht sondern nur negirt, oder (steigernd) 
opponirt." There is, it must be confessed, much of truth in this expla- 
nation, but it is not sufficient. The proper view, we conceive, is to 
derive this sense of vai, like the other significations of the same root, 
from the original idea of farness, distance, separation, conveyed by it, 
and in which the meaning assigned by Pott and the English critic are 
contained. It is curious, however, that in Latin the application of the 
correlative words is inverted. For imo or immo is an adverb derived 
from imus or immus for infimus*, and is regularly opposed to ad sum- 



* A writer in the Classical Museum (Vol. III. pp. 291 — 297) proposes to consider 
immo as a mutilation of in modo. This unhappy thought seems to have been suggested 
by the fact that modo is counted as a monosyllable in Terentian scanning, and that 
quomodo is represented by the Spanish como, Italian come, and French comme. But in 
the Latin authors themselves modo and quomodo are never written mo and quomo, and 
conversely we never find immodo for immo, to say nothing of the fact that, although we 
have in modum, ad modum, and in morem, ad morem, in modo would be as surprising a 



334 THE NEGATIVE [Book II. 

mum, which corresponds to most of the uses of ye or yovv, and this is 
concessive and affirmative, whereas immo is at least corrective, like the 
Greek jueV ovv (Grammar, art. 567), if it is not even negative. In 
the correlation, however, of the affirmative Kara and the negative dvd, 
the latter signifies " up" and the former " down," which is just the 
reverse of the negative immo and the affirmative ad summum. The 
fact is that the Roman spoke as if standing between two distant points, 
the one below and the other above him : whereas the Greek was con- 
tented with opposing the near to the distant ; and negation is as much 
implied by d-Tc6=dv-ir6 and ov-n = dv-va-k, which in the Sanscrit a-va-k 
signifies "down," as by d-vd=Fa-vd, which denotes " up." 

192 From the signification of farness or distance we also ex- 
plain the use of words, containing the negative element, as inferential 
particles. We have the negative root a- for va- or dva- in d-pa, the 
second part of which is the particle pa, also used separately, which, 
as we have before remarked, denotes motion, and is found in compa- 
ratives; so that dpa will signify distance, or progression to another 
step in the argument, which is the idea of an inference. It is owing to 
this that Ka\ aV exe'ivov is used for dpa in the nearest approximation to 
a regular syllogism which is found in Thucydides, namely, in VI. 89 : 
(rt) toTs yap rvpavvots del irore Cidcpopoi ecr/j-ev' (Jj) -nav Ce to evavriou- 
fxevuv naZvvacrrevovri O//J105 (avofxacTTai ' (c) koi air ineivov ^v^nrape- 
fxeivev tj TTpoa-Taa-ta i)}xiv rod ir\t']6ov^. TVe have also a distinct reference 
to the original meaning of dpa in those cases in which it expresses tbat 
the existing state of things is at variance with our previous expecta- 
tions. Here it implies that at the advanced point at which we have 
arrived, we are enabled to detect a fallacy, which had previously 
eluded our observation : so that after all, the state of the case appears 
widely different from our antecedent notion respecting it. In this usage, 
it very often amounts to a declaration of regret and disappointment, 
in accordance with our collocations " so then," &c. The following pas- 
sages will make this sufficiently clear ; Soph. Electr. 934 : 



piece of Latinity as in more. Any good Latin scholar must sec that the citation of 
illico for in loco is no justification of the assumption that immo = inmodo ; for though 
we may say: dulce est desipere in loco, we cannot say : in more modoque apis Matinee. 
Then if immo were felt to be equivalent to in modo, Cicero would never have written : 
et quiddico nuper ? immo vero modo ac plane paullo ante vidimus &c. Lastly, which 
is the main point, ad modum is used in answers to questions, in the sense "yes, by all 
means,'' which is surely the antithesis of immo "nay;" and it would be somewhat 
remarkable if in modo, supposing the existence of such a phrase, were the exact oppo- 
site of ad modum = in modum. As the writer in question is distinguished by a confident 
assumption of superiority, we have thought it worth while to show that in this case at 
least he has proved nothing except the laxity of his own Latin scholarship. 



Chap. 4.] AND OTHER PARTICLES. 335 

to BvcrTi^ff? • eyco Be <ruv X a P? ^oyov<; 

toiovgV e-yovcr ecnrevhov, ovk e<3i/?' dpa 

"v rjfxev arrj^' d\Xa vvv, od' iKOfxrjv, 

rd t ovtci irpdadev, aXXa 6' evplfTKco naica — 
" I brought the news not knowing, as it seems, in what misfortunes we 
were all the while involved, but now, &c." Id. ibid. 1175 : ore ovk dp' 
fjtit] Ttov efiaw/ ovhev KaKaTi/. Eurip. Troad. 414 : ovtiev n Kpelcraca to?i> to 
/xtjlev i]v dpa*. Cf. id. ibid. 109. Herod. IY. 64 : hepfxa Be dvdptairov riv 
dpa a-^e^ov ZepfxaTOiu irdvrtav Xa/jLirpdraTov XevKOTrjri, " SO then it 
seems that after all the human skin is, what we should not expect, 
nearly the whitest of all skins," meaning that if we had not laboured 
under that error, the tanners would have made some use of our hides. 
Hence we have dpa as a term of sorrow; Soph. Aj. 1025 : 7t&k <r' 
aTrocnrd(T(a roi/3e kvoj^ovtos, v(j) ov (povews dp e^eirvevcras, "by means of 
which, as it seems, (or to my sorrow) you have been slain." Similarly 
in Latin ; Hor. I. Carm. 24, 5 : ergo Quintilium perpetuus sopor urget: 
" So then Quintilius is dead after all !" Cf. Serm. II. 5, 101 (Heindorf. 
p. 376). From this we may see that Dr Cyril Jackson was not so far 
from the truth when he translated Tpwe<s dpa, " the Trojans — God help 
them!" We have the negative root va-, with a weaker inferential sense, 
in w, vvv=na-va, na-va-n, Latin nam, and the direct negative oJ-k, as 
we have before observed, appears as an accusative in ovv=a-na-va-n. 
This last particle always refers to something that has gone before ; it 
takes up what has been said, and continues it; so that the ground- 
meaning is still the same, namely, that of farness. The use of vvv, nun-c 
as particles of time, is to be explained from the feeling that the present 
time is an advanced point in comparison with any preceding time that 
may be spoken of. 

193 There are still other modifications of the idea of distance or 
progression, to which we will now advert. Words with much the 
same signification appear in weaker or stronger forms in the Greek 
language. Thus we have both eVi and elra (comp. dvr\ and aWa), 
drap and avTap, dpa and dpa, ev and elv. The same is the case in San- 
scrit. We find pronominal roots ana and ena, ava and eva, ati and 
eta, which have the same force, for they all alike signify distance. 
Bopp is unquestionably right in comparing en and ati (Demonstra- 
tivstamme, p. 16), which are to be considered as by-forms of elra and 
eta. A comparison of the Sanscrit and Greek enables us to explain the 
Greek and Latin particles en, tju 3 tjvihe, which have occasioned much 



* The phrase rjv dpa may be illustrated by the combination to t'l rjv elvai, by which 
Aristotle, so often signifies the formal cause. 



336 THE NEGATIVE [Book II. 

difficulty to scholars. That en and tjv are identical can scarcely he 
doubted, and we must also recognise the affinity between these parti- 
cles and the Hebrew n2Jl and K> The only question is, how to ex- 
plain ecce, ecguis in Latin, and jutSe in Greek. There is no instance, so 
far as we know, of a change of n into c in the former language, there- 
fore ecce, which is a synonym for en, cannot be a compound of en and 
ce : and the same remark applies to ecguis. We adopt, without hesi- 
tation, the suggestion thrown out by Pott {Etym. Forsch. II. p. 138), 
that the first part of ecce, ecguis, is a pronominal root analogous to the 
Sanscrit eta : comp. iccirco for idcirco, accingo for adcingo, &c. : in fact, 
etguis is often found in old MSS. The pronominal roots eta, ena, 
equally signify distance: they point to the there as removed beyond 
some other point. Now this is the ground-meaning of en and ecce : they 
are particles which are used to attract the hearer's attention to an 
object distinct from him and the speaker, and for this purpose a word 
strongly marking distance would naturally be used, and the element of 
the second pronoun is appended in the case of ec-ce, in order to mark 
the approximation or importance of the distant object to the speaker or 
hearer. As lleiv denotes merely "to see," but lUaQai is "to view for one- 
self," " to see with interest," u to gaze upon" (Kenrick, Herod, p. 48), 
we may understand why llov is so frequently used as an interjectional 
word. The particle t/Vt is related to f\v as w\\ is to niv, and la\ to ttj 
(Pott, I. a). Hartung supposes (Partikeln, I. p. 273 note) that jwSc is 
merely this i/w with the suffix le. Although this is possible, a com- 
parison of 17V llov, which also occurs, of the French voila, of the German 
sieh da ! and of our " lo you there" (look there), inclines us to suppose 
that this word is nothing but a compound of fjv "h, "see there." This 
shows us too that the real meaning of i]v is that of ena ; that in fact it 
is only a pronoun like the Gothic "paruk, " there," which is used by 
Ulphilas to translate l%ov (Grimm, III. p. 172). 

194 To the idea of distance or progression some of the copulative 
conjunctions are also due. The relation which subsists between these 
conjunctions and the demonstrative and relative pronouns in the Latin 
and Greek languages is obvious : tum-tum, are evidently demonstra- 
tives ; guum-quum, que, xa\, and the corrupted form tc, are as clearly 
connected with the relative or interrogative stems. The Latin <7, at 
are to be compared with It*, Sanscrit oft ; en, eJra, are used in Greek 
very much in the same way as the copulative conjunctions. An 
attempt has been made by Herzog (in his edition of Caesar, de Brflo 
Civili, pp. 4, 5), to point out accurately the distinction between the use 
and meaning of the Latin copulative conjunctions. According to him, 



Chap. 4.] AND OTHER PARTICLES. 337 

ac is throughout a logical particle, which places two predicates or ideas 
on the same footing, so that one is equal to the other in the supposed 
relation ; et, on the other hand, is a mere particle of addition : 1 + 1=2: 
atque (which he wrongly supposes to be a combination of ac and que) 
connects two ideas, as cause and effect, antecedent and consequent, or 
conversely. That there is some truth in this appears from the obvious 
etymology of these Latin particles. Ac, however, is clearly a shortened 
form of atque, as nee is of ne-que. The long a is put here by way of 
compensation for the lost dental, and the change from the double sound 
qv to the single c = k, need astonish no one after what has been already 
said on the subject. There appears to have been a great vacillation in 
the use of c and q even by the Latin copyists ; thus in Cicero (pro 
Murwna, II. £25]) eleven MSS. have vero accedam, four others vere 
cuadam, vero cuadam, vero ac eadem, or vero alone; and the Venice 
edition of 1484, has vero ac edam, though the true reading is verba 
qucedam, as Niebuhr has shown (Bheinisch. Mus. for 1827, p. 228). 
The case of cujus, cur, cum, &c. will also be remembered. The first 
syllable of atque is to be compared, like et, at, and the preposition ad, 
with the Greek erz, Sanscrit atl. That these particles contain the 
elements va and ta, appears from the analogy of ev and dvd (§§ 170, 
183), and might be inferred from the Behistun synonym u-ta (Rawlin- 
son, As. Soc. XL 1, p. 80). 

195 In the first chapter of this second book we endeavoured to 
show that the elements of the demonstrative, indefinite, interrogative, 
and relative pronouns are the same, though, in Greek, the radical letter 
varies in an extraordinary manner, being either an aspirate or one of 
the three tenues. The aspirate, the labial, and the guttural are, as we 
have seen, the legitimate offspring of the second pronominal element 
under the form pa, but the dental is simply a degenerate and corrupted 
progeny of the sibilant. The form under which the interrogative ulti- 
mately appears in common Greek, is ti- (tU), or, in Ionic, k- (k$, Kodev, 
&c). Instances of these two forms are the copulative conjunctions tc, 
kul. When we compare ok-kcl &c. with o-re &c, and Tea-crape's, tc, 
with the Sanscrit synonyms chatur, cha, and the Latin quatuor, que, 
and remember the connexion which subsists between cha and the inter- 
rogative stem ha, and between the first part of cha-tur and e-ka, 
English each (comp. qua-tuor and as-quus), we shall find it difficult to 
deny the relationship of re to kuI. Hermann, with a different view, 
has endeavoured to establish the identity of Te, /ceV (which he derives 
from Kai), and ttoJ (kov) in the sense of "perhaps" (de Particuld dv. 
Opusc. IV. p. 4, 9 foil.) : their correspondence, in this respect, can only 

Z 



338 THE NEGATIVE [Book II. 

be explained by the fact which he has overlooked, that they are all 
forms of the indefinite pronoun, and are all used to convey that inde- 
finite idea of locality to which their meaning of doubtfulness is due : 
(tea) k£ 9 kcv, bear the same relation to Kai, that 3e, 8eV, do to 3a/, which, 
like Kai, is never used as an enclitic. In this consists the great dis- 
tinction between re and kcu; re is a mere indefinite, enclitic word, 
always placed after the word to which it refers, whereas ku) is generally 
placed before the words to which it belongs, and is used rather in a 
relative than in an indefinite sense. Though we constantly find tc-kcu, 
we seldom have kcu-tc : the former collocation answers pretty nearly to 
"some where" — "where." The use of the combination nal re is of 
itself a proof of the relative power of kcu, for re is continually found 
in immediate connexion with relative words, as 6's re, ms tc, olo? -re, 
6Vo9 Te, &c. (below, § 197)* 

196 The investigation of the use of copulative conjunctions, or of 
the connexion of sentences, is a question of syntax, on which we must 
make a few remarks, though it may appear at first sight to be in some 
measure foreign to our leading object. When we wish to speak of 
something that happened as subordinate to, or in connexion with, some 
other thing that we are speaking about, we may express this occasion- 
ally by a participle or infinitive mood ; but in by far the majority of 
cases a greater degree of definiteness is required, and then we invariably 
call in the aid of some word of pronominal origin to connect the two 
statements together. These auxiliary words are relatives, whether 
they appear in ths form of adjectives or of adverbs. The correlation of 
two sentences is effected either by placing the relative word in botli 
clauses, as in the Latin qua — qua, Greek kcu — kcu; by placing an inde- 
finite in both sentences, as viri-quc, fcemincv-quc, avtpes re deol tc ; by 
placing the indefinite in the first clause and the relative in the second, 
as in -re — kcu; or, by an inversion common enough in Greek and 
Latin, putting the relative clause first, as in quum — turn ; or, finally, 
by putting a demonstrative in each sentence, as turn — turn, which was 
probably the original formula (above, § 148). The primary mode of 
balancing sentences appears to have been by placing the same particle 
in each clause in order that the similarity of sound might help the ear. 
But, by the same process which led to the division of pronouns into 
definite and indefinite, a distinction was made between the forms as 
stronger and weaker ; the latter preceded, and the office of uniting the 
two parts of the sentence devolved upon the former. 

196 In its usage the Latin enclitic -que corresponds to the Greek 



Chap. 4.] AND OTHER PARTICLES. 339 

-re, though it bears more external resemblance to kcu, or rather to the 
no, which appears in oK-Ka = 6'-Te, tto-ko. = 7ro-Te, €'l-Ka = el-re, Latin 
si-qua. We find this older and more genuine form of the Greek en- 
clitic also in the adverbs avrt-Kct, rrrtjvl-Ka, »;V-k<x, rrjvi-Ka, &c. Bopp 
supposes that the termination of these words is vUa, avrUa being a 
contraction for avTYivUa. The termination vUa he compares with the 
Sanscrit nish, nom. nik " night," which is found in anisham " for ever," 
i.e. "without night" (iiber den Einjluss, &c. p. 10. Vergleich. Gramm. 
p. 614). This is quite inadmissible. Nor can we approve of Butt- 
mann's supposition that the termination is -*«<*, the accusative of an 
obsolete *£, analogous to the Latin via, vices {Lexil. II. p. 227). When 
we compare the vvv, row, i')v, rjvi, mentioned above, and remember that 
Srfv is often used to signify time, and that avn, avre, avdis, &c. occur 
separately, we must conclude that the termination is -/ca. When we 
recollect, too, that the Latin done-c, doni-cum, deni-que, nam-que 
(nem-pe), quando-que, and the Greek o-re, no-re, rd-re, ev-re, &c. are 
also particles expressing time, we are driven to the conclusion that the 
last syllable of avrl-Ka, Trrjv'i-Ka, &c. is also the interrogative stem, 
used as an enclitic like the Latin -que. The same is to be said of the 
termination of rerpd-K^, &c. The compounds oko? (oWok) and o-cppa 
must not be confused with one another : the former is a compound of 
the ordinary relative with the indefinite, the whole being expressed in 
the ablative case, while 8(ppa is the same relative with the suffix Tra-pd, 
the 7r being changed into (p either from the contact with p or by a 
transfer of the initial aspirate. 

197 Although our analysis of the original forms of the pronominal 
roots has led us to consider re as belonging to the interrogatives and 
ultimately to the relatives, we find that this enclitic is constantly used 
in combination with the stronger relative forms o?, kcu, tto-, ko-, o7o?, 
&c, and with the demonstratives to-, to?o?, &c. We need not wonder 
at this, for the stronger form is often placed before the weaker in the 
languages with which we are concerned, especially when the weaker 
form has by mutilation or otherwise lost to any considerable extent its 
external resemblance to the stronger form with which it is connected. 
The addition of the indefinite to the relative occurs more frequently in 
the older than in the more recent Greek writers. The effect of it is 
to give greater emphasis to the relative sentence. We have before 
referred to the mode of expressing the correlation of two sentences by- 
putting the same particle in each. In process of time different varia- 
tions of this practice came in. One of the first would be to place the 
two correlative words together (for instance Kal-nai, qua-qua\ — the 

Z2 



340 THE NEGATIVE [Book II. 

natural consequence of which would be to shorten one of them — and 
then to cause its omission altogether. The sentence : is tibi notus est 
ceque ac mihi might be written is notus est ceque tibi, ceque mihi, or is 
notus est tibi ac mihi. Another step would be to put the indefinite or 
weaker form into the first sentence, and the relative or stronger form 
into the other. An instance of this is the common use of re and kciL 
If, however, it was desired to give particular emphasis to /the relative 
clause, the word which was found in the antecedent clause would 
be repeated in the relative clause, though the relative word alone was 
sufficient to express the general correlation. Thus Iliad XYI. 9 : 
tjvT€ Kovpt] vrjirir], rjd' apa [xaTp\ Qeova dveXecrdai dvwyei elavov oV- 
TOfxevt] Kctl T€ eaovfjievtjv Karepvuei. Xenophon, Anab. II. 1, § 22: 
Ka\ t]/x?v ravrd honei dnrep kci\ fiaaiXe?. Lastly, just as the relative 
adjective is put alone in certain cases without a formal expression of 
the antecedent, the antecedent particle also is omitted ; but to give the 
full definiteness required by the relative sentence, not only the relative 
but the antecedent particle is retained in it. Of this usage of tuu we 
have an infinity of examples even in the Attic writers ; of the separate 
use of tc with the relative words the instances in the Attic writers are 
comparatively rare, with the exception of the combinations a-re, <u?-re, 
olos t€, and to these may be added the analogous compound o?~™, 
which is to be explained by an application of the same principle. 
Old? t el/ju always means, in the Attic writers, " I am able." In the 
older writers olds tc signifies " precisely such," and chiefly appears in 
comparisons. Thus Odt/ss. XXI. 173: to'iov — oldvre pvrijpa fiiov t 
efxevai kci\ oiaTwv. It is quite clear that, though the meaning is idio- 
matically restricted to the idea of ability in the Attic dialect, this 
notion of a comparison is the basis. In that dialect the omission of 
the antecedent clause is more common than in any of the other varieties 
of the Greek language. Such an omission has taken place here, and 
olds t etjou is equivalent to to?os apt, olds tc iroieTv toUto, " I am 
the particular kind of person to do these things/' i. e. " I am calculated 
for the performance of such and such things." In the same way oTos 
koi is also used. We have striking instances of the definiteness thus 
communicated to the relative clause by the addition of re, in oo-oi'-re 
used in definitions of numbers : e.g. Herod. III. 5 : eo» tovto ovk 
oXiyov -ytapiov^ o'\\' oaov re eVi T^els tj/Jiepas d£dv. And in €<p* to Tf, 
which is used to express the terms of a condition. Herod. I. 2£ : »/ 
SiaWa.'yt] <r(pi iyevero, e7r' w rt geivovs d\\tj\ot<ri eivai koi £i 
Like wo-re we find e'0' co re with the indicative as well as with the 
infinitive: comp. Thucyd. I. 103, 113, where we have the future indie. 
"We also find £w\ roTo-he, wV-e (Thucyd. III. 114). The same ex- 



Chap. 4.] AND OTHER PARTICLES. 341 

pression of definiteness is conveyed by -re affixed to temporal particles, 
such as 7ro'-Te, 6-tto-t€, o-re, To-re, 6Kao-To'-T6, &c. And when the 
relative is used, even in Attic Greek, with this temporal reference, the 
•re is sometimes appended, as in iEschyl. Pers. 74*8 : e'f ovtc Tifxt]v 
ZeJ? €fxo\ TrivV cuVacrei/. Eumen. 25 : e£ ovre BctK^at? €<TTparr]<yr]~ 
<rev deo<s. 

198 The enclitic re appears to be used for the relative in h tc, &c; 
the same is the case in the Latin us-que compared with ea>« ol, pexp 1 °"-> & c * 
Tot has no connexion with re ; it is simply a case of the third personal 
pronoun. Its perfect identity with the demonstrative appears from the 
fact that kgu roi and k<x\ TcruTa, are synonyms. English scholars gene- 
rally translate the latter " and this too f a translation which applies to 
very few of the passages in which this combination occurs. It is of 
course the proper rendering in those cases where the pronoun is regu- 
larly declined as an adjective, as, for instance, in Aristoph. Plutus, 545 : 
irtQaKvr]^ irXevpdv, eppwyvlav kcu TavTrjv (where see Dobree's note). 
In general, however, it corresponds exactly to kcu toi and means "al- 
though," "and yet." For instance, in iEschylus {Eumen. 113) it is 
used as a particle with a finite verb: kcu ravra koJ^co? e\ /xeVcoi/ 
dpKvo-fxdrwv wpowev. When it comes after other words, toi is written 
as an enclitic. We do not believe that it ever approached to the in- 
definite meaning which is proper to enclitics, and its appearance at the 
beginning of a sentence in the combinations Totyap, ToiydpToi, and 
even the use of roiwv, prove that it ought not to be considered as a 
merely dependent particle. It is a strictly demonstrative adverb. 

199 The ordinary disjunctive in the Greek language is the simple 
vowel t}. Pott justly remarks (Etym. Forsch. II. p. 321) that the 
number of words of different origin which this same vowel is used to 
represent is a striking proof of the corruptions which have crept into 
the Greek language. He enumerates the following: r\ — axt, Sanscrit 
aha ; r\ = n<x (eram), Sanscrit dsa ; from the same root y = siet, sit ; n 
interjection; tj = Sanscrit sd; but 17 (quce) = Sanscrit yd; and y or 
erj = suce, which is quite different from p = cui feminine. This is suffi- 
cient, he adds, to show that the Greek etymologer cannot expect much 
success if he pays no attention to the cognate languages. According to 
the principle which we have often referred to, we are justified in com- 
paring rj and tjv (in */utc) with the Sanscrit disjunctive vet or vd. With 
regard to the substitution of 17 in Greek for va in Sanscrit, Hartung 
(I. p. 217) properly compares svddu (suavis), tjhvs; vdch (vox), vx*!- 
The following instances belong to what we have called the change of 



342 THE NEGATIVE [Book II. 

place of the digamma: vami, afrjai; aupa, dprjp or r]np, t]ep; aFw'?, 
nw ; vankh, ev-^ofxai ; to which we may add ^'9, e£*, tju, iv, compared 
with the Sanscrit synonym vasu (see Benary, Berlin. Jahrb. Aug. 
1834, p. 230). The Sanscrit va. also signifies "like," "as," and in 
this it coincides with the Greek (prj y or (ptj = a>?, which bears the same 
relation to rj that (ptjfxi does to t]fxi. Buttmann supposes that (prj is 
connected with 7r»7, as (pavos with 7rai/o?, cpdpo-os with pafe, <paiv6\ti$ 
with pcenula, fiagrum with vXriytj (Lexil. I. p. 241). The same seems 
to be the opinion of Miiller (Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, III. p. 770). 
This leads us to the second pronominal stem Fa, or, as it is more 
generally written in Greek, <r<pe. The frequent omission of an initial <r in 
Greek need hardly be mentioned : the following are a few instances out 
of many : <T-/MKp6<;, /juKpos ; snow, v«pd<; ; smile, fxeicidco ; Sanscrit snd, 
vt^ia ; Sanscrit snucd, German schnur, wo<; (Lat. narus) ; somts = svo)ius, 
(pwvfj, &c. (below, p. 364). The shorter Sanscrit form va corresponds to 
the Latin -ve. It is not probable that vel contains the root of telle, as 
Hart ung (II. p. 63) and Pott (II. p. 317) suggest, although it might 
appear so from the frequent use of parts of this verb in connexion with 
relative words, as in quam-vis, qui-vis. The same conclusion might 
seem to be favoured by the assumed connexion between the Hebrew 
•jtf, " or," and the root iTIK, or !"Qi* (cf. irW, and the Latin areo) 
" he desired." But there is no reason to adopt this etymology of l"tf> 
which is much more likely to have been an extension of ^ = ve, or turn, 
to which it bears the same or nearly the same relation as 7& does to 
fc& (Maskil le-Sopher, p. 1 5). In this way, we get back to the second 
pronominal element of which ) is a residuary form. If we contrast 
the distinct meanings of qui-vis and quls-quam, and remember that quam 
is used like rj to connect the two members of a comparison, we shall have 
little difficulty in perceiving that re-l is not connected with volo, but con- 
tains the element va, which we have indentified with >/, and ultimately 
with qua-m. The termination is the intensive element Id = rd, which 
is appended to give a further direction to va. The difference between 
qui-vis and quis-quam is simply this; the former, like qui-libet, means 
" any one selected from any given number/' " any one j/ou jdcase," so 
that all are included in the range of choice; but quisquam, like ullus, 
means "any one at all," the selection not being supposed; in other 
words, quisquam is exclusive*: thus Seneca de Tranquill. 11: euivis 
potest accidere, quod cuiquam potest. That -piam may be identical with 



* It is a remarkable proof of the laxity of modern Latin scholarship that all the 
recent editors, so far as we know, acquiesce in : e t latus Oceano quisquam Deus adboema 
junxit (Ovid, Fast. V. 21). It is manifest that quisquam is inadmissible here, and we 



Chap. 4.] AND OTHER PARTICLES. 343 

quam in signification, as it is in origin, would appear from Cicero {in 
Verrem Actio, II. Lib. I. c. 10) : nego esse quicquam a testibus dictum, 
quod aut vestrum cuipiam esset obscurum aut cujusquam oratoris elo- 
quentiam qucereret. Practically the substantive quisquam, like the 
adjective ullus, is confined to sentences which are formally or virtually 
negative. It is a mistake to suppose that ali-quis can ever be rendered 
by the English word " any," or that it is ever equivalent to quispiam, 
as Heindorf supposes (on Hor. Sat. I. 4, 35, p. 95)- All compounds 
with ali- (ali-quis, ali-quot, ali-quando, ali-cubi, &c.) are definite, and 
must be rendered by the English word " some." So that aliquis ap- 
proaches more nearly in meaning to quidam, than to quis-piam, which 
usually means "any one in general," rather than "some one in par- 
ticular," which is the force of aliquis and quidam. It is remarkable, 
however, that aucun, which must have been originally aliquis unus, 
performs the same functions as quisquam: for non vidi quenquam 
might be rendered : je nai vu aucune personne. 

200 There can be no doubt that the disjunctive fj is the same word 
as the if used in comparisons. That a comparison presumes a disjunc- 
tion, or difference, appears from the use of the genitive in Greek and 
Italian, and the ablative in Latin and Sanscrit, after comparatives. 
The same disjunctive force of the comparison is shown also by the 
following phenomena, some of which have been brought forward by 
Hartung (II. p. 68). In the proper correlation of sentences, the same 
word is placed in both the clauses: thus we have tj — tj, aut — aut, 
alius — alius, in disjunctions ; now aliud loquitur aliud sentit is equi- 
valent to aliud loquitur quam sentit, and als in German is a substitute 
for quam. From this it might be inferred that there is some connexion 
between the disjunctive or comparative tj and the disjunctive or negative 
av, aut, ovk, a-va, into which an element, apparently the same, enters. 
We have before mentioned that there are two stems, both written va, 
one of which is an approximate vocalization of the first pronominal 
element, the other a mutilation of the strongest form of the second. 
Now, as we have already seen, av = a-va = a-po ; and therefore this use 
of va points to the vocalization of pa = ma. There is every reason to 
believe, on the other hand, that the disjunctive and comparative i}=va is 
simply the second or relative pronoun. In Latin the clause compared 
is connected with the clause on which it depends by a case of the 



propose to read quisquis, with the punctuation : et latas Oceano, quisquis Deus advena, 
junxit, i.e. "whatever God happened to come up." Cf. Plautus, Amphitr. 1.1, 156: 

nuismiis Tinmn htif iipnprlt mmnns Pilot- 



quisquis homo hue venerit, pugnos edet. 



344 THE NEGATIVE [Book II. 

relative, and the Sanscrit vd, when it means " in which manner/' is 
clearly relative. Besides, if there were any really negative or dis- 
junctive force in this rj = va, the Greeks would not have added the 
strong negative ov to the disjunctive rj when they wished to express 
that the second proposition in a comparison was not or ought not to 
be entertained. This construction is very common after the compara- 
tive fxdXXou, after which we find ov as well as rj whenever it fa intended 
to express that the second alternative is very much to be preferred to 
the first, in which case, naturally enough, a negative, interrogative, or 
some word expressing extreme disapprobation, is invariably found in 
the first clause. Thus Thucyd. III. 36: wfxov to fiovXev/xa ko.\ /xeya 
eyvoocrdai ttoXiv oXrjv cicMpdeTpat /xaXXou rj ov tov<; cut'iovs, which, as 
Hermann rightly observes (ad Sophocl. Aj. 1260), is equivalent to ov 
tou? alriovs aXXa fxaXXov ty\v ttoXiv bXrjv, for, as we have said above, 
the word of the second clause in correlated sentences is only a substitute 
for the word in the former clause, which is here naXXov — fxaXXov b\. 
tto'a., ov fxaXXov r. air. Other instances are Thucyd. II. 62 ; Herod. 
IY. 118, V. 94, VII. 16; Demosth. p. 1198, 1. 14, p. 1200, L 12, 
p. 1226, 1. 23; Aristot. Eth. IV. 1 ; where /xaXXov ij ov seems to have 
coalesced into one word. 

The genitive case, which expresses removal, is, as is well known, 
also used in the second term of the comparison ; the meaning of the 
prepositions -rr-Xij-v, irapd, which express the idea of removal from the 
subject, is also contained in the comparative termination --re-po?. The 
particle quam, used to connect comparisons in Latin, is, like kcv, the 
locative of the elementary interrogative. In this particle comparison 
only, not difference, is implied : non mcherculc qu'ulquam libemtiut 
facio, quam ad te scribo, is perfectly equivalent to u where or when 
there is an opportunity of writing to you, I would not exchange that 
for any employment." In the same way wan, also connected with the 
relative, is used in middle New German (Grimm, III. p. 183, 2S3). 
Our than, only another way of spelling then, is more nearly connected 
with the demonstrative, and expresses, like the Greek comparative 
termination, that in the given relation that which is mentioned in the 
second clause comes after that which is mentioned in the first : " Peter 
is greater than John," i.e. "Peter is greater, then (comes) John." 
Although relative words are not directly used to connect the terms of a 
comparison in Greek, we see traces of the feeling, which led to their use 
in other languages, in such phrases as fxci^mv tj kot avOpwrov, dda-a-ov 
$ w — j KdKiitiv t] wcrre — , where the difference is expressed as well as 
the likeness, just as the genitive, which expresses resemblance or com- 
parison, as well as separation and disjunction, is used after ij: Soph. 



Chap. 4.] AND OTHER PARTICLES. 345 

Antig. 1281 ; rl B' eWTv aZ kolkiov r} kclkwv en; of which however a dif- 
ferent interpretation may be given (see our note on the passage). 

201 *H is found in immediate conjunction with fxev, Be, S17. 'H^ieV 
— tile are not disjunctives, but copulatives, signifying "both — and;" 
>? in this combination is, therefore, to be compared with the use of the 
Sanscrit vd for "as;" — "as in the first place — so in the second place." 
Of fxev — Be it is unnecessary to add much to what has been already 
said. They are generally and properly correlatives, though sometimes 
TrAt/V, " farther," cl\\o, " another," are substituted for Be, to which their 
meaning is very much akin. As a general rule, oAAa is opposed not to 
pev, but to ov, just as sondern in German expresses the opposition to a 
negative, and we often find a sentence in which oJk, aAAa, are opposed, 
including two others which contain an opposition of pev, Be. Thus 
Eurip. Med. 555 : 

oJy, 1/ (rv KvifjEi — <rov jxev e^Oatpiov Ae^o? 

Kaivrjs he vv/j(pr]$ i^epco iretrXtj^ixevo^ — 

aAA' to? k. t.A. 
"HBi; is almost always used as an expression of time. To explain the 
word properly, we must enter at some length upon an investigation 
into the formation and meaning of its second syllable Itj, a particle of 
great importance. Hartung's account of lij (Partikeln, I. p. 222 — 
322) is about the worst specimen of etymological analysis we ever met 
with. He considers 17B1; as prior to £1; (p. 245), refers all the meanings 
to a temporal one, and derives the second syllable from the Sanscrit 
root signifying " day" (p. 223 foil.), which is as objectionable as Bopp's 
derivation of the ending -w-k« from niskam, nox. We have before 
shown that the idea of intervals or positions belongs to the primary 
thought-form of space, and that the words by which this idea is con- 
veyed are pronouns, that is, words indicating position. Such a prono- 
minal word is 3e, which, we have seen, indicates relative nearness, and 
therefore enters into the second personal pronoun, the second numeral, 
and a number of other pronominal words conveying the same idea. 
That such a pronominal word should be used to express " what is near 
to the now " as well as " what is near to the here" is only what we 
should expect ; and this is the full extent to which the idea of time 
enters into Si;, and #Si;. We have before pointed to the connexion be- 
tween this root and the preposition lid. The idea of duration is 
derived from that of division or passing through, and thus it is that diu 
signifies both length of time generally, and also the particular length of 
a day (inter-diu, compare inter-dum, where the root retains its more 
general meaning) ; it is, therefore, more than probable that the Latin 



346 THE NEGATIVE [BookIL 

dies, the Sanscrit diva, dyu, &c, are connected with this pronominal 
root, just as we have already seen that other words of the same kind 
are manifestly of pronominal origin ; but to say conversely that a word 
like 3»/', which enters into such a vast number of combinations, which 
very often has not the slightest reference to time, and which is so obvi- 
ously connected with an extensive class of pronominal roots, is derived 
from such a secondary idea as that of "day," is opposeoY to all the 
principles of a systematic analysis of language. Hartung supposes 
(I. p. 230) that jam is connected with dies, Sanscrit dyas, on the ana- 
logy of Jovis for Djovis, &c. It is clear, on the contrary, that jam is 
merely the locative of the stem Fa, and bears the same relation to piam 
that ld\\w does to (ptaWw. It appears also as the dissyllable iam. 

202 In the temporal sense the root c- appears also under the 
form Itjv, which generally signifies " long." This same word appears 
in Latin, under the lengthened form dent, which bears the same relation 
to htjv, that r\v'i, vw\ do to rju, vvv. The word denique might be written 
hr}vUa, in conformity with avrUa, qwiita, 7n]viKa, and oirrjviKa, though 
it appears from a comparison of the synonyms rtj/xo^, demus (demum), 
that Tt]vi-Ka is the Greek form of deni-que, by a corruption similar to, 
but not so great as, that by which the enclitic tc has been formed 
from the regular stem of the second element. There is, in fact, no 
absolute reason why da should not be a regular variety of the third 
element, but in the Greek language I and 6 seem to approach in pro- 
nunciation to the sibilant o- more nearly and frequently than the tenuis 
t, which is changed into o- rather than derived from it. Thus ci, 6i, 
hold their ground, but ti generally becomes <rt. It is owing to this 
that I- has become the consistent representative of the second numeral 
in all those cases where it has superseded the second pronoun. Ar, 
lev, It], Stjv, are related just as jue, nev, fxtj, fxtjv ; and it is singular 
enough that the last word of each set has the most direct reference to 
time, and the third words of each set are particularly opposed to one 
another, for ju»; expresses a doubt, and Itj, confirmation. The opposition 
of jueV, fxe, lev, he, has been interfered with by causes to which we have 
before directly referred. 

The first part of the compound >;?»/ is the same as that of »/'ue»', tjce ; 
also, we believe, as that of ^uoc, which has no immediate connexion with 
VIActp, ij/jLepa. In the other compounds ct) stands first. Of Bifri*, and its 
connexion in meaning with lel<?, we have already spoken : cij-ra is of 
perfectly analogous formation: we may compare e\-r t \ uTa; IneiTe, 
eTreii-a ; evexe, ev6ko, which fully explain the termination -ra. The 
termination of l>j6ev is not so easilv accounted for: hj&ev is generally 



Chap. 4.] AND OTHER PARTICLES. 347 

used in a sort of ironical signification (irpoo-jroi^a-iv aXrjBelas e^et, Su- 
vafiiv he \j/€vhov<;, Snidas) ; this signification is also generally borne by 
Otjv, which is obviously connected with 6ev as jueY with \xr\v, and lev 
with 6rju. That this termination is essentially the same with that sign 
of the genitive case, which we have before explained, is self-evident, in 
spite of Hartung's arbitrary assertion that they are totally distinct 
(I. 317): the old grammarians understood this when they translated 
ZrjOev and htjirovdev by evTeZ6ev and em rti/os tottov. If we compare 
evda, evravda, eWe, Ifjda, with the words before us, we must be con- 
vinced that these terminations differ from the second syllable of Ifjdeu 
only in the absorption or absence of the locative ending v (above, 
p. 1 79)« If now we recur to what we said before of the genitive ending 
6ev, and of the omission of the aspiration in that case (p. 275), we 
must admit that the terminations -tce, -da, are only softened forms of 
the second pronoun in the ultimate forms dva, dya. That there is 
some sympathy between 6 and y appears from %0es compared with 
hyas, and that 6a is in fact a representative of the second personal 
pronoun is clear from the forms olo--da, k\v-0i 9 &c. The ironical 
use may be easily explained by the sense "only/' which is nothing 
but a mark of position, and which seems to pervade the Greek as 
well as the Latin words into which this root enters : e'l 6e, " I wish 
that " = " if only !" = " if in this particular." Compare the similar use 
of 7r<o5 av. The termination of peraQ is the same as Be, 6a : comp. 
Zeus with 6e6s. We shall see by and by that this same root with the 
sense of position enters into the large class of words to which 0eo? 
belongs. We may compare lijvre, SeGVe, with qvre, evre, and Tpwv/jLa, 
Tpadfxa. There is no need to suppose, with Apollonius and Hartung, 
that the first is a contraction of ly and auVe, although such compounds 
were common enough ; take, for instance, TrjviKavra from TrjvtKa. 

The Latin set of words into which this root enters very often have 
o or u instead of the Greek e, rj. They use donee by the side of deni- 
que, dum with Itju (dum-taxat involves a verb; see Varronianus, 
p. 181), and -do as a termination in quan-do, which may be compared 
with tadd, " then," yadd, " when," kadd, " when," in Sanscrit. The 
coincidence in meaning between the Greek and Latin appearances of 
this root is very striking : it is to be remarked, however, that in Latin 
it is very often placed after the word to which it immediately refers, 
while in the same case it precedes in Greek : thus Sifm answers exactly 
in meaning to qui-dam. In tan-dem, and deni-que, we see that this 
root may be placed before, as well as after, the syllable to which it 
refers, and that too in synonyms. Another word of the same signifi- 
cation is demum, which, according to Festus, was also written demus 



348 THE NEGATIVE [Book II. 

(comp. rursum, rursus), and which corresponds exactly to the Greek 
TJ7M05 opposed to yfxos. The use of i-dem, tanti-dem^ toti-dem, is just 
the same as that of civtos htj, oa-ov 8^', olov htj^ &c. in Greek. All the 
meanings of 8*7, dem, &c. may be deduced from the naturally intensive 
use of a word marking location with emphasis. 

A great many of the uses of Itj correspond to those of ^rep, 
which we have explained before as a word signifying "throughly," 
"entirely," and thus it is that Kai irep corresponds so exactly with e/u 
7ras (eV iraa-i). The m, v, or i/<, which is found in words from this root 
is the mark of the locative case. The form -de which is found as a 
termination in Latin (in-de, quam-de) corresponds to -da in eVfla, &c, 
and is another proof of the connexion of that termination with the 
root of the second personal pronoun. 

203 If we compare ye, 7a, with kc, k«, we must feel disposed to 
seek for some connexion between these forms ; we shall now endeavour 
to establish by proofs our assertion, that such a connexion does in fact 
subsist. The Latin qui-dem, which corresponds to ye, or rather to ye 
htj, in almost every respect, and which is obviously a compound of the 
relative stem qufy and the 6fc-stem which we have just discussed, 
proves that there is some affinity between the meanings of these con- 
cessive particles and that of the relative, which indeed might be shown 
directly, for e'l kc and siqua are as nearly as possible equivalent to el ye 
and si quidem. In fact, we believe that, in Attic Greek, ye, which was 
much more frequently used by the more modern than by the more 
ancient writers, actually stands as the successor and substitute of K-e, 
which never appears in that dialect. In other languages of the Indo- 
Germanic family, the words which correspond to ye are manifestly con- 
nected with the relative and demonstrative stems. Thus, in German 
we have ja as a synonym of ye in its common sense of "yes" by the 
side of jener, a synonym of neTvos, the connexion of which with <e has 
been before pointed out. We do not concur with Hartung in recognis- 
ing the identity of ayav and the Sanscrit sa/m (I. p. 228) ; the first 
syllable of the Greek word is not the collective but the intensive a. 
The second syllable, in the Sanscrit word, is a pronominal root inti- 
mately connected with the relative, and is the same which appears in 
the first personal pronoun a-ha-m, which we have before explained : so 
that, in their existing state, at least, a-ha-m, e-yw-v, and a-ya-v are 
only different forms of the same word. It is remarkable that in San- 
scrit there is a particle hi which corresponds very nearly in its use to 
ye. That this is only another form of hii cannot be doubted, and thus 
we have an additional proof of the connexion of the relative with ye. 



Chap. 4.] AND OTHER PARTICLES. 349 

We shall have further remarks to make on this particle hi when we 
come to the verbal-endings. Hartung's supposition (I. p. 352), that 
fa- is a by-form of dyav and an older form of ye (p. 357), is not to 
be entertained ; for we think we have shown pretty clearly that fa- is 
only another form of hd. The Anglo-Saxon gea, our " yea," is, like 
the German ja, another form of ye, and indeed a tolerably near ap- 
proximation to it. 

204 That the common inferential particle yap involves the same 
root as ye, yd, is sufficiently obvious, and scholars have generally 
endeavoured to explain it as a compound of ye and apa, just as yovv is 
made up of ye and ovv. We have before pointed out the meaning of the 
pronominal stem a'-, aV-, or i/a, signifying distance, removal, &c, and its 
use as a negative ; also we have said generally that the termination -pa 
indicates motion, and is consequently joined to the third pronominal root 
Ta-, to denote "beyond:" in which sense it is used as a comparative 
ending. As an ending with this sense we find not only re-pos, but 
also the simple -pos, and we have not only apa, but also the simple pa. 
Thus, we have ira-pd, and tva-ra instead of tara in the fourth numeral. 
Similarly, in the older English writers, we have where as well as whe- 
ther : e.g. "but where I be as true begot or no" {King John, Act I. 
Sc. 1). With our modern where, signifying merely the relation of 
place, we may contrast the Sanscrit ku-tra, and the Latin trans, 
ul-tra, &c, in which the stronger comparative ending is used without 
any immediate reference to the comparative degree. As a general rule 
we have the shorter form in re, er as the sign of the comparative in the 
Teutonic languages, so that ra may fairly be considered as a compara- 
tive suffix. For this reason also, as we have seen, words like Xvrr-po^, 
pax-pos, which have a comparative meaning, throw off the termination 
when they assume the comparative ending -icov. Thus too we have 
a-pa = av-pa as well as a-Te-p = av-Tep. It is the merest trifling to say 
that pa is a contraction of apa ; it is found in the oldest authors by 
itself, and has every right to be considered as ancient as the compound 
into which it enters. Nay, more ; it is compared through its degrees 
paov, pao-ros, just like pd\a, paWou, paXiara. The words, in which 
it is found as a stem in the different Indo-Germanic languages, show at 
once that its meaning must be that which we have assigned to it. In 
Greek it is found in pew, pahios, peirta, &c, in Latin in rapio, rapidus, 
prefix re-, &c, in the old Norse ras, Anglo-Saxon raes, Swedish rasa, 
German rasch, rauschen. The difference in meaning between dpa and 
pa, appears to us to be merely this, that in the former the notion of 
farness is combined with that of motion, in much the same way, 



350 THE NEGATIVE [Book II. 

though more emphatically, than in the comparative ending -Tepo*, 
while in pa the idea of motion, proceeding, &c. remains alone. It is 
for this reason that pa is never employed to express a direct inference, 
i. e. a going farther in reference to, and in consequence of what has gone 
before, which is the common use of dpa. TVe have before mentioned 
the intimate relationship of the negative and inferential particles. It 
arises, as before stated, from the idea of distance implied in^the former. 
Another form of dvd, namely dvev (iEolic avis), is used as a synonym 
of d-re-p, which, as we have just remarked, is only a stronger form of 
a-pa. If we are right in our conclusion that d-rep was originally 
av-rep, it must be the same preposition as the Sanscrit an-tar, Lat. 
in-ter (above, p. 287), Germ, un-ter*. That the ideas of distance, sepa- 
ration, and evanescence, are cognate, is sufficiently obvious. Compare, 
however, the uses of the Latin prefix se-=sed and sine ; and for the affi- 
nity of inter, and anter, " under," we have the cognate significations of 
inter-Jicio and pessum-do. In a similar manner, a slight modification of 
the second syllable of aWu, namely, w», vvv, is used as a synonym of dpa, 
i. e. in an inferential sense, just as nam, nempc = namque, are used in 
Latin. The use of the second syllable of d-vd, under the lengthened 
form of «/»;', val, as a strong affirmative particle, corresponds to the 
similar use of £»/', cat, just as the strong form of w», vvv, i. e. vvv, corre- 
sponds to hj, when that particle is used to mark a point of time. 

205 The hypothetical particle el is intimately connected in mean- 
ing with the relative. The meaning "if" = "in which" would at once 
lead us to imagine a connexion between the relative and demonstrative, 
and the " if." The use of clearly demonstrative or relative words in 
the Indo-Germanic languages, as hypothetical particles, is an addi- 
tional proof that el must be a case of the pronoun 1. The only difficulty 
is occasioned by the appearance of the form a<\ as an equally old par- 
ticle with el. We might be inclined to suppose, from a comparison of 
the iEolic forms ura'tva, cpdaipuy, with the common forms rretMt, (pBe'ipw, 
that the difference is merely a dialectical one : but the forms ctmmp, &c, 
seem to have arisen from an insufficient perception for the finer shades 
of vocalization, which requires that in heavy forms like these the 
lightest vowel should be employed, whereas al seems to be a really 
stronger and less degenerated form than el. 

ft o 

That there is some difference between el and al, farther appears 
from the fact, that Homer uses both forms, and with a slight but 



* This view is farther supported by the Behistun atar for inter ; see Rawlinson. 
As. Soc. XI. 1. p. 4. 



Chap. 4.] AND OTHER PARTICLES. Sol 

decided difference of meaning, al being used principally in connexion 
with ydp, k€, and 6e, and not by itself as a mere ordinary hypothetical 
particle. In the Boeotian dialect, we find, singularly enough, that not 
only is r\ occasionally written et, as in SvedeiKe for dvedt]Ke, fxe\ for /it}, 
ivthei for eiredtj, &c. (Bockh, Corpus Inscrlpt. I. p. 720), but also 
conversely, el is written r], as in : r\ Ze kol Tt<? [7rpaT] Ty to iwofxiov Eu- 
/3ft)\oi/ (Bo'ckh, Corp. Inscrlpt. I. p. 741, No. 1569, 1. 48) ; moreover rj is 
also a representative of at (Bockh, Corp. Inscript. I. p. 722), so that 
no argument for the difference can be derived from this dialect. If 
however we may read fiaUa, idv, Kpr]Te<?, for the gloss ficunav, Kprjres, 
in Hesychius (see Kdn, ad Greg. Cor. p. 114), and compare the old 
Latin form sua?, = <rpai (sua? pis = siquis ; Miiller, Etrusker, Vol. I. 
p. 31, Note 62) with the other Latin forms si, se, set, we may perhaps 
be disposed to conclude that the form al is derived more from the 
stronger form of the second element Fa, el from the mutilated form T, 
which, however, is ultimately traceable to the same origin. This will 
account for the more common union of al with relative particles in 
Homer, though, as we have seen, the weaker form el occasionally exerts 
an attractive influence on nev, and even on dv. The conditional particle 
in most of the Indo-Germanic languages appears to have a connexion 
with the relatives. Compare in Sanscrit ya-dl " if," ya-dl-va " or " 
(si-ve) with yat = quod, ya-tas = 66ev, ya-dd = oTe: also Gothic ja- bal, 
Frisic jef, Anglo-Saxon glf, Old German i-hu, ubi, Lettish ja, Finnish 
yos, all signifying "if" = "in which or in that case or supposition." 
The termination bai, appears to be the same as the Latin bl, Greek 
-(pi, both locative endings (Quarterly Review, Vol. LVII. p. 105). It 
is an important principle of syntax that the conditional clause or pro- 
tasis is a relative sentence, the antecedent, when expressed, being the 
particle dv in the apodosis (above § 186; Greek Grammar, articles 
396, 501); and we thus see that the etymological result corresponds 
exactly to the syntactical or logical deduction. 



BOOK III. 



THE NOUN. 



Aa 



THE 

NEW CRATYLUS. 



BOOK III. 



THE NOUN. 



CHAPTER I. 
THE ROOTS OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 

206 Definition of a root. 207 The roots of words did not exist separately and 
before the words in which they are found. 208 Quasi-monosyllabic roots are 
really compounds. 209 The same remark is applicable to the triliteral roots 
of the Semitic family. 210 Internal modifications of Indo-Germanic roots. 
211 I. Reduplication. 212 II. Prefixes consisting of single letters. 213 Some 
of these are prepositions. 214 III. Assimilation. 215 (1) Assimilation pro- 
per and absorption. 216 (2) Substitution of crar or ^ for a consonant and i. 
217 (3) Introduction or interpolation of symphonic consonants. 218 Digres- 
sion respecting a>/3\u?, and KaTtip-rvKMs. 219 (4) Affections of the final con- 
sonant of the root. 220 Arbitrary duplications of liquids. 221 Dissimilation 
and metathesis. 222 IV. Vowel changes. (1) Weight of vowels. 223 (2) 
Adscititious vocalization. 224 Significance of roots. 225 Metaphysical and 
historical differences. 226 Dissection of words, in order to arrive at the root. 

206 TN a language, which, like the Greek, admits of inflexion 
_L and composition without limit, we find in every word 
that expresses a conception, whether it be a noun or a verb, 
some prefix, suffix, or both, common to it, and to a great num- 
ber of other words, from which it essentially differs in meaning ; 
and, when these adjuncts are removed, there generally remains, 
if the word be not a compound, some single syllable which 
constitutes its meaning, and which again, with occasional slight 
modifications, runs through another set of words, differing from 
the one in question in prefix, suffix, or both, but agreeing with 
it in the fundamental signification. This ultimate element we 

Aa2 



356 THE ROOTS OF [Book III. 

call the root, or, if we may be permitted to borrow the termi- 
nology of mathematical analysis, and apply it to philology, we 
may say that every word is & function, the root being the inde- 
pendent variable, and the prefixes and suffixes the constants. 

207 When we talk of the roots of words, we dp not mean 
to say that words are derived from them, or that they ever 
existed separately. If we did we must fall into the absurdity 
of deriving all languages from a few primitive syllables, an 
absurdity for which Murray has been so justly derided. Like 
the common parts in things generically the same, they are 
created by our powers of abstraction and generalization, they 
have only a subjective existence, and to speak otherwise of them 
would be the excess of realism. Everything is conceived as 
existing or happening in space or time, and therefore, as has 
been shown, the element indicating the conception must always 
have, subjoined to it, some element denoting position, that is, at 
least one pronominal stem, before it can be considered as a word. 
That any hypothesis of the separate and primary existence of 
roots must lead to the merest trifling, is clear from the absur- 
dities into which Lennep and Scheide have fallen, in their 
attempt to carry out Hcmsterhuis' principle, that the primitive 
verbs consisted of two or three letters, from which the complete 
words, as we have them, were formed. It is, of course, of the 
utmost importance that we should analyze and compare words, 
so as to arrive at their primary elements, just as it is necessary 
that the philosopher should seek for the real definition ; but there 
is no more truth in saying that the bare roots, which form the 
materials of inflected language, ever existed separately, than there 
would be in asserting that the world was once peopled with 
aurocKaara, whose fossile remains, forsooth, the geologers have 
as yet failed to discover. 

When we thus deny the separate existence of roots, it may 
be objected to us, that some languages, the Chinese for instance, 
are entirely made up of naked roots. But then it must be 
recollected, that these roots are mutilated words which have in 
all probability lost their original inflexions, and that we are not 
speaking of tertiary idioms in which there is no such thing as 
flexion or etymology, but of perfect languages like those of the 
Indo-Germanic family, which are based upon monosyllabic r 



Chap. 1.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 357 

adapted for composition, and only appearing in connexion with 
at least some pronominal element*. 

208 Many syllables terminating with a consonant are called 
roots of Indo-Germanic words. It must be recollected, however, 
that no consonant can be pronounced without a vowel, and that 
every such final consonant of a root was originally a distinct 
syllable; so that all roots terminating in consonants must be 
considered as dissyllabic, and, therefore, as compound roots. In 
such compounds not only is the second vowel suppressed, but 
also, in some cases, the first, and thus too there are apparently 
monosyllabic roots ending in a vowel, which are nevertheless 
dissyllabic (see Lepsius, Palaograplrie, p. 65). An instance to 
the point is furnished by the root ktc-, the first vowel of which 
is never inserted in Greek, though it appears distinctly enough 
in the Semitic synonyms ^{Qp, itop, \ 3 j ) A\£ f i^&s, &c. When 
the second consonant is a liquid, nothing is more common than 
the metathesis of the vowel, according to the principle men- 
tioned above (§ 107). We have an example in the root yev-, 
which sometimes appears as yve- : compare e-yev-6-fxrjv, yi- 
yvoniai ; genitus, gigno ; and the Sanscrit jan, jajnati. In 
the form ^a* °f ye-yaa, &c. the v has evanesced, according 
to the common practice (above, § 114). It will be under- 
stood, then, that when we call <W- the root of Iolk-v-w, tvtt- of 
TV7T-T-0), (pvy- of (pevyw, irpay- of irpdaarw, ktc- of ktcivco, 
&e., we are not speaking of the ultimate element of these words, 
but of that root, which, though a secondary one, forms the base of 
a large class of words, and of which the real ultimate elements 
are not known or not taken into the account. It is these quasi- 
monosyllabic roots which it is so difficult to recognise in conse- 
quence of the changes which the terminations produce upon them. 

209 It is usual to speak of the triliteral elements of the 
Semitic languages as roots or ultimate forms of words. On this 
subject we have only to repeat what we have elsewhere had 



* It is right to mention that, while the true theory, as we consider it, 
has been carried too far by Bopp, other modern philologers have en- 
deavoured to find a philosophical foundation for what is in fact a repro- 
duction of the antiquated hypothesis (see for example Bunsen, Brit. Assoc. 
1847, p. 293). 



358 THE ROOTS OF [Book III. 

occasion to state {Maskil le-Sopher, p. 36, seq.), namely, that 
if assuming, as a general view of all languages entitles us to 
assume, that the languages of the Semitic tribes were originally 
endued with a living power of flexion from single significant ut- 
terances, we were to inquire what process of mutilation would 
most naturally ensue from the early use of writing, and those 
ethnical admixtures to which we have adverted i& a former 
chapter ($ 49), we could hardly imagine any other state of things 
than that which is exhibited by the Hebrew language. We 
observe here a regular preference for words of a certain length, 
and we must suppose that this craving after a symmetry of 
rhythm could only have arisen, when the gradual loss of a living 
etymology had reduced compounds and derivative forms of words 
to the mere units or terms of a logical proposition. Under these 
circumstances, it is probable that euphony would take the place 
of any previous feeling for the significance of the constituent 
parts of a word; and in the pollarding process, which was gra- 
dually introduced, the parts omitted were often at least as sig- 
nificant as those which were retained ; for when the etymological 
value of a language is at a discount, all syllables are alike except 
so far as they minister to or oppose a conventional euphony. 
To the same obtuseness of etymological discrimination we must 
attribute another phenomenon, which is very observable in the 
Hebrew language, namely, that different meanings of the same 
word, from being at first indicated by mere modifications of sound, 
are ultimately represented by different words. The same euphony, 
however, which leads to the mutilation of more complex words, 
also obliges us, in certain cases, to elongate, or otherwise make 
the most of simple crude-forms; and thus it happens that the 
Hebrew language often preserves the truest and fullest forms of 
certain important roots, or quasi-roots, which it has in common 
with the Indo- Germanic idioms. We will give a few examples of 
these linguistic phenomena, which are very instructive with re- 
ference to our immediate object, (a) We should not at first sight 
recognise the identity of IDS and fiavOdvw, but it is demonstrable. 
In its pi n hel, or causative form, 12% the Hebrew verb signifies 
" to teach," or " to cause learning to pass on to another ;* but 
this leaves the inference, that in its primary use it signified " to 
learn.' 1 Supposing, then, that the first syllable is the preposi- 
tion b = dvd, the extensive use of which we have already men- 
tioned, the monosvllabic root of the verb is ID, winch is found 



Chai>. I.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 359 

with the same meaning in nxaQ-eiv, (jltj^-oiucu, /urjSos, wris, irpo- 
fjLrjQevs, &c., in the Latin med-itari, and in the Sanscrit medha. 
In the word nf&, " he took/' which we at once identify with the 
Greek Xa^elv, euphony has called into play the residuum of 
some pronominal adjunct, analogous to that which supports the 
conjugation of Xa-y-xa-vco, and in some of the forms, e. g. the 
imperat. Tip, this affix is retained at the expense of the radical *?. 
If we compare y$ov7ros with ciovwos, ktvttos with r V7rrw, Kprjvr], 
Kpovvos with pew, &c. we shall probably recognise in these prefixes 
a remnant of the preposition e/c or ef . The same may have been 
the case with ^TH, " great," compared with ^oXi^os, Russian 
ddlgye, &c. ; but the Hebrew euphony employs the prefix as 
equally significant with the root of the word. Again, the very 
common verb jro, " he gave," must be considered as a compound 
of the preposition 3 = b and the root ]D found with an affix in the 
synonym rwfi, "porrexit," and in the Indo-Germanic reiva), 
Tavva), teneo, tendo, Sanscrit tanomi, German dehnen, which again 
are formatives from a root tcl- still found in Greek. The im- 
perative jFi exhibits the simpler root without any prefix, and the 
construct-infinitive J1D entirely disguises the common or elongated 
form of the Hebrew verb. In ^2"3 we have the same root as in 

T T 

/alio, "fall," but, as in the Greek cr-(pdW(a, the prefix is in- 
separably connected with the root. The same remark applies to 
N2-0, Nl~3, which may be compared with <prj-/tii, fari, fatum, 
vates, 7rpo-<pt]Tt]s. In yrr 1 ?, yn"D, and yn~2, we have the same 
root, yn, which is also found in the Latin quatere, the German 
quetschen, and in our quash, s-quash, s-queeze. The preposi- 
tional affixes, of which the first and third must be considered as 
identical, modify very slightly the signification of the compounds, 
and yet, according to the Jewish grammarians, they are three 
separate roots, (b) This brings us to the second class of pheno- 
mena. An example of this is furnished by the root vid-, which, 
in Latin, denotes " to divide," and " separate " (as in di-vido, 
idus, vid-uus) ; hence, " to distinguish," or " to see" {video). We 
have the latter sense in the Greek i§e!v = FiSe'lv, and an exten- 
sion to the sense " to know " in olSa, Now in Hebrew we have 
bl2, "he divided," and by the side of this the entirely distinct word 
JTT, "he knew," containing the same root slightly disguised. 
Then, again, there can be no doubt that the important verb yw m \ 



360 THE ROOTS OF [Book in. 

" he was open and unconfined," contains the same root as VyttN 
" he opened," and b~)W, " hollow/' ko7\os. And we must suppose 
that nN"), " he saw," (o-pdw) is really connected with n>H, " he 
looked after a flock of sheep, went about with them, and tended 
them," the more immediate analysis of which leads us to )H (cf. 
erro, eppeiv, and the roots pa or peF) ; and we find a further 
transition in !p— T, " a road " (Maskil le-Sopher, p. 40). (c) The 
cases in which the Hebrew euphony has preserved the fullest forms 
of Indo-Germanic roots or quasi-roots, are very numerous. A few 
specimens must suffice. By the side of KaXew, /ce'Xo/acri, KeXevw, 
k\vo) 9 /cXe'Fo?. &c, calare, cliens, in-clytus, &c. we have the 
Hebrew hi'p or Sip, which shows us that the initial must have 
been originally a compound of guttural and labial — in fact, the 
sound F or q. The same inference might, perhaps, be derived 
from the Anglo-Saxon gyllan, and our yell: and we are thus 
enabled to pass on to the connexion between &"]p, Kpd-Zw. ktj- 
puacTco, yrjpus, &c. Again, we have probably the more original 
initial in pp, compared with Kepas=K€pev-r (above, § 114), for 
this q sound is necessary to explain the o in cormi, horn (Goth. 
haurns) : see Varron. p. 202. The Latin p-recor, the German 
f-ragen, Sanscrit p-rach-chhami> &c. exhibit the p-r in close 
proximity, while rogo omits the labial, and posco for proc-sco 
nearly annihilates the root-syllable; but the Hebrew "?H~2 ex- 
hibits the root rek or reg- with its prepositional prefix complete, 
and carries us at once to the original idea of the word, namely, 
approach and supplication. From these examples, which might 
be multiplied to any extent, we see, on the one hand, that 
Hebrew words might be reduced to monosyllabic roots, like those 
which form the basis of the Indo-Germanic languages*; and, on 
the other hand, we observe that if the quasi-monosyllabic roots 
of our family were liable to the same extensions which we see in 
the Semitic languages, we should recognise the fact, that they 
are compounds, and should seek their explanation in a further 
analysis of the elements of which they are composed. 



* The existence of monosyllabic roots in the Hebrew language has 
long been maintained : see Adelung, Mithridatm, I. pp. 301, 2 : Klaproth, in 
the Baron de Merian's Principcs <?<.' VHwh comparative dn Lamgmm, pp. 219 
sqq. ; Fuerst, as explained by Delitsch, Jesurun, Grimnv, 1333; and 
others. 



Chap. 1.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 361 

210 Although therefore the distinction between the Indo- 
Germanic and Semitic languages consists principally in the 
fixity of the compound crude-form, and the more frequent in- 
ternal modifications to which it is liable, in the latter family, yet 
we must not suppose that the roots in the Indo-Germanic lan- 
guages are always simple and incapable of internal modification. 
Every root consists either of a vowel, or of at least one con- 
sonant and a vowel. Now if we alter the consonant or conso- 
nants we alter the root, as far as its immediate identity is 
concerned, for we are not speaking here of cognate roots as li 
and ri; but the vowel of a root containing consonants admits of 
many modifications, and even when the vowel constitutes the 
whole root, it is liable to a few regular changes. The reason 
is, that the vowel is merely a voice or sound produced by a 
greater or less opening of the mouth, and entirely dependent on 
the consonant or breathing which it articulates, whereas the 
consonants are all produced by distinct intentional motions of the 
tongue or lips, or both, and therefore constitute the intended 
meaning of the word. The difference between composition with 
constant prefixes and suffixes, and modification of the root, be- 
tween the external and internal modifications of the significant 
element, consists in this, that the former being pronominal addi- 
tions can only affect the expression of local relations of the thing 
intended, whereas the latter expresses a modification of the thing 
itself. As the roots in the Indo-Germanic languages are ulti- 
mately monosyllabic, the internal modification must of course be 
of less frequent occurrence and less various than the external. 

The changes which it will be proper to notice in this chapter are, 
(I) reduplication of the radical consonant, or, in some cases, of the whole 
or greater part of the root; (II) prefixes consisting of single letters; 
(III) in the case of quasi-roots, or roots ending with a consonant, assi- 
milation produced by contact with the pronominal part of the word ; 
(IY) modification of the root-vowel. 

211 (I.) Between the roots of nouns and verbs as such, there is 
no essential difference. The verb and noun are distinguished by the 
constant pronominal endings which are attached to each, and occasion- 
ally by the manner in which these endings are connected with the root. 
Reduplication, however, takes place in the verb much more frequently 
than in the noun, and with reason, for the intention of the reduplica- 
tion is to convey an idea of repeated action, which is of course more 



362 



THE ROOTS OF 



[Book III. 



frequently applicable to a verb than to a noun. It will be understood 
that the reduplication, of which we speak here, is essentially different 
from that which we have pointed out in the pronominal word desig- 
nating the number " six." In that case a pronominal word, denoting 
position, and as such representing a certain number, signifies, when 
repeated or written twice, the double of that number, just as the word 
thus reduplicated itself consists of two pronominal words, 'each repre- 
senting a number. But the reduplication of the root is merely an 
internal modification, intended to enable the sense to dwell longer on 
the word, and as such does not differ in kind from the guna or anus- 
vdra, of which we shall speak in this chapter. 



212 (II.) Many roots in the different Indo-Germanic languages 
have occasionally single letters prefixed, which do not belong to the 
root, for it generally appears without them, so that even when these 
letters are vowels we are not to conclude against the assertion that all 
proper roots are monosyllabic. The following are some instances (see 
Quarterly Review, LVII. p. 107). 

1 a = e = o prefixed. 

t0kW* Ifi^wfhfi^ 

d-fxavpos fxavpds 

f Latin mulgeo 
d-/jLe\y<a < Germ, melken 

[ Eng. milk 

c Old Lat. nero 
d-vi'ip (^a-vrip) I Sansc. narah 

\ Zend, nairya 

CL-TTOlVa TTOlVtJ 

d-<nrdpayo<? <nrapyt), (r<ppiyw 

Xiira 
porta 
r Latin Stella (for sterula) 
1 Zend stcro 
[ Eng. star 

KCtPOC 

\ci6s 

Genu. I cute 
Sclav. Jiudi 
Anglo-Saxon leod 
c/jte, e/ioi Lat. mc, mihi 



d-\e'«p<a 

a-perio 

d-<YT>]p 

(High German ge-stirn 

6-K€?l/05 



e-Xevdepos 



Chap. 1.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 363 

f Eng. ruddy 3 
e-pvdpds < Lithuan. ruddus 

I Lat. ruber, rufus 
Sanscrit k-ship 



} 



. OlTTTeiV 

e-penreiv ) 

e-joerjuo? Lat. re-mus 

e-vepoi vipQe 

e-pevyio Lat. ructo 

e-Kavuio lamina 

e-\a^u? Sansc. laghus 

6-pe<p(a Enor. roof 

O-fipi/JLOS fipidos 

6-<ppv<; Sansc bhrus 

, ^ , z , 5 , x f Lat. dens 

o-covs (o-ooi/t?) < 

I Sansc. dantas 

o-(3e\o<s /3eAo<? 

6-hct£ hdi<-v<0 

„ / Lat. nomen 

o-vop.a \ 

\ feansc. nama 

6-TAO? T\f]fXt 

6-pey<a Lat. rego 

, ,.. j Sansc. nakha 

I Germ, nagel 

6-veilo<s Sansc. nid, " to despise' 

o-Kpvoek Kpvos 



} 



2 Labials. 

Eng. b-reak 

Icel. b-raka V ptjy-w-pi 

\i2X. f-ra-n-go 
Eng. b-road 

Gexm.b-relt \ Lat. latus 

Greek 7r-AaTu? 

Germ, f-ragen J 

Lat. p-recor > Lat. rogo 

Sansc. p-rach ) 

"L&t.f-luo) (~La,tluo 

p-luo j I Xovco 

Lat. p-iscis \ „ ,. , 

_ , \ > Gaelic lasg 

Welsh p-ysg ) 



364 THE ROOTS OF 

3 Dentals. 

, n f Germ, re'iben 

T-pibeiv < „ 

r r I Eng. rub 

1-cxKpv ) ( Sansc. agru 

(l-acryma) J I Lithuan. aszara 

h-poa-o? Lat. ros 

Z-perrw Germ, rupfen 

l-€p-Koa ) i Sansc. rasa 

Sansc. d-ri?as I \ -Xiko? 

4 Gutturals. 

g-lad Lat. Icetus 

TT . . „ . [ Eng. star 

High Germ, ae-stirn i „ , 

6 ^ I Zend, stero 

y-Xtjvrj \ f \d(a 

y-XctvKos V < \€VKOS 

y-\avcr<T(0 ) \ Xevaraw 

yd-Xa^r) \ 

y-\dyo<: > /<?<:(/) 

(tl-[ji€\yu> =d-fx\dy-u)) J 

Sansc. km Lat. rt»?o 

k-Xuto? loud 

Lat. g-lubo Lettish lobit 

Sansc. q-rabh \ T , 

T . * . > Lat. rapio 

Icel. g-npa ) 

Yorkshire dialect c-lubstart. Norfolk dialect lobster 

(= clultaU, a name for the stoat) 

K-vicrva n idor 

"X-Xiapos \iapos 

X-\awa lama 

G-raf reere 

C-lanius Ital. Lagno 

H-Iodwig Ludwli 

k-nut Lat. nodus 

{ Lat. aper 

" I Germ, ebtr 

5 s. (above, p. 342). 
(y-KCTrapvov (q. Keirapvov, \ 

Od.Y.237) >... KOTTTW 

(T-KdlTTlO ) 

ix-TeWeiv tcWciv 

<t-to\>7 ava-To\tj 



[Book m. 



Chap. 1] NOUNS AND VERBS. 365 

(T-Te'i/to reivon (Buc-t^i/o? ?) 

<r-KCi/jLavhpo<; Ka/j.av^po<s 

G-Kehavvv/jLi < Kea^io 

(cut 

s-mash mash 

s-lash, s-p-lash lash 

s-pike pike 

s-coop cooper 

plenus (comp. Candidas with 
canus). 

-ponte pondus 

-queeze quetschen. 



s-plendidus \ 



213 In many of the vowel protheses it is easy to see that they 
correspond to the elements of prepositions. Thus in d-pepyeiv, 6-p.6p- 
yvu/ju, d-pLaco, d-pepSeiv, d-ixelfteiv (= dfxeveiv, d/j.evo-acrdcu, Pindar, Pyth. I, 
45 ; Hesych. s. v. ; ajxev^'nTopo^, Pind. Pyth. XI. 38 ; a-moveo), a'-/x«- 
pvo-a-eiv (=aVo-a-TiA/3en/, comp. fxap-^ap-v-yrf), d-Troiva, d-crno?, a-<T7r<(S)? 
(comp. (tkvtos), &c. the prothesis is obviously the first part of the pre- 
position a-7ro, or the pronominal element va, which, we have seen, 
is frequently used to express removal, distance, and, by inference, 
negation. The prefix seems rather to bear the meaning of the com- 
pound d-vd in d-<nrdpayo<s ("that which sprouts up"), d-o-Ta-^v^, 
d-\ei(po) (com. dvctfxv<ro-(a\ o-(ppvs, &c. In Fa-vtjp, as it was written 
in Homer, we have the older and fuller form va of the element a, 
which, as we have before suggested, is probably in this case a mutila- 
tion of the second pronominal stem. The initial a has a collective 
meaning, or stands for sa, in d-<nrd-£pfxai, d-KoXovdos, &c. But many 
of the vowels, and most of the gutturals and sibilants thus prefixed, are 
only added for the sake of euphony. Indeed this appears to be inva- 
riably the case with the short e prefixed to a word beginning with s 
and a consonant, as in a great number of French words ; e-space = 
spatium, e- sprit = spiritus, e-stomac = stomachics, e-cuyer, old French 
escuyer, Ital. scudiere, Latin scutiger, scutarius, in English both Esquire 
and Squire. In the same way Bartolomeo della Scala, of Verona, be- 
comes Prince Escalus in Romeo and Juliet. In this country we have a 
habit of prefixing such a vowel in pronunciation, whether we prefix it 
in waiting or not. Thus many people pronounce Xerxes as if it were 
written Exerxes, and the same appears to have been sometimes the 
case with the people of Asia Minor. The word craTpairri'it], defined by 
Herodotus (I. 192) as tj dp%t} rrj<s x^pw* l % obviously explicable from 



366 THE ROOTS OF [Book III. 

the Sanscrit kshetra-m, " a field," and pa, " to rule." Now in an in- 
scription found in Asia Minor we have egaidpcnreveiv, or eEo-aTpcnrevetv, 
for a-arpaTrevetu, (Bockh, C. L II. pp. 470, 583), which is evidently the 
writing of a person who was much in the habit of hearing the Persian 
pronunciation of the word. The same is, perhaps, the case with the name 
'Ofaflpt/? (see however, § 160). The sibilant seems to be prefixed chiefly 
for the sake of additional emphasis ; at least such is the general effect 
of this prothesis in our language, and it is for t! that in cases 

of secondary prothesis s is the only prefix - in A<Va, d-\€t<p», 

s-a-lbon; latus, t-latus (tA>/tck), s-t-latu* ; r 

lis, s-t-lis ; lentus, s-t-lentus ; locus, s-t-locus, Sec. The labials appear 
for the most part to be prefixed to words the meaning of which would 
admit of such additional force as might be derived from composition 
with d-ird, a-pa, a-va, ah, off, to the latter part of which the 
corresponds. A similar explanation La applicable to the dentals (comp. 
c-ri, a-ti, a-d, &c), and to the Latin prefix re (ra-pc 
We do not, however, believe there ha- been any aph.i rc-i-. M 1 
suggests (Etym. Jfanck* II. p. 156): the monosyllabic elements are 
shortened into single letter-, in Greek as in the German dialects (see 

Grimm, / ; \ II. p- 700), but we cannot admit 

propriety of stating that, when a prefix prc-ent- trace- of one of 
elements of a compound word, the other part of that compound prefix 
must have been originally there: this amounts to a denial of the sep.. 
use of these elements, which, bom I well known I 

214 (III.) When a I .ither <pi;i- frith a 

consonant, and is combined with some element I 
nant, we frequently lose all imm ices of the original fori 

the root in consequence of it- fu-ion with the termination. This process 
is generally called Assimilation ; it may BOmetu I Absorp- 

tion, and in most cases would be included under those changes which 
we are accustomed to call euphonical. We may trace it in tfa 
down of two words into one by era-is which wc i ft in our 

common conversation, a ortdfl which in San-crit is - : -led 

through a whole sentence, and perhaps tie 

in principle in the alliteration - mon in the I 

writers (see Nike, d$ Alitor s A'Vih. Jf us. lot 

1829, p. 324 foil.). 

It will be convenient to consider the different kinds of Assimila- 
tion separately. They are. (1) 0. Assimilation proper, or doublin_ 
of two consonants which meet in a word, and leaving out the other. 
b. Doubling a consonant to replace a vowel which i Ab- 



Chap. 1.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 367 

sorption and compensation in either of the two last-mentioned cases. 
(2) Substituting <r<r or f for a consonant and i. (3) a. Change of a conso- 
nant to one more symphonic with a succeeding consonant, b. Insertion 
of a symphonic consonant in certain cases. (4) Omission of the final 
consonant of the root when it is identical with one in the termination. 

215. (1) a Assimilation of the first consonant to the second : eV- 
w-[xi for e<r-vv-ixi (pes-wpi, Sanscr. vas, Lat. ves-tis); dpLpes, fyijuev, for 
ac/ue?, va/mes (Veda asme, yushme) ; noppia, from koo--/xo5, Ka8-a-p6<; 3 
Bceot. KoO-a-pos, Sanscr. $udk ; flam-ma from flag-ro, <p\ey<a ; il-lus- 
tris for in-lustris, &c. 

Assimilation of the second consonant to the first : Koppr\ for Kop-o-t], 
d\-\vfxi for o\-w}xi, ftr-irc*, '/k-ko?, for eq-vu$, Sanscr. agvas, Pers. aspas, 

b The vowel i is frequently represented by a doubled liquid or o- 
and that too, whether the t follows or precedes : aA-Ao?, ol-lus, il-le 
al-ius, Sanscr. an-ya ; (above §§ 135, 166), <pv\-\ov, fol-ium ; fxaX-\ov 
fxd\iov ; peer cos, pea 10$ ; Ki»i/OKe<£aAAo9 for KwonecpaXios (Aristoph. Eqq 
416. Phryn. Append, p. 49. Photius, p. 188, Pors.); eWairivrj (elXair-) 
wTeWci (ovreiXtj), /xdyeppos (pdyeipo$\ £ei/i/oe (£"e?i/o?), (pdevvos ((paeivos), 
/ueAAi^o? {peiXi-^o^), j^oXXdZe^ for ^oA<a'3e<? (Phryn. Append, p. 72), &c. 
Frequently the doubled a- represents a guttural or dental succeeded by 
i, as in 6dcr<rov for Ta'^ioy, upeaatav for KpaTicov. 

c Absorption of and compensation for a consonant: Xeywu, for 
XeyouT? ; <7T7rouc, for 'i'ttttov-s ; y^apieU^ for xapievTS. 

Absorption of and compensation for a vowel : Tv-m-eis for rvirTctrt ; 
yevereipa for yeverepia ; peXaiva for peXavia ; e£at(pvt]<; for i^cnrivr]?. 

216 (2) The present tense of a verb, or that on which its peculiar 
conjugation depends, is generally a longer form than the other tenses : 
it contains besides the root an unorganic, and generally a pronominal 
addition. This addition is very often one of the equivalent pronominal 
elements t, i/, or the relative element -ya, and we have many derivative 
verbs in -fco or -o-kw. Thus from the roots tvtt-, rep.-, we have the 
present tenses tuV-t-w and rep-vw : we have both dripd<a and dnpd- 
fco ; both yripdu and yt]pd-aK<t). The element ya appears to be con- 
cealed in the contracted verbs, as they are called, and in the very large 
class of verbs which form the present in -o-o-oj, or, what is only a dia- 
lectical variety, in -ttw. In all these last it is obvious that assimi- 
lation has taken place : the only question is, with which of the termi- 
nations mentioned above the last consonant of the root has been 
consolidated. This question cannot be answered without a removal of 
the difficulties which have always been experienced by etymologists in 



368 THE ROOTS OF [Book III. 

fixing the value of the letter f. This letter, as we have already shown 
(§ 112), is an assibilated or softened o. As an assibilated c it was 
originally equivalent to co- ; and it is frequently found in the dialectical 
varieties of the Greek language under the transposition ac. As a 
softened 3 it is equivalent to By, or the English soft g or j, represented 
in modern Italian by gi or ge, which may be derived from c<r, and often 
passes into a mere sh. This appears from investigations in the Greek 
language only; thus ZeJ? (=ZcF?), genitive ciFo'?, fa- = c<a, fxetjuv or 
fxe't'Cwv = fxeyitav y oXVQuv = oXiy'nav, Wjm7-j£o9, ^6i-^6<: = wpui-iiot, X^ l ~ 
dios, " the before-day," "the near day" (for according to Macrobius, 
Saturnal,!. 15: Jovem accipimus lucis a him 

Salii in carmine canunt, et Cretenses A<a ttjv j/upm* rocattt, ipsi quo- 
que Romani Diespitrem appellant, ut di me Latin 

forms di is actually written for z (see Schneider. . .1. 

p. 386. Lobeck, Aglaoph. I. p. 296), and convert !y. W. Dindorf 
would write KaplQx for Kaplid in ihn \-\A\. 

Thes. Vol. II. p. 1106). A comparison with other languages haves no 
doubt whatever on the subject ; compare tjvyov with 
Latin jug-urn ; jutuma with diutur. 

with Sanscrit die, //////, Latin <//<.*, Italian i'ia with Sanscrit 

yava: Qyyifiept, with "ginger;" fu'fu^tK witli "jujube," £aa> with 
Sanscrit jie, Lithuan. gyes, g<; ■ Sclavonic schieu. 

Similarly, in the formation of the Rnflnim nnwu i lwl lTB I is in 

kryej>kie "strong," hrutpdU "atrongei ;" gy< ■ = j. if in rfift yj 
doro/tf "dearer;" chyc = $h, ifl in ■• «lry," *w*fo k "<iri 

dentals c?, 2, s£ are changed into/' (French), c/i, and s/W*, when foil- 
by the comparative affix /A 1 . When it is represented by the transpo- 
sition o-?, £ admits of both model of proper assimilation : the <r is aasi- 
milated to the 5 in ^deca for nd^a, in 

the <r in I'iWco for w£o>, doaauv from ao£icK, AairaVcrto for \«ira'£u\ 
Those verbs which are assimilated in -<x<rui v i\turn to the 

former assimilation, thus for <r</>a£ii> we have <t(,*>u'ttu<. 

Having now determined the two values of t,'. and therefore 
termination -fto, we shall be able to establish with more accuracy the 
nature of the assimilation of verbs in -<r<ru>, -ttw. Buttmann stoutly 
denies the possibility of such an ending as -<rcno without an included 
guttural (Lexilog. II. p. Ill), and would II as to derive 

d\\d<r<Th> from d\\a-^ov (II. p. 1<)8). But. hnwiJMI the fact which we 
have just mentioned, that -( u» may be assimilated to -<r<rat, tlie • 
view is established by the instances quoted by Lobeck (P<iralifX)mmHh 
p. 403) : namely, dtpdaau), nXacda-cru), kXvSooWj iraXda-ato, ffvapcurai, 
d\dic<Tu>, e^i/o-ffo), XcKpvaap, Xi/jluhtctu), &c. Leaving OUt ttMM 



Chap. 1.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 369 

and such as cppdtja, root (ppal-, ofio, root o'B-, which are never assimi- 
lated, we must consider those in which a final consonant of the root is 
actually contained and concealed in the assimilation, as in the following- 
examples: (l) Gutturals: Trpd<r<r(o, root trpay- ; n-d<r<rw, root TCty- ; 
cuVro-co, root aVx-, aly- ; (ppta-aco, root (ppiK- ; pr\<TG(o, root ptjy- ', ir\t]<r(ra), 
root irXrjy- ; Zpdcrau), root Spay-. (2) Labials : Trevcreiv, root 7T67T- ; 
eviacreiv, root evt7r- ; Xa^ofxai, root Aa/3- ; vimTeiv, v'urcretv, vifetv ; Koacreiv 
kotttciv. (3) Dentals : KOjOu'a-o-eii/, root nopvd- ; epe<r<reiv y from epeT-. 

Now it is quite clear that these verbs are not formed by a mere 
addition of -<r<o to the root : by this addition the futures of all of them 
are characterized, and it would be absurd to suppose that the only dif- 
ference between a present and future should be an assimilation of one of 
them. The termination of a present tense, if strengthened at all, must 
involve one of the pronominal endings t, v, <tk, f, or ya. Now the ter- 
mination in this instance cannot be t or v, for there is no example of the 
assimilation of these letters with any preceding consonant. Nor can it 
be -<tk appended to a root ending with a guttural, for then the assimi- 
lation takes place according to (7), as in Aao-Kw for ActK-o-Kw, nlay<o 
for fxiy-<rK(o. The only way in which the ending -aaca, -ttw can arise, 
is from an assimilation of the ending f affixed to roots terminating 
with a vowel, or of a guttural or dental with the pronominal ending 
ya. It has been mentioned before that both gutturals and dentals, when 
followed by y, are softened into sibilants, a softened guttural being equi- 
valent in many cases to a softened dental, and thus both are represented 
by f (compare oXityov with 0A/705, and Aios with Zeus). Accordingly, 
it is probable that in the majority of cases the guttural or labial has been 
softened into a sibilant by the addition of the pronominal element ia, San- 
scrit ya, which is represented by a doubling of the sibilant, so that irpdcr- 
crav may stand for irpayeeiv t or irpdyyeiv, as ddo-aov stands for Ta^ioi/, and 
ipeo-creiv for epereeiv or eperyetv, as Kpeo-o-wv for KpaTicov. This appears 
more clearly in the verb-roots which have liquid endings ; here the iota 
is occasionally transposed to counterbalance an omission of the vicarious 
liquid: compare (pdetpw, ye'ivw, KTelvui, with the other forms (pdeppw, ye- 
wia, KT6«/i/<«). Compare also -^paia/jLeTv with xpti<ri[xo$. The appearance of 
this ending after roots terminating in labials cannot be explained in this 
way. In all the labial verbs which have by-forms in f and <r<r, the labial 
seems to stand for a digamma, which has been in some cases omitted 
without compensation, and in others represented only by its guttural 
element. Thus in vitttciv, the root is vif3- 9 judging from xe/m/3-a, &c. 
That however this ft is the representative of a digamma, and that the 
real root is veF = neqv-, appears from the verb via (veFio), evevaa, i/eu- 
a-ofxai, &c, vauc, nams, &c, which convey the general idea of " being in 

Bb 



370 THE ROOTS OF [Book III. 

the water," compared with the by-form vijxa, which contains the guttural 
only. Hence Nep-tunus, "the god of the sea," stands by the side of the 
Etruscan Ne-thuns ( Varron. pp. 109, 127), and the Greek N*-f««, where 
the guttural perhaps is absorbed. In many of the formations from this 
root, as i/e'w, i/^o-o?, vWpov for viirrpov, &c, the digamma has Tanished; 
in the case of vi-£a>, vl-o-o-u), then, we might suppose that these termina- 
tions are merely suffixed to the root denuded of its terminating digamma- 
sound. "When, however, we advert to the * in i>a«d, and to the same 
letter either directly or by implication contained in the other fom 
seems more reasonable to conclude that the guttural element became 
predominant in these forms, and that it is simply combined with j in the 
verb i//£a> = vt-ytio : comp. the Latin rahhs with the Frenc 
pium with the modern Rtck-borougk, / \c. The 

same may be said of Aa-fo^m, from the root Aa/i- or AaF, AcF, for 
clear that Aa^;- (in \ayxdvu), &c, Hebrew rip;, lu'{<ih,) contains the 
same root, and this of course indicates a combination of the guttural 
with the labial in the original form of the word. In irea-aeiv, from »fir., 
it will bo recollected that the labial-. I Inch the root-vowel of 

the Greek form is confined, are represented in the \Mh\ <-/-yrv = 7 1 
by two qvs ( Varromifmuii p. 100) ; t ned 

guttural in the Sanscrit pack-. The MOM i< to be observed of immwtm^ 
eviTTTeiv (whether it is connected with <j*-<k, voc-s, Sanscr. rack; with 
eVo/jiaj, so/'">r, Snnscr. a.ijj ; or with m m % vtTnos ;) and of oaaoaai, 

OTTTOfXai ; Off(T6, 0\l/lt, TpjOTTiV, TptotTis ; COIlip. Latin OCultlS, 

iksh. The idea of striking convex vd by unrn n il faired from tii 
butting with the head {KCfjorvnuv, &c), and all the t 1 ords 

point to this union of stooping and striking in the 111. I the 

word : compare wir-rav, nvptpvav (to direct the held of a ?hij»), cub-are 
(to lay down the head). u-crit kitfUla But besides 

the root cap-, kott-, for M a 1 an accessary root top-, 

nop-o-tj, Kopyd-s, Sanscrit HM additional l 

of butting, striking, as in up-ov. From this second root come- 
assimilation koVo-ck, Koaaelv, k 

no immediate connexion with Ko^i-re^, &C. WiUl r jar 1 t copim^ 
kopuVto), Ko^JTTt\o<?, Kop»/irTi\o<r, it will be reineinl « red that there is a 
form KopvO-s, as well as Kopmpt'i. On the whole, then, it appears, that 
the barytone verbs in -aaw or -~rw % are properly assimilations eitli 
the suffix -£w, or of a guttural or dental at the end of the root with 
pronominal suffix ya. 

This assimilation of a guttural or dental BDC f i or y into *<r 

or tt, which we have been endeavouring to establish in the OH 
barytone verbs, appears also in the case of certain feminine nouns, in 



Chap. 1.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 371 

which Bopp, erroneously as we believe, supposes that the original femi- 
nine i is not represented (Vergl. Gramm. p. 140). Such words are 
Opaa-o-a for Opania, j3a<rl\i<T<ra for j3a<ri\l$iaj ava<y<ra for dvctKia, pe- 
A.o-o-a for neXWia. To these feminine forms we must return in the fol- 
lowing chapter. Before i the £ and r are naturally assibilated, as in 
tjct from lid, davdo-ifjios from ddvaros; the k becomes s through the 
intermediate sound ch, sh, as in modern languages ; compare camera, 
chamber, chambre ; and when two vowels follow a t or c the sound in 
both may be the same ; compare redemption, Lucien. 

217 (3) a This rule is most frequently exemplified in compounds 
with prepositions : as €fx/3d\X(a for iv/3d\X<a ; dfx(pl for dvacpi, &c. We 
have <r for 3 in certain words, as d<r/j.a from a5w, olcr-da for old-da, 
rjcr-driv from ijha> ; i<r-6i(o, root e£-, &c. ; and this takes place in some 
cases when there is in fact no actual composition, but only an imme- 
diate succession : thus we have in inscriptions ep-irvpi, a-vyKaptrw, 
€(TTt]\ri for €i> Trvpi, <ruu Kapirui, eu <rrr]\t]. 

b The Greek ear seems to have been particularly averse to the im- 
mediate concurrence of /xa, jxp, vp, i/<r, <rp, <r\, (above § §6), and when- 
ever, by contraction or otherwise, any of these pairs of liquids have come 
in contact, the mute which bears the nearest relation to the first of them 
is inserted, unless assimilation takes place, or one of the liquids is omit- 
ted, which generally happens in the combinations 1/0-, <rp : thus /? is in- 
serted after n, S after v, and 6 after <r ; for example, we have fxefi-ft-Xerat 
for fxe^xe\r}Tai' } /tfeAi-/3-A«Ka from /jloXcTu; d/i-ft-poTo? for d-fxopros; yap- 
(3-po\ for yanepos; fxearjp.-13-pia for pecrr] tjfjiepa, and o\x-fi-po<! compared 
with humor; we have dv-l-po\ for dvepos, and eV-0-Ao<? for e'o-Ao? from 
e'S-Ao? ; cf. edel, &c. "When n is inserted before ir or (3 as in d-fx-irXd- 
Krjixa, iri-fx-ir\rjiJLi, o-p.-(3pifxo<i, &c, it is merely an instance of anusvara. 

218 There is one word in which this insertion of /5 has not been 
observed by Greek scholars, and as it has occasioned some difficulty and 
misconception, it will be worth while to explain it more at length. We 
allude to dpi-/3-\v<;, which appears to us to be merely another form of 
dfia-\6s and djxav-po^, with both of which it coincides to a certain ex- 
tent in signification. The primary meaning appears to be " smooth," 
"reduced to a level," as opposed to any word signifying "pointed," 
"projecting," "sharp;" hence, by a natural transition, it implies want of 
vigour or energy, — the weak, timid, or tender. It is also applied to 
express the fading of colours, loss of the vivid freshness which once 
distinguished them, &c. The first syllable seems to be one of those 
prefixes of which we have spoken above. At least, the word p.av-po<s 

Bb2 



372 THE ROOTS OF [Book III. 

appears separately, and /ua-Aa-Ko'<r, its synonym, seems to be only an- 
other form of a-M-/3-\u9, the second pronominal stem being appended 
under the shape -ko-s instead of -J-?. Mu-/»a-ii/«, which in its earliest 
use signifies "to extinguish fire" (Homer, Hymn. Merc. 140), and 
which is particularly opposed to (pXeyw (Soph. Ajam, 700), seems to be 
a derivative of fxavpos. As we have dfxfiXvo-Ku), dLifiXvwrrui, d/ifixdut, from 
ap/3\vs, so we have also /SAwo-kw, ftxu&pds ; and we find dfiXtixpds, as 
w T ell as /3\rjxp6i 9 (3xd£. The verb (IxtoaKto and its aorist euioXov (comp. 
dpojo-Ku), edopov ; dvtj<rnu), edavov ;) signify " to go ;" this meaning ■ 
naturally from the sense of levelling, smoothing, clearing away, so pro- 
minent in the adjectives which we have mentioned first. It is curi* 
observe generally how words denoting nlnipmns, a point, acuteness. 
are applied to convey the ideas of rapid motion, and, metaphorically, 
readiness of wit, while those indicating a level. ?inoothness, bluntness, 
&c, are used to signify slowness, dulness, &c. This is particularly the 
case in Greek. The reader will remember such phrases are a 
£i<f>i6iov, dfxftXv dpav, o't d/xflXvTepoi Ttj* <pv<riv (to which mi 
refer the gloss in llcsychius: aft\a* f cutiwctov, dyvtouttr), dixi3X\k vpd<; 
Opoixov, dfxfiXvrepix; irpd<; rtjv iid^rjv, on the one hand, as oppose: 
dtju (pdayavov, oArraTOJ ftc/Mceo&lf, o£uc €7rii'Or/<raj, o^vraTOi nrirc 

V. 9)« We also find aV/iAwV opposed to irnc-po* . hca- 

tion of which is undoubtedly M piercin. '.'•'•_ u iharp." As 

Trinpos in its metaphorical Of nieularly applied to denote that 

which is painful or galling to the feeling. M 

express the effect of appeasing or removing disagreeable or distressing 
sensations: thus Thucydides (II. (>.">) : <vv ir(p\ l<ao-To<; t) 

d/ji(3XvT€poi ijet] uvrec. We believe that ti. -Xik, oaa-Aoc, 

d/jLavpos, is found in audio ; the opinion of the lexicographers that 
verb is connected with spa, and | » gather tog. : 

appears to us very erroneous, and we cannot coin modem 

scholars could adopt this view, which seems to be quite at variance with 
the common usage of a/tam and its compounds- In all the passag I 
which it appears, a/iam means "to make a level sir :o lay flat 

or even," and, when applied to corn, which is emphatically ■ 
<T6ii/, u to stick up" or M stand on end" (Atrvwv) (V/iW XXIII. ojH)), it 
means " to cut down," M to lay down." The following passages \ 
make this clear. When earth is said to be laid smoothly over any 
thing, as on a grave, the phrase is eiraud<T$ai ->»;i : 1 

TCHppovs opv£dutio< h\t\l/t. cTuWu. !■&■* koi yijv t'rau»|(T(iuooc, 

on which Valckcnaer quotes from Plutarch : to U w i >hh ewau i 
T17? divos ailro?? na\ itov. The two epithets in this passage of 

Plutarch show clearly that smoothness, and not collection or congeries, 



Chap. 1.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 373 

is intended. In the same way Homer speaks of smoothing or making 
level a bed of leaves, with which, he says, the ground was covered, so 
that there was no need of collecting them, Odyss. V. 483 : 

d<f)ap 8' evvtju e tt a ptj<r a? o X € P ai ( pi^*l a ' iv 
evpeTav' (pvXXoju yap ev\v ^vo-is ijXiOa iroXXtj. 
Also of milk laid out in broad dishes for the purpose of forming cream, 
Odyss. IX. 247 : 

avriKa 8' rj/juo-v pev Operas Xcvkoio yaXaKTos 
TrAeKTO?? ev TaXapoicriv dpYi<rdpevo<; naTedrjuev. 
It is only by perceiving this sense of the word that we can translate a 
well-known passage of Sophocles (Antig. 600), where Askew's emen- 
dation, kottU, is absurd : 

vvv yap eo-fcaTas vnep 

/o<£a? o T€Taro <pdo<s ev OWitrov oopois, kot av viv 
(poivia Qewv tui/ 
vepTepiav a/jia koi/k. 
A light had beamed upon the root (see our Notes on the Antigone, 
p. 181), but the dust was levelled over it, and made it dpavpov again. 
As the Greeks said Karapaa-dai kovw, so also conversely they could say 
Karajua t] KoVt?. Hence it is, that, when they spoke of penetrating a 
surface lying flat or level over something they wished to get at, they 
used the verb liapaaQai, as in Thucyd. IV. 26: liapwpevoi tov Ka^A^a, 
or liapdv in poetry, as in Eurip. Bacchce, 701 : aKpoia-t danTvXoio-i Bta/xw- 
<rai yftova. 

It will be proper, as well for this as for other reasons, to examine 
minutely a passage in iEschylus, in which the meaning of dp/3xv\ has 
not been properly understood. It is in the Eumenides, 229, Miiller : 
^fKO), Se'^ou 3e irpevpevw^ aXaaropa, 
ov irpoGTpoTraiov, ovh* d(poi/3avTov ye'pa, 
aAA' dpfiXvv rj^rj, Trpoa-TCTpippevov tc irpd<: 
a\\oi<Tiv o'Ikoi<; kcu Tropevpacriv /3poT<av. 

We do not agree either with Miiller or Hermann in their reading and 
interpretation of this passage. Hermann's Trpoa-reTpippevov fxva-o^ is 
quite unjustifiable; it appears to us entirely unmeaning, and is sup- 
ported by no evidence, either internal or external. We have no hesitation 
in saying that Miiller is wrong in taking 7rpo<s adverbially : it is obvious 
from V. 429 ' iraXai irpos d'AAot? Tavr dcpiepoopeOa o'ikohti, ko\ {3otoT(ti 
Ka\ pvro?<s Tropois (comp. 272 : Trpos ia-ria. deov), that Trpos agrees with 
the following datives ; its position at the end of the line is sufficiently 
supported by Dindorf's quotation from Soph. (Ed. C 495 : Xenropai yap 
ev Tw pt] Ivvavdat pr]K dpdv Svoiv kokoiv. Hermann seems to think that 



374 THE ROOTS OF [Book III. 

the last words of v. 430 contain an explanation of the iropevuaaiv 
fipOTuiv (Opuscul. VI. p. 46). But the k<x\ fioroivi net) pvTois Tropois 
are not connected with o'Ikohti ; they are datives of the instrument : 
u I have been purified at other places by means of sacrifices and the 
pouring out of water." The iropcvpara ftporwv is only a general 
expression — "where men go*." We have vdiov wdpevpa in Euripides 
(Iph. Aul. 300), and Hermann, who had read iEschyhia so often, might 
have recollected TCKimv ne\ev6oi (Choeph. 350), and rp'iftoi epwTwv 
(Suppl. 1042). Miiller again has lost sight of the connexion, and has 
mistranslated d/xftXv^ which does not here mean db 
" blunted," but implies a fading or loss of colour, t. c. of the colour of 
blood, as below v. 270 : 

Ppttji yap aipa k«i papa'iverai %epo<;, 
ptjTponrovov ptacrpa 3' enirXvTOv VfAfi. 

TTOTCLIVIOV yCtp Of 7TOOC fCTTlCl V€OV 

Voipov Kn0ctp[j.o7<; t]\ci6t] yoipoKTOvoi^. 
"We have a reference to the same sense of apfiXvt in Plato, JKfltj 

IV. p. 442 : ptj Trtj tjfuv dtrapft\\ 

»/ uircp 6i/ rtj roXei (^('uti; "'justice hM n<»t lost any of its fair ; 
portions, has it? its colours have not become faded and dim, - 
should appear to be something different from that which it Appeared to 
be in the state.'" 

In the pae j Ida now nndi i -rpo*- 

Tcrpappevov in the BenM in which TrpoarpatrccrQai occur- in v. . 

Kill TTpOt' m C(>fJ.OlK y 

for TrpoaTpcnreaflai c o'/ioic, i n the lOliflt, M the o>nvlative phrase to -rpoa- 

TeTpappevov irpo\ oucom in tfa : and Ihfl HMB of these lines is as 

follows: "I am not a polluted | applicant or supplicant 

for purification; nor is there the .-tain of blood upon my hand; but that 

stain is already (rjlrj) washed OU< and faded awaj 

vopai); and I have prayed for purification (-rrpo^reTpa^ai) at other 

temples and in the haunts ol' men." So that 

with ova afoiftarrm ,\' f '/ m, > and -rrpoiTTeTpa- -po<TTpoiraioS) 

a sort of tautology very common in £*chylust. 



* Dindorf has since given the BUM inter; 
locis quibus homines viam laeiunt, JEsch. ISum. . 

•f This view of the passage occurred to us nu>re than fifteen years since, and as we 
still think that tho correction is certain and the interpretation true, we hare so repre- 
sented it in our edition of the Eui tunateJy, howerer, we 
not been able to make a convert of Mr Pafej, wfco writes thus to Lis note l 
sage : " miror hunc locum tot doctis virL? corruptum videri : miror etiam 



Chat. 1.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 375 

In a fragment of the JEolus of Euripides (apud Galen. Charter. 
p. 41 8, Kiihn) we have : 

cl fxev too* q/JLCip trpwTov tjv KaKOV/xevia, 
kcu fxrj fxciKpav $i] cid ttoviov evavaroXovv^ 
cikos <r(pa%d%jEiv t\v av, cos veoQya 



auctorem Novi Cratyli, p. 296. voluisse nrpoareTpa^ifievov (quod postularet irpds o'Ikovs, 
non 7ryoos ot/cois) et dp:f5Xvv intepretatuni esse de evanescente colore sanguinis. Prse- 
terea ob irpoarTpoiraiov dXXd TrpoarT€Tpap.p.evov mihi quidem plane absurdum videtur." 
"With regard to the objection raised about the case of ot/cois, we thought it scarcely 
necessary to remark that the perfect 7rpoarTeTpap.p.euov, winch declared the completion 
of the act, would not, like irpocrTpcnreaQai, take with it an expression of motion, 
implying that the act was incomplete. We may say, " I ordered you to go to this 
temple and make supplication there" (v. 200) ; but when it was done, we should natu- 
rally say that " Orestes had made supplication at the temple." Mr Paley's concluding 
remark involves the same oversight with regard to the difference of tense in -wpoaTpa- 
iriaQai and Trpo<TT6rpa/j.p.4vov. Would he consider it u plane absurdum," if any one 
were to say, " Mr Paley is not now engaged in publishing the separate plays of iEschy- 
lus, but he has recently completed his useful and convenient edition of that poet?" 
There are nearly fifty instances in iEschylus of the same epexegesis in the adversative 
clause: and in any language we might say of such a figure of speech that "it is not 
absurd, but on the contrary emphatic." The following examples will show that JEschy- 
lus at least has no objection to the repetitio per contrarium. Prom. 613: ovk ep-irXeicwv 
aiviyfiaT' dXX' aTrXcS \oyo>. ibid. 951 : /cat toutcc p.evToi p.t]8ev alviKTrjpivos dXX' avd' 
eKaa-T' eKcppa^e. Pers. 684 : /x»jti p.a.KecrT?jpa fivdov dXXd crvvTop\ov Xeyuiv. Sept. C. 
Theb. 866 : ovk eirl cptXia dXX' eiri <povu> 8i.eKpidt}Te. See also Eumen. 436—439. 762, 3. 
Prom. 654 — 7, &c. The only question is whether the difference in tense between the 
7rpoo-T/3o7raios or supplicant for purification, and the irpoaTeTpap-ixevo?, who has 
effected his cleansing, is sufficiently emphatic, and on this point we entertain no doubts, 
especially as the sentence is strengthened by jjo»j. With regard to what is said in the 
text respecting the meaning of dpftXvs el/xi, it is clear from the fragment of Euripides, 
and from the passage in the Eumenides, 451, that it is here a quasi-synonym of KctTtip- 
TVKtit. Consequently, it must refer to the completion of a period of imperfection, 
ordeal, and probation, and more immediately, to its effects. Whether therefore we 
translate it by " purified," " sobered down," " inoffensive," or by any other word refer- 
ring to the effects of the complete Trpoa-Tpoirt'i, we must pay some respect to the primary 
meaning of the word and to that of fxapaivui and d/iavpos. Moreover, the x.'-ao'H-o? 
in the adversative sentence would seem to oppose dp.j3Xvs to d(pol(3avTo<s, and this, 
according to Hesychius, means aKaQapToi. Now there is only one way in which this 
opposition could hold, namely, if d/MfiXv? elpu = dpL^Xuvofxai signifies " I am colourless," 
t, e. in regard to the stain of blood ; and that this meaning may be conveyed is clear 
from the passage quoted above from Plato. The metaphor u ab acuta ferri cuspide, 
quae retunditur atterendo," which Mr Paley supposes here, is inapplicable to the context 
and self-contradictory. What is the antithesis in " not polluted, but blunted and un- 
pointed?" Nor will it be easy to show that TrpoarTerpLp-peuos could, in accordance with 
any known Greek idiom, signify a release from suffering or pollution. Like the Latin 
affligor it is used with precisely the contrary reference. Demosthenes has: <rvfi- 
<popdv irpoaTptyacQai (786, 6) ; and Antipho (127, 2): vpuv to fxtjvifMa twv dXiTrjpiwv 
TrpoaTpixj/op-at ; and JEschylus himself says (Ag. 386) : iroXei Trpoarpifxfi dcpeprov 
evdeU, and Prom. 329 : yXaJo-cry p-araia %,r]p\ia TrpoarpLfieTai. 



376 THE ROOTS OF [Book III. 

ttuiXov yaXivov apT'ioas ceceyjxevov. 

VVV 3' <Zfxf3\v<; (IfXl Ken KaTtjpTVKlO^ 7TOl'ft)l/, 

where dfx(3\v<; el/xt = dfxfiXvvofxai is applied, in the other sense of fxapaive- 
a-Oai, to a taming or quenching of the fiery spirit of a young hor- 
appears even from Cicero's loose translation (Tuscul. III. 28) : 

Sed jam subactus miseriis obtorpui. 

In the same sense we find dirafxfixvvoa in /Eschylus, Sbfi. ft Th. 
697 : TeOqyfxevou roi ix ovk dirafxfiXvuet*; Xoyw ; Prom. 868: fx'iav ce 
jraicitiv 'ifxepo? deX^ei to fxrf KT€iveiv avvevvov, aA\* dirafiftXvv6t]<T€Tai y 
" she will be tamed." 

"We may take this opportunity of explaining the participle xarrip- 
tukok, which occurs as a quasi-synonym of dpflki* both in this passage 
of Euripides, and in the E . v. 1 16 : 

OXXmf T€ KOI (TV fX€V KaTtjpTVKUS €fiO?<{ 

inert]? Trpoa-tj\&c<; KCtBapos d{3Xa/3ti<: cdfioi?. 
The word Kcnnprvofiai and the ] • :iciple»caT»7pTi;KUK areap] 

to signify arriving at maturity, and the effects of :i_v in sobering the 
passions of youth. Thus Solon sn .Bach): 

•ft M t M < ' 

t»/ c tKTti ircpi -rravTCi naraprviTai voos avcpo*, 
ovC % 1 c'm«s cpy aira\aixya 0, 

wliicli should be tinnalmi !. ' Li Um age of 4*2 the mind of man i« 
matured in every respect (for the MS of *"*/>', comp. Plat. R \ ' . 
p. 449 A: raitaf ical KjiapnipeMu trep) woktm* aourj<Tfn\ nor does he 
now commit the intemperate actions of his youth" (<>'<*•<; i.*. as h< 
before). For the 086 of enraXa/uwi, - .481. Froon 

meaning of KarapTvu) we derive its use to signify the effects prod 
by training, especially upon bom B, to which the passagi Bajbf 

particularly refers. See also SophocL 

a jimp 10 \ 

ifnrovt kotoj 1 
Plutarch. T/tcmlst. c. 11 : nm **P*Jk •* «Vwoi* 

7ryi>errr?tti (pdcrKUiv, otciv, »;<? x^o<rr;'icei, t^kiti va ipTV<r(m*. 

VoL I. p. .'>l D! rjrirov? — KaT«|iTilo»T« *wi tovs dymtxxs aytH*ri¥. 
p. 38 d: KarapWp t»/»/ 0j«riv. From t rived the peculiar 

meaning of KnrtjprvKoic — M a horse or ass which has cast its t< 
'"■ «'• "aged," because his age can no longer l>o known l"r eeth, 

which are therefore called " ynfrt o m. or <Ppa<rTtjpi^, "the indi I 
Suidas: % A f 3oXiJTiop ro) « f 3o\. .*\oc. at 

A»;kw? ooovtci*;, c£ ov yvtopi^t-rcn t] ijkuria toJ ftj ,>i» o i*'o*, 

ou^eVa) yvtofiova CgM*. yioiuova £e eXeyov TO» |8«AX0SWWI ll" o» 



Chap. Ij NOUNS AND VERBS. 377 

to;? ijXiKias e£tiTafj)v* tou Be avrou kcli kotyj otukoto; eXeyov, £k fxera- 
(popds Ttov Terpairodajv. kcli air oy viafxovas, tou? wrr oyeyr) p aKOTas , 
ok eXeXo'nrei to yvwpKr/jLa. ko\ dfioXovs ttcoAou? tou? /jLr}h eirto fiefiXr]- 
ko'tcc? ohovras. HesychillS : "A/3oAo?. i/eo?, ovSeTru) plxf/as ohovra. rov Be 
avrov Ka\ kclty] pTVKOTd eXeyov. Yvwfxa tou fiaXXo/jLeuou o'Bo'i/tcc, St' ov 
to? r]Xinia<! eyuoopi^ou toju tct p air oBcoy. k<x\ 6 KaTripTVKtos rjdf], Xei- 
TToyvdfxttiv. Aeycrai Be ko\ yuwo-w Ko;t»70tuk «?. TeXeiwrra?. kuojco? 
Be eVi twi/ dXoycou £cucoi/, oVai/ €Kf3aXr] irdura^ tou? o'Bo'i/to.?. Aei7ro- 
yvoajAUiv, 6 jjLrjKeri poXou e^tou* o Be TeAeio?, kcli yeyrjpaKws fir] e^toi/ 
yvwpia-fxara t*/<? ffXucca?. Malala, Chron. p. 379 (quoted by Toup. 
III. p. 539) : 7t/)wto/3o'Ao5. Pullus, qui primos denies emittit. From 
this it appears that in the passage of Euripides KaTrjpTVKw? is used in 
its secondary and more limited sense as indicating the age of a horse, 
and so the Antiatticistes (Bekkeri Anecd. p. 105, 1. 25) understood it: 
KaTf/pTUKe'i/ai eXeyovro ol fxrjKeri fioXov e^oi/Te? 'ittttoi. Euot7nBf7? 
AloXw. In the passage of iEschylus (Eumenides, 451) kot^/otukw? is 
taken in its wider signification, " having performed or completed," i. e. 
all the necessary rites, just as tc'Aoc, TeXe'to, TeAe/o?, TeAeto'w are used 
absolutely in speaking of the performance of sacred rites, although they 
only denote completion or fulfilment in general, and Te'Ae<o? is used like 
Karri prvKM, in speaking of the age of animals in opposition to a/3o\os. 
Plato, Legg. VIII. p. 834 C : /jLOu'nnrois tc a6Xa TtfleWe?, ttmAoi? Te 
dftoXois koi TeXeuoi/ Te kcu dfioXtou to?? fxea-oi? ica\ avToTs Zrj to?? tc'Ao? 
c^ouo-j. The Scholiast, on the passage of iEschylus, felt this, when he 
wrote: ko:t»7 0tuk&)?. tcAcjo? Trju rjXiKiau. touto Be ot7ro twi/ tyooav : 
and Hesychius too : KarapTvaat. Karao-nevdo-ai. TeXeiaia-ai. a-Tepe- 
wa-ai. Also St Paul {Corinth. II. xiii. 11) : KctTaoTifeo-fle, ei be perfect." 
KaTaoTu'w is used in this more general sense in Soph. (Ed. Col. 71 : 
<o<: 7rpo<; t< Ae'£W rj KaTaprvaiou fxoXeTv ; on which Suidas writes : 
KarapTva-iov. irapao-Kevdatou. evrpeiria-uv. And thus we have, in the 
use of dfxflXvs and KaT^oTUKto? by iEschylus and Euripides, a fruitful 
instance of the manner in which two authors nearly contemporary may 
employ two words in connexion with one another with a marked 
difference, but yet with an affinity of meaning that cannot be mistaken. 

219 (4) Of this rule we find frequent exemplifications in verbs and 
verbal compounds, both in Greek and in Latin. Thus %i$a%tj, hiodo-Keiv = 
BiBa'i£-<rKeii/ ; docere, discere = dic-scere ; BtKeu/, Bi'a-Ko? = B/k-o-ko? ; Aa/ceiV, 
Xaa-KUi = AaK-o-KO) ; elicu), H'ctku) = elx-axco ; etVeu/, ur/ceu = 'itt-<t Keu ; e^co 9 
To-^w (e^-o-Kw) ; Ae'yw, AeV^ = Xey-a-^rj ; \xiyr\vai, fxia-ya) = uiy-<TK(o, 
misceo = mic-sceo ; Trader, irda-yui = irdd-a-Koo = Trei/0-o-KO) ; ^o'y-o?, fxdcr- 



378 THE ROOTS OF [Book III. 

^09 = fxoy-o-Ko? (comp. vacca, vehere); alcus, cu<r^o<? = cJc-o-ic<k ; e£ 
(e'«), eo-^arvs = eK-o-i«xTo<; ; precor, procus, posco =proc-sco. 

220 We may mention as outwardly connected with assimilation, 
though in fact by no means proceeding from the same cause, the very 
common practice of doubling liquids in Greek words where no compen- 
sation is necessary or intended. This is particularly remarkable in 
some proper names which occur in the Attic Dramatists ; as Tinro/i- 
fxeoovTos (iEsch. Sept. c. Thch. 488), YlapdewoiccuiK (1 '*"), 
TeWevTavTov (Soph. Ajax, 210), 'AXipeaalfioiau (Soph. ap. Priscian. 
p. 1328), 'liTiToldfXfxov (Aristoph. / .s), in some of which 
passages editors of the Porsonian school have introduced alterations 
as forced as they are unnecessary. To thflM arbitrary r- duplications we 
may add ftpoK-^ov for fipoyov in Theognis, v. l« See Scaliger ad 
Euscb. p. 119i quoted by Gai-ford, Poet Mm. II. p. xxix.) 

221 An inquiry into the rules of assimilation might lead us to an 
investigation of a conver»e phenomenon in the Greek and other lan- 
guages, which Pott (JflfjfW. Furach. II. p. 65, foil.) calls dissimilation. 
This consists in the avoidant 

letters, hiatus of \..\\ 1 1-, and so forth : and euphony is alleged as the 
cause of tlii- M weD M link, however, that 

this so-called disMinilation U) anything beyond M 

caprice, a wayward choice or an accid mnunciation. Th.. 

Greek ear often repudiated such concurrences, and that many Greek 
words, especially compound-. ha\e loti in en- equenoe essential conso- 
nants, is well known (see Loheck, P .■■oa/Xiro- ■ but 
it is equally certain that they had, when the fit took them, a strong 
predilection for alliteration, an irresistible | to assim 
words and komasdisUt^m in sentences, of which their constant use of the 
Jitiura ctinnoJo'i'iCii is a sutheient proof. Of their disliko to a concur 
rence of aspirates, or indeed . the 
same word, and o( the tran- occasioned by thi- t a-te. we have 
already spoken. Of the other ohaagtt which fall under the head of 
dissimilation it is scarcely worth while to speak, for they 1MB incapa- 
ble of a reduction to rules and systems ; besides, the phenomena are to 
be collected from so wide a field that the enumeration would far exceed 
the limits to which these di- m necessarily confined. 

One of the most common changes of dissimilation with which a root 
may be aiVected without losing its identity is that called MctatMssis. 
The metathesis of vowels takes plane most frequently in the case of 



Chap, lj NOUNS AND VERBS. 379 

liquids, because it is a matter of indifference whether a vowel is placed 
before or after them. Instances of this change meet us constantly in 
every language. Thus in English we have bird, brid; third, thridde; 
bordel, brothel; burst, brust; board, broad; &c (Diversions of Pur- 
ley, II. p. 83, foil.) ; and there is a curious instance of the same kind in 
Drayton's Nymphidia ; for when he says : 

"By the mandrake's dreadful groans, 
By the Lubrican's sad moans," 
it is clear that he is alluding to the Lubberkin, that lazy fiend, who 
piteously resisted his brother fairies' attempts to awaken him. In Greek 
we find edavov, dvqo-Kuy ; Kapdia, Kpahta; pe'^etv, epyov; efxoXou, j3\(a<TKia, 
and even in the same word eyp-tjyopa (Journal of Education, Y.p. 305). 
And so also in comparisons of different languages, as English horse, 
German ftoss, French roussin ; English fright, German Furcht for 
Vor-acht ; English folk, German Volk, Latin volgus, Greek 6'^Aoc, 
Cretan tto'a^o?, Sclavonic plok, polk, pluk ; Lithuanian pulkas (as we 
read of a "pulk of cossacks"); old Norse flockr, Anglo-Saxon floe, 
English flock ; &c. Metatheses like \^<i> for <r<piv ; yjsdkiov for <nrd\iov ; 
vespa for <r(pri£ ; <pd<ryavov for a-epdyavov ; &c, are analogous to that 
transposition of the aspirate and semivowels, which we have already 
stated and explained. We may also compare £'«po<; = <ri<i<po<; (schief) 
with the old Egyptian sef, and the Semitic analogies pointed out by 
Bunsen, JEgypten, I. p. 582. 

222 (IV.) (1) The most systematic of the changes which a root 
undergoes is the modification of its vowel. This is produced by influ- 
ences similar to those to which we have attributed the assimilation of 
the consonants, namely, the contact with the prefix and suffix, the 
greater or less weight of which induces a less or greater weight of the 
root- vowel. 

It has been shown in a former chapter that there are properly 
speaking only three distinct vowels : a or the common sound by which 
all consonants are articulated ; i and u the ultimate state, the former of 
the gutturals and the dentals, and the latter of the labials. The vowels 
o and e differ from a in weight only. 

The Greek vowels a, i, v, as opposed to one another, in most 
cases correspond to the three original Sanscrit vowels a, i, ii, and there 
is seldom, if ever, any interchange or confusion between the different 
vowels of the two sets ; whereas the two Greek vowels e, o, very often 
share with a in the representation of the Sanscrit a, € being the most 
common substitution for it, o the next, and a the least usual. Of these 
three representatives of the Indian short vowel, the heaviest is a, the 



380 



THE ROOTS OF 



[Book HI. 



lightest e, and o stands between them. As the Indian a is the mere 
articulation of the different consonants which form the Sanscrit syllaba- 
rium, and is therefore the shortest possible, it is of course obvious why 
the lightest of the Greek vowels stands in its place. Of the three dis- 
tinct vowels a, i, u, it is clear that i is lighter than a though it i9 
heavier than e. This appears, as far as the Latin language is concerned, 
from the fact pointed out by Bopp (Vergl. G p. 5), that in 

secondary formations the radical a is turned into i in syllables termi- 
nating with a vowel, and into e when the syllable is followed by two 
consonants, or the consonant which follows is deprived of its vowel and 
thrown back upon the root-vowel, as in the full ances adduced 

by Bopp (/. c.) and Rosen {Journal of I a, VIII. p. 344*). 

amicus inimicut 



a>l jifus 



fillo 



( occiput 

/'una 

{cec'uii 
stillicidium 






MOTMf 

/>s 



ssneansni 

at'jtclus 



Now it is quite clear that in all these cases the i is introduced into 
a heavier form than the a, and the I than the i, consequently 
heavier than I and lighter than ./. A >imilar analogy shows that the 
Latin u is heavier than /. We have shown lilwmliiini (Farnowsan 
212, sqq.) that there were three values of the Latin i and H m 
tively. (1) The long i r in composition, the diphthoi ._ 

as in Ift-tjVttl from wqwtwj (2) the medium i is that which standi 
a in the instances given above, and also in inter for av-rtp (§ 204), in 
for dvd (§ 170), UU for aXXot (§ 1( [$) the shaft i approximates 

to the sound of the shorter it, and wm chiefly used where we should 
expect f before r and another consonant, as in si . -',-. A^ain, 



• Rosen asks, « How docs it happen that pario deviates from the analogy, 
its preterperfeet tense fuperi instead of jxpiri : ■ We answer, because in this word the 
r is thrown back upon the root-vowel. 



Chap. 1.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 381 

(1) the long u represents the diphthong oi = oe, as in munus = rncenus, 
and, in composition, the diphthong au, as in in-cludo from claudo ; 

(2) the medium u stands for a Greek o as in lup-us, AuVos ; (3) the short 
ii is nearly the same as the shortest i, and is chiefly used before I and 
another consonant, where we should expect e, as in con-culco from calco, 
which, according to the table, ought to be con-celco. Now in the first 
and third cases it is obvious that there can be no difference in weight 
between i and u : indeed, i is sometimes written for oi = u, as in cime- 
terium for KotfxrjTt]piov ; and in ob-edio from audio, e takes the place of 
u. But the medium or ordinary u must have been heavier than the 
medium or ordinary i, for the Greek o passes through u into % ; com- 
pare the Greek tvitt-o-^v = TuVr-o-^e? with the old forms sumus, 
volumus, and their more recent counterparts in -imus: so also the 
Greek Y^dcropos passes through the old Castorus into the classical 
Castor is, and some genitives in -us never became obsolete, as hujus, ejus, 
unius, &c. Again, in old Latin the vowel of the crude-form is pre- 
served in the inflexions, as in arcu-bus, op-tumus, pontu-fex, &c, in all 
of which the later Latin exhibits an i (see Lepsius, Palaograph. p. 53). 
From these instances we should infer that the medium u is lighter than 
o and heavier than i. That u is lighter than o is farther shown by the 
change from cohere to cultus, from columen to culmen, though the u here 
may have been partly occasioned by that affinity between u and I, of 
which the French furnishes so many examples, and which we see also 
in the transition from the Greek 'Aa-K\»/Vto<?, t H.paK\ij<s to the Latin 
uEsculapius, Hercules. We have probably the lightest form of u in the 
reduplications cucurri, tutudi, &c. ; for a becomes e in the reduplica- 
tive syllable, just as *;, a) become *. It is probable that momordi is a 
corruption of an original memordi, or mii-mordi. We observe the same 
retention of u in Sanscrit desideratives, as in yuyutz, "to desire to 
fight." In Gothic, a is obviously heavier than u, for we have hulpum 
" we helped," in the plural or heavier form, but halp " I helped," in the 
singular. We observe the same change from -thas, -tas, the ordinary 
dual-endings in Sanscrit, to -thus, -tus in the longer and heavier forms 
of the preterite (Bopp, Vocalismus, p. 227). In Greek, not only is o 
lighter than a, but o> is lighter than rj (§ 11 6); and the change from 
-io9 to -eox? proves that t is heavier than e. That v is heavier than i. 
appears from the fact that in the weakest forms of words containing 
labials, whether the labial is vocalized into v or not, we find i as the last 
faint trace of the original form: compare (pvoo, <pv'm, vl6^,Jio,Jilius ; hva, 
pi, "i i ypct[jifj.a-Tev<;, ypafjL/xa-Ti^u) ; arvs, <r'ia\o<; ; Ta^i/?, Ta^to-ros, &c. 
The Boeotian substitution of v for oi shows that o was equal to i and 
something more. A fortiori v is also heavier than e. On the whole 



382 THE ROOTS OF [Book III. 

then it may be stated that the following tables represent the compara- 
tive weight of the Greek and Latin vowels : 

Greek : a ; rj, oo ; a ; o; i/, i ; e. 

Latin: a; u, i ; a; o, u, i; e; «, i. 

223 (2) Besides the euphonical change produced by substituting 
a lighter for a heavier vowel in a heavier form, there are three other 
vowel-changes of very frequent occurrence, which we m3y term adsci- 
titious vocalization. 

(ft) The first is that which the Sanscrit Grammarians call 
and vriddhi; [/una or "corroboration" takes place when d is pu: 
fore cither of the last four of the simple vowels i", u, i% Ir ; rrlil 
"increment" when a is placed before one of ti Is after i* 

been ywwa'd ; thus 

i u r Ir 

nana 6 ar </! 

rri'lllil ax au id 

That the conversion of the vowels r, Ir in: 
is igymOy appear- from the hrf that <\ 6 became ut/> ar before vowels. 
This insertion of ■ new vowel into t 1 not in itself significant ; 

it is purely dynamical I t- only, and, like r 

plication, &c, i n to the root win- 

necessary to adapt it f»r tl M of duration. In Greek th<- • 

fft ma is never effected by a, l>nt by f in the heavier, and o in t 
forms. Bopp has rightly remarked ( 1V-//whw, p. lfKJ. full.) that the 
Greek av correspond- to a rn<Uhi y not to a pHM of the », and that 
although at does sometimes <tand for the B oU E UlU »'-di\ it never does 
so in cases where <' i< I i, with il 

At the same time he ifl I I in statu 

both punas of i, the only allow ah! mna 

as well as tnrdim, and d*o\o*$o% fef 
weight of the vowel i i- tlie reason why the lighter 
in the puna of v. 

(/?) The second of the changes to which we allude must K 
fully distinguished from puna. This is when i or ■ is subjoined to the 
a or e of the root, so as to make an apparent guna, as, for instance, 
when we have da-*-pa by the side o( rcaiKt, or iXa eV m by the side of 
t\a-o-aj. In this case the intruder is the second, DOt th 
the diphthong ; and as this phenomenon takes place in liquid- 
may conclude that it is due to the nature of the liquid which adn. 



Chap, lj NOUNS AND VERBS. 383 

vowel indifferently before or after it. The doubling of liquids to which 
we have already referred is a phenomenon of the same kind. 

(7) It seems not unreasonable, after what Lepsius has said (Palao- 
grapkie, p. 73, foil.), to consider the anusvdra, or nasal insertion, as a 
part of vocalization. The name anusvdra or " after-vowel" shows that 
it is reckoned among vowels by the Sanscrit grammarians, and, like the 
vowel r, it is capable of guna. In the conjugations it serves very 
much the same purpose as guna, and we find the same root strength- 
ened by guna in one language, and by anusvdra in another. Thus, to 
take the instances given by Lepsius (p. 79)> we have from the Sanscrit 
chid, Latin scid, cki-na-dmi and sci-n-do by anusvdra, whereas the 
Gothic makes sk-a-ida by guna, and if a-'iQoa is a guna'd form, we may 
compare it with the Sanscrit anusvdra-iorm i-n-dh. The Latin is 
most partial to anusvdra, the Gothic least so, as will be seen from the 
following instances : 

Sanscrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic, 

(root lika) lekmi (root A<^) Aer^o) lingo 

(A.i7r) \€i7T(a linquo 

(str) strnomi (arop) cropvvpn sterno strauja 

(tuda) tuddmi tundo stauta 

(uda) vhwp unda vato 

The vowel of the guna is softened into i in Gothic, a fact which 
was first pointed out by Bopp, and to which we shall return when we 
come to a discussion of the verb-conjugation. We may compare with 
it the insertion of j before vowels in the Sclavonic languages, sometimes 
instead of guna as in vjemj (Sanscrit vedmi) ; sometimes as an arbitrary 
insertion; compare jesmj with the Sanscrit asmi. Of this latter inser- 
tion we have some remarkable instances in iEolic Greek. Thus, in a 
Boeotian Inscription (Bockh, No. 1564, 1. 1) we have Tiov-^av dyddav 
for Tv^rju dyadtjv: in a Delphian Inscription (Bockh, No. 1688, 1. 11), 
/ur/Be hwpa le^idaQu for le^dadw ; and in the Fragment of Corinna 
quoted above (p. 224), we have WivZaploio for Hivldpoio. 

224 Before we quit this subject, it will be proper to add 
a few remarks on the significance of roots, a subject on which 
some very gratuitous assumptions have been made. Hoots be- 
ing the centres around which the words of a language are 
grouped, the elements from which the noun and verb develope 
their multifarious forms, the points of convergence from which 
they spread themselves out with infinite ramifications, it is un- 



384 THE ROOTS OF [Book III. 

necessary to suppose that they should all have a distinct mean- 
ing when taken by themselves. The fact is, that most of them 
obtain a significance, recognisable by the understanding, only 
when combined with those terminations and flexion-forms which 
make them into words, and in these words they must be exa- 
mined if we would know them. 

The root of a word points to the conception, to the selection 
of some particular quality of the object which makes most im- 
pression upon us, and by which we classify it with the other 
objects, possessing or appearing to possess the same quality. 
Why particular combinations of letters should be chosen for the 
expression of certain qualities, is a mystery which cannot always 
be explained. It has been hinted that the three primary | 
tions in space were indicated by the first three consonant-articu- 
lations, namely, the three tenues, and that these constitute the 
three fundamental pronouns. Farther than tfak ,:inot go. 

It appears that certain of these pronominal stems, or modifica- 
tions of them, have become verbal roots ; thus, we have the 
first in fxa-io = Me-i/a>, and in 7T€pdu>, irpayos, &c. (see Greek 
Grammar, Art. 79)i from the second in its two forms Fa and 
tva, we have aevw, 6oos y Ti-Otj-m, Keiuai, cew, cuw, &c. ; all 
of which preserve the meaning of the pronominal words with 
which they are connected. We B too, tli.it Fopo£ is 

only the preposition d-vd. with a suffix, and that there mi 
be some reason for m the particular syllables which 

press the relations of father and mother. But. generally speak- 
ing, the choice is either arbitrary, or depends upon prim 
of which it would be idle to seek an explanation. 

225 In considering the roots of words, we must be careful 
to distinguish them according to the metaphysical or historical 
differences of the same root. A metaphysical difference 
two roots etymologically equivalent, is when they express two 
ideas connected by the relation, not of resemblance, but of con- 
trast : an historical difference is when, with the same ineaii 
they have suffered th< natic changes, which time ami 

are continually producing upon the consonants of a language as 
long as it is spoken. It will be recollected that both these dif- 
ferences are daily taking place: for every man uses every word 
of his own language according to his own mode of thinking or 



Chap. 1.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 385 

habits of life ; and the pronunciation of words is also subject 
to continual variation*. And thus, many of our English vul- 
garisms are merely examples of changes, which take place so 
regularly in certain languages, that they may almost be reduced 
under general rules : for instance, the addition of a dental as in 
gown-d for gown, varmin-t for vermin, is the same variation 
that appears in hun-d compared with cants, tyran-t compared 
with tyrannus, &c. Changes occasionally take place in the 
secondary applications of terms, which have no reference what- 
ever to their original or radical meaning. Sometimes, to adopt 
Mr Cobbett's expression, we have the same combination of letters, 
but not the same word. For example, the word " page," when 
it signifies the side of a leaf of paper, plainly recalls its origin, the 
Latin pagina. When, however, it means a youthful domestic, 
whether at court or in a private family, it is the mutilated repre- 
sentative of the Greek word irailayuyiov " a little iraiidy wy 09," 
i. e. one of those servants who were especially appointed to wait 
upon the young master. The French term chetif, and our old 
" caitiff," are derived through the Italian cattivo from the Latin 
captivus, as if all baseness and misery were the natural result of 
misfortune in war. And thus the Sclavonians, whose name sig- 
nifies " glorious," " illustrious," and the root of which constitutes 
the key-note to the laconic epinicium of their celebrated warrior 
Suwarrowf, from having merely furnished a large number of 
prisoners of war, have given us our modern name "slave," esclave, 
schiavo. The Bulgari (according to the French pronunciation 
Bovlgres and Bougres) owe the horrible degradation of their 
national name to their early connexion with heresy (Gibbon, X. 
p. 177 Milman). The word Gypsy, which signifies " vagabond," 
and " impostor," is merely a corruption of Egyptian ; and in the 
land of the Nile itself, gins el Farauni, " descendant of Pharaoh," 
is an abusive designation of Christians. From the same word 



* " Adeo enim cerea est vocabulorum natura, ut in ipso loquentium 
ore aliter atque aliter figurentur." Lobeck, Paralipom. p. 148. 

t Suwarrow's letter to the Empress Katharine on the taking of 
Ismael was the followiDg couplet: 

"Slava Bogn! slava vam! 
Rrepost vzata, y ia tam." 

" Glory to God, glory to thee ! The fortress is taken, and I am there." 

Cc 



386 THE ROOTS OF [Book III. 

geist or geest, we have gas, which represents the highest flight of 
modern science, and ghost, which suggests the most degrading of 
mediaeval superstitions. The word "quarrel" leads us back 
through querelle to querela, which means a complaint from the 
weaker or injured party; but our English word signifies rather to 
take a high ground in asserting one's rights, and even to assume 
the initiative in a dispute. These meanings find their common 
ground in the forensic application of the term : for the humble 
complainant is naturally antecedent to the litigious suitor. When 
we speak of a tapster in modern English, we always imply a 
burley cellarman ; but our ancestors left this office to women, 
and tapster is the regular feminine of tapper, as sj is of 

spinner. In the same way the women used often to bake the 
bread, and in Bury St Edmunds the High and Low Baxter Streets 
run out of the Cooks' Row, which was the old name of Abbey- 
Gate Street. Many of these feminine forms are preserved only 
in proper names, &o, but they 

are not the less genuine remnants of ancient employments of the 
weaker sex, which are now more appropriately transferred to 
men. The examples which we h D and to which almost 

any number might be idd sufficient to show that even an 

obvious it/mology i. □ no connexion with the 

acceptation of i word ; and from this the inference is plain, that 
the dissection of words, though uniformly valuable as a dej 
ment of grammar, is not the on! of information which 

the lexicographer must render available to his purposes. 

226 "When we wish to dissect a word in order to arrive 
at its primary element or root, our first object is to inquire with 
what other words it agrees in termination or prefix. The latter 
is stript off at once, but the removal of the affix is often a double 
operation. To take that set of words called nouns, with which 
we are in the present part of this work more immediately con- 
cerned, we find that every one ends with a short termination, 
often a single letter, which marks its immediate relation to the 
other objects in connexion with it. and which we call the case- 
ending. But, in the majority of words, we find, between this 
and the root, an affix consisting of one or more pronominal stems, 
which marks the definite class and quality of the noun, and 
points out the restriction with which the general force of the 



Chap. 1.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 387 

root is applied in the particular instance. When the case- end- 
ing alone is removed, the remaining part of the word is called 
its crude-form, whether it has another pronominal affix or not. 
In most nouns the crude or uninflected form must be still farther 
denuded before we can arrive at the root or skeleton of the 
word. Accordingly, in the following analysis of the noun, we 
have first considered the case-endings or absolute terminations 
of the noun, and have then examined those pronominal inser- 
tions before the case-ending, which may be considered as the 
terminations, not of the noun, but of its crude-form. The young 
student will thus more clearly discern by what successive steps 
he must proceed in dissecting any given noun in order to arrive 
at a definite conception of its meaning, so far as the signification 
has remained unaffected by the arbitrary or capricious applica- 
tions to which we have adverted. 



Cc2 



CHAPTER II. 
THE CASE-ENDINGS OF THE NOUN. 

227 Definition and arrangement of cases. 228 Formation of the feminine noun. 
Criticism of Bopp's opinion. 229 Reasons for the assumption of the feminine 
gender in certain nouns. 230 Dual number. 231 Sanscrit case-system. 2'->. 
and Greek Declensions. 233 (a) Latin case-forms. 234 (6) Greek case-forms. 
235 Detailed examination of the cases : ( 1 ) Accusative. The dentai » its original 
affix. 230 Neuter nouns have no nominative. 237 Connexion between the ac- 
cusative and locative n. 238 Accusative plural of masculine and feminine nouns. 
239 Origin of neuter plurals in planation of the anomalies hac and 

quae. 241 Dual forms. 242(2) Nominative. The sibilant * its proper suffix, 
but often absorbed or dropt. 243 Explanation of the nominative sign. 244 
Nominative plural formed by a reduplication of this affix. 341 (8) a. Imple- 
mentive or Instrumental. '. D - merit forms. - 

Dative includes there CMC* 1 17 h B. ./ ' < . Its form in Sanscrit and 
Latin nouns and in Greek adverbs. 248 (4) b. C I »nly a longer form 

of the ablative. 24'J Identity of the terminations -6ev and -au>-v. Ml The 
genitive plural formed from the genitive singular. 251 (5) Vocative. A mere 
crude-form. 

227 TT7TIEX we say that a noun is the name of a tiling, we 
T V mean that it is a word by which we express our 
conception of some object ; now the conception of a natural 
object is the recollection of the most prominent quality or 
tribute which we have perceived in it ; the name, therefore, 
points out or refers to this quality or attribute. Wi .own 

in the last chapter that the part of a noun which convey 
meaning to our car, and which is called it- >tcm or ro< 
appears by itself in those languages which have inflexions ; even 
the crude or uninfected form is never found alone, except when 
it stands as the vocative case. To the crude-form, in all other 
instances, is affixed a termination, which constitutes it a word, 
and gives it the signitication of a noun ; for the same root, with 
a different termination, and perhaps slightly modified, might be 
a verb. These endings, which make the crude-form into a noun, 
and which we call the moo ondingn. it is now our busmen 
discuss separately and in detail. The designation " case," casus, 
i.e. "falling," is derived from the Latin version of th 
7TTft5(Ti?. Xow this word is used I j:iify not only 

a case of the noun, but any inflexion either of a noun or a verb, 
and indeed any word-form, whether declinable. I 
in ~T6pos y or indeclinable, as an adverb in •<.>. Nmj mere : not 



Chap. 2.] THE CASE -ENDINGS OF THE NOUN. 389 

merely forms of words, but even forms of sentences, are, according 
to his phraseology, 7TT(vcreis Xoyov, see Aristot. (?) Poet. 20, 10. 
And for the -irTuxjis Xoyov, compare Topic.Yl. 10, 1 : in el twv 

OUXOLWV TOV OVOfAaTOS 7TTC0(T€WV CU O/JLOiai TOV XoyOV 7TTW(T€L<S 

e (pa p/uoTT ovcriv, olov el (tXpeXifxov to ttoiyitlkov vyielas Kal 
wcpeXifiov to 7T67roLr]K6s vyieiav, where we have a change in the 
sentence introduced by a change of tense. In this wider sense 
of the word tttwgis, it seems to approximate in meaning to the 
word 7TTWfjLa, and to signify the accidental state or condition of an 
object presented to the senses. Hence the old logicians, accord- 
ing to Plutarch, used 7T7wi? as a synonym for ovo/ma, namely, 
as signifying whatever was the subject of a predication ; Qucest. 
Platon. 1009 c. p. 108, Wyttenb. : tovto £e (sc. the irpwTos 
Xoyos, formerly called irpoTaai^ or " proposition," and after- 
wards a^icofxa or "enunciation,") e£ 6v6(xaTo$ Kal ptjfiaTos 
ovveo~Ti]Kev (above, § 124), wv to fiev tttwctlv SiaXeKTiKol, to Se 
K.aTY)yo prj/ma Ka\ovo~iv. In this sense we call all that part of 
grammar which refers to the forms of individual words by the 
name of "accidence" (accidentia), which seems to point to the 
Greek avtxirTwois. Supposing then that tttwo-is originally de- 
signated any change of form to which the individual word was 
liable, it is easy to understand the transition by which the Stoics 
limited its use to the declensions of the noun. For ovofxa, in 
its logical sense, was equivalent to 7ttwgis : accordingly, when 
ovo,ua was merely " the noun," irTwa€i<s would designate merely 
the inflexions of the noun. But along with this limited applica- 
tion the Stoics introduced a different explanation of the term. 
The Peripatetics understood by it merely the corpus mortuum 
of an individual word, the ovo/ma, before it was vivified by its 
connexion with the pij/ua, and became a part of the Xoyo$. But 
the Stoics considered the nominative as indicated by a per- 
pendicular line, from which the other cases fell away or de- 
clined at different angles. Hence the nominative was called the 
7rTa5o-t9 opOri or euOela, i.e. casus rectus, and the others the 
TTTcoo-eis -rfxdyiai, i-e. casus obliqui (see Diog. Laert. Vita 
Zenonis, VII. 65). That this, however, was not the original 
meaning of tttooo-ls, is sufficiently shown by the objection of 
Georgius Choeroboscus (ad Theodos. p. 9> 35, Gaisford) : SrjXov 
oti r\ evOeia ovk 60~ti tttwo-is Kvpiws' el yap y)v KVpicos tttwo'i'S 
ev TrapaQecrei elyjv elvai /xerd twv irpoOecreiov. How Chry- 



390 THE CASE-ENDINGS [Book III. 

sippus, in his book irepl twv irevre -rrrwaewv, would have dealt 
with this difficulty, we have no means of knowing : but in all 
probability the original and secondary meanings of the term were 
somewhat blended and confused. It is clear that Chceroboscus 
did not understand the terms 6p0tj and evOela as opposed to the 
term 7r\ayia, for he says (u. s. p. 10, 26) : cet yivuxjueiv on rj 
fxev opOr/ ovofxaGTiKt] Xeyerai kciI evOeta' kclI opOr} kclI evOeia 
Xeyerai, eTreicrj opOws crr/naivei ti\v oua'iav tuv irpayuaToC — 
oi'o/maariKrj €7reictj ot auTrjs tos ovofiatjlas iroiovfieQa*. 

We have before adduced reasons for the opinion, that the 
accusative or objective case is the primitive form of the pro- 
nouns ; the same, we believe, holds with regard to the nouns : 
if the primary expression of self is objective, much more so must 
be that of any object in the external world. In Analyzing the 
cases, therefore, we shall consider the accusative or general ob- 
jective case first ; the others we shall discuss, as nearly as pos- 
sible, in the order in which they are placed i; it, which 
has the fewest piv i, and therefore the most complete * 
system of any of the lang ith which we are concerned. 

In Sanscrit there are three :ne, feminine, 

and neuter; three nui lingular, dual, and plural; and i 

cases; nominative iiuplementive or instrumental, da- 

tive, ablative, genitive or | 

228 Of the feminine and neuter genders, as distinguished 
from the masculine, Bopp ther qoaintij [VergL < 

p. IS5)s " In Sanscrit the feminine, as well in t .is in the 

case-endings, loves a luxuriant fulness of form, and where it is 
distinguished in the stem or in the ending from the other _ 
it is marked by broader, more sounding vowels. The neuter, 
on the contrary, loves the utmost brevity, but is distinguished 
from the masculine, not in the stem, but only in the most pro- 
minent cases, in the nominative and in its perfect opposite, the 



* On the subject of the dispute between the Peripatetics and 
respecting the applicability of wWmto as a designation of the oomins 

the reader may consult Ammonias, p. 104 Brandis. And for the dtl 
tions by which the cases were known to the Greeks, from who:., 
borrowed them, see Chceroboscus, /. c. There is a paper on the ycrucq 
irrao-ts by Sehomann in Holer's Zsitschri/1, I. 1. j ; 



Chap. 2 ] OF THE NOUN. 391 

accusative, also in the vocative, where this is the same as the 
nominative." The fact is, that in order to mark more strongly 
the relative and collective nature of things conceived as feminine 
or maternal, the nominative s of the masculine is generally- 
strengthened by a broad vocal utterance, or reduplicated; whereas 
the neuter, which has no nominative, appears only in the ob- 
jective case, which is most liable to mutilation. This explains 
the fact that, in masculine and neuter nouns, the vowel which 
terminates the crude-form, and to which the case-ending is 
attached, is generally and properly short ; while in feminine 
nouns, the vowel is long. There are exceptions to this rule, 
more frequently however in Greek than in Sanscrit. Thus, 
instead of the o which stands for the Sanscrit masculine a in 
\6y-o-s, &c., we have a long a or rj in 7rai$o-Tpil3-rj-s 9 &c, 
and in the numerous class of nouns ending in -rr]$. Though 
the appearance of the genitive in -ov, and the analogy of in-col-a, 
&c., might lead us at first sight to conclude that the crude-form 
terminates in a simple a, yet, on further investigation, it seems 
difficult to conceive an accidental insertion of such a strong and 
heavy vowel as tj, which is in almost all cases the representative 
of some lost or absorbed element. Besides, it is not by any 
means unusual to find in the oblique cases a shorter form than 
in the nominative. This is particularly observable in masc. or 
fem. compounds in ->y? from neuter nouns in -os ; for these 
exhibit the lengthened form only in the nom. and accus., while 
the other cases follow the declension of the primitive neuter. 
Compare, for example, Arj/uoaOevtjs with aOevo?. In our opinion 
the rj here, as elsewhere, includes the lost y, which is used to 
form derivative verbs, and which seems by no means out of place 
in words expressing an action, as the nouns in -77? and -rtjs 
invariably do : and thus TraiSorpifi-tjs, evepye-rr]? are equivalent 
to Trai§oTpifi-ya$, evepye-ryas, just as the corresponding verbs 
would be iraiioTpifieu) (TraiSorpifiyco), evepyerioo (evepyeryw). 
That we have here the second pronominal element under the 
form Ti-, appears more clearly, and throughout the cases, in 
the feminine forms of nouns in -r>?? ; compare Trpo^o-Tr^, irpo^o- 
Tis (-ti3-s); LKe-rris, \ne-Tis (-tiSs) &c. In nouns like rafx-ia-s, 
root rap-, the second element is clearly seen under the double 
form -ia=ia-aa. Bopp's remarks (Vergl. Gramm. p. 139) on 
the long i, which appears most frequently in Sanscrit as the 



392 THB CASE-ENDINGS [Book III. 

characteristic addition for the formation of stems of the feminine 
genders, deserve insertion here as the expression of a distinct 
opinion, which we must endeavour to controvert : " In Greek 
and Latin this feminine long i has become unfit for declen- 
sion, and where it has still left any traces, a later, unorganic 
addition has become the vehicle for the case-endings. In Greek 
this addition is either a or c; in Latin it is c. Thus 
rjSeia answers to the Sanscrit 9V&dv4 from wAdf ' sw<„ 
-Tpia, -rpio, e. fj. in op^^rpia, Xrjarpis, \tj<TTpic-os, an- 
to the Sanscrit - ' she who brings forth,' 

to which the Latin genitri-c while in 

the Greek yevereipa and similar formations, the old feminine 
i is pushed back a syllabic. This analogy is followe<! 
Xawa, raXaiva, TV/Mini, and :ive derivations like i 

Tatva, AuKftivu. In Oipairaura, \uma, the stem of the pri- 
mitive is mutilated by the loss I the case 
with the nominative masculine. In we must 
assume, cither that the | -imitive in »/, or lost, 
or that these are forms of a different k 1 agree with 
indr&nSi ' the wife of Indra.' a word which stands nearly alone 
in Sanscrit. I s, whore the feminin we eded 1 
only, are confined to feminine derivat I forms in rr, in 
which the r i- changed into <r, and the preceding v 
sentcd by u or i, or a mere lengthening of the preceding v. 
or assimilated to the a ; 

thus, ovj-a, eia-a, €(j(T-a, a<x-a, (Dor. aia-a), i~ 
for ovT-a. ( 

To this class we must snunine substantives like 

Xacrarcii fiaatXiaaa, / which J, Grim: as I 

think very rightly, compares with forms like yapl-cac 
Toeaaa, and explains the doubled - by ^Termination or assi- 
milation. These formations of tho feminine by a simp". 
instead of the original i, are the m tho 

most recent : the Greek too is not supp or te d here by an\ 
the cognate Languages.* 1 As a ction to this tin 

respecting the formation of the feininir. remark I 

the vowel j is. according to the principles developed in a | 
ceding chapter, a secondary form of tl: : a. It appears 

therefore to us a sort of philological sokveism to say that -ca 



Chap. 2.] OF THE NOUN. 393 

is a corrupt and more recent form of -i. On the contrary, we 
are convinced that the oldest and most genuine method of form- 
ing the feminine from the masculine is that which is still pre- 
served in many Greek words, namely, by substituting -aa for 
the -s of the masculine nominative. The participial words cited 
by Bopp furnish simple examples. Thus, from the masc. ya- 
pieis = yapievr-s, we have the fem. yaptea-aa = yapievr-cra ; 
from tvtttwv = tvtttovt-s, and cioovs = cioovT-s, we have tvtt- 
rou-aa, ciSov-aa; from Seucvvs = $6ik-vvi>t-$ 9 we have SetKvv-aa, 
and so forth. We consider the forms in -ia, -pa to be only second- 
ary states of these original forms in -era, whereas the forms in -id, 
-pa are contractions of -id-ad, and -pd-aa, in which a formative 
syllable is inserted, just as in the nouns in -6-s, -$-$ ; for we 
have words in -rpia = -rpiaaa by the side of words in -rpi-$-$. 
That the same is the case in the words which end in -tj, namely 
that these are contracted from older forms in ed = ya-ad, appears 
from words like avKea, aunt], where the uncontracted form is 
still extant. The feminine adjectives /ueXaiva, &c. merely ex- 
hibit the secondary forms fieXdv-id, &c. with the absorption and 
compensation noticed above (§ 215 c); and the same is the case with 
nouns like yXalva, which have no corresponding masculine forms. 
In nouns like /uepL/uva, eyi^va, which we must compare with 
7roTvia, TTorva, the i of the termination is either lost or appears 
in the penultima only, while it is represented by the doubled \ 
or v of afiiWd, deXXd, K6pivva,8tc (above, J 215 6), and contained 
in the £ of pi(d, according to the proper power of that letter, 
(above, $ 21 6). In the words which end in -da and -Sa we must 
consider these dentals as representing an original a- (above, 
fi 149). As the feminines reKraiva, Adtcaiva, stand by the side of 
masculines in -wv, which in the one case represents ov-s and in 
the other -cms, we cannot consider them as entirely analogous 
to fieXatva, &c, unless we presume obsolete masculines in -av or 
-a?. The ethnical name 'Aaapvdv would justify an original 
Aaicdv = Acucyv, of which Aclkcov is after all only a lighter form 
(§ 116) : and the verb, TCKraivw, points to an original tcktyiv - 
T€KTwv, cf. ippr/v, eixfipaivu), &c. The same assumption of obso- 
lete masculines is also required by Geaiva, Xeaiva, and is easily 
justifiable: for the Tirdves presume as their opponents the Qedves; 
and Qedvu) must be derived from Qedv, or Qeavevs : the extant 
XT?, accusative Xli>, may lead us to an original Xea*>, of which the 



394 THE CASE-ENDING [Book in. 

participial Xeovr- for Xdovr- is a by-form ; compare fiouaa with 
the participle /uwaa from /iaw. The words Xvkclwv and Xi//ca-/3a9 
would suggest Xvkclv, according to the combinations noticed by 
Muller (Dor. II. § 6), and from this masculine, Xvicaiva would 
be the analogous derivative. With regard to the very peculiar 
form Secnroiva, we must remark that cecr-7roT>7$ and tcot-vicl 
correspond to the Sanscrit patis u a master," and pat-ni " a 
mistress" (Rosen, Journal of Educ. VIII. p. nd conse- 

quently, that we need not trouble ourselves to find in -kotvicl 
the feminine for cecnroTrjs. The analogy of Oepdiru)*, Oepdircuva 
would conduct us to an obsolete ceGirwv, a degenerate participle, 
of which wo have other examples. It may seem an open question 
whether we are to explain dvaaaa, fiaaiXtaaa, OdXa<raa, Opqaaa, 
/jLeXiacra, &c., with reference to the primary form in -aa or to 
the secondary form in -ml There can be no doubt that i \paaaa 
might result from OpaK-i<i, fiaaiXitraa from fia<jiX'ic-ia, and so 
forth. But the analogy of Ulyxes, compared wit -e»k, 

might justify our assumption of the original -era in the case of 
the gutturals, and the assimilation of the dentals to a 

following a- might Been not unnatural. As, however, we have 
seen that the bar rbs in aa exhibit the assimilation of a 

guttural or dental su< reeded by j = >/, it is more reasonable to 
suppose that the same o is produced the same result in 

the feminines in -craa ; for it would be strange if the explana- 
tion of dvciaaio did not apply also to avacraa, especially as 
future dvd'tio and the dative dra£t are opposed to the assumed 

illations of r or rr to era. When we see the terming 
thus brought back by contact or assimilation to the form -ca 
from which it originally started, we seem to prove our etymolo- 
gical rule by a process of inversion which is so frequently 
applicable in arithinet D the whole we cannot but regard 

Bopp's explanation rms as singularly d efi cie nt 

in critical tact and accuracv. That the i or of the Greek and 

« 

Latin feminines is do! un< m he supposes, will appear in 

the next chapter. 

220 If it be inquired what is the reason why so many in- 
animate objects are called by names which are ed mas- 
culine or feminine, it will be sutneient to answer, that this may 
have arisen partly from the idea of comparative strength or 



Chat. 2.] OF THE NOUN. 395 

weakness (Hermann de Emend, rat. Gr. Gr. p. 125), partly 
also from association ; for if one word of a class be considered as 
feminine, all other words of a similar signification would be so 
considered likewise. For a great many words the gender depends 
upon something included in the idea of the word; a tree, in 
reference to its branches, and most collective words, would be 
feminine, from the included idea of mother (comp. Buttmann, 
Ausfuhrl. Sprl. § 32, Anm. 3). It is for this reason, we conceive, 
that r\ 'i7T7ros, signifies "a body of cavalry" (Thucyd. I. 62), r\ /3oGv 
"a herd of oxen" (Thorn. Mag. in v.), and r\ /ca^Xos "a troop 
of camels" (Herod. I. 80). We observe the same collective 
meaning in irerpa "a rock," i.e. a collection of stones, as op- 
posed to 7r€Tpo<s " an individual or single stone" (§15 note) ; 
also in yjupa an extensive tract of country, as opposed to xcopos, 
and its synonym x°P°' s > which signify " any separate piece of 
land not built on," i. e. either the open space in a town, which is 
the proper meaning of x o P°s ( Theatre of the Greeks, ed. 6, 
p. [ll]), or a field in the country, which is the ordinary signifi- 
cation of xfipos'. so Herod. II. 154: c'lowgl x^P 0V ^ kvotKrjaat: 
cf. I. 126. We might say that x^P a " a territory" was an ad- 
jective agreeing with the suppressed noun yrj, and that x^P°$ 
referred to aypos ; but there is no occasion to call in this ma- 
chinery. The diminutive x^p L0V °f course belongs immediately 
to x^P ^' ^he large meaning of x^P a * s s *^ ^ arfcner shown by 
its use to denote the room or space, the vacans provincia, which 
ought to be filled by some one : see Xenoph. Anab. IV. 8, § 15: 
eireiorj kv Tals x^p ai ^ e/ca<TTot eyevovro, and cf. Blomfield, Gloss. 
ad Agam. JEschyli, 77. 

230 We have remarked that the Sanscrit nouns are in- 
flected in the dual as well as in the singular and plural numbers; 
the same is the case with the Greek, and, to a certain extent, 
with the Gothic. There is every reason to believe that, in 
Greek at least, this dual is nothing more than an older and 
weaker form of the plural, restricted in the newer and more 
refined speech to the expression of two instead of more ; for, 
first, in many of the pronouns we find the oldest forms of the 
root in the dual number ; secondly, we find in Homer, and in- 
deed in later writers, this dual form used as a plural ; lastly, 



396 



THE CASE-EXDINGS 



[Book III. 



we have the analogy of our own and other languages in support 
of the opinion, that of two forms of the same word, the older 
may be confined to vulgar use as a plural, while in the more 
polished language it is restricted to the number two (comp. 
Buttmann, Ausfiihrl. Sprl. § 88, Anm. 1 ; Penny Cyclop, article 
Dual Number). Besides, it appears that some old gramma- 
rians considered the forms diccere, &c. for direrunt, &c. as 
duals (Quintil. I. 5, § 42) ; on the other hand Cicero (Orator. 
c. 47) admitted them as allowable, though antiquated, forms of 
the plural. 

231 As we are about to base our inquiry into the Greek 
cases upon the more complete case-system of the lan- 

guage, we may introduce the subject by laying before our 
readers an example of the declension of some simple and regular 
noun in that language. The name of the divinity. thus 

declined : 













Plur. 


1 


Nominative 










2 


Aocnsati 






do. 


,ni 


:; 


Jmpk'inentivc 
instrumental* 


or) 




giv&bkyim 




i 


Dative 




nit 






5 


Ablative 






do. 


do. 


6 


Genitive 










7 


Locative 




rir<' 


do. 




8 


Vocative 






m 





It is not necessary to remind the student of I that 

every final 8 in this srheme is changed bj vi$arga into A. and 
every m 1 <ira into the nasal n. 

The crude-form of the word which we have taken as an ex- 
ample is cira, which ends in short 3 from its 
affixes, we have the following BcheiM o( ease-endings for a noun 
the crude-form of which i* terminated bv a. 



* Wilkins calls this otae the tmpltm tntim; Bopp and other 
form it the mstrwmmtiaL Wo h:wo mentioned both, but wo mo 
the latter designation. 



Chap. 2.] OF THE NOUN. 397 







OF 


THE 


: NOUN. 






Sing. 






Dual. 


Plur. 


1 


-5 






-6 = au 


-as 


2 


-m 






do. 


-an 


3 


-MMB 






-bhydm 


-is 


4 


-a-ya 






do. 


-bhyas 


5 


-a-t 






do. 


do. 


6 


-sya 






-yds 


-andm 


7 


-i 






do. 


-ishu 


8 


crude-form 




-u 


-as 



It will be remembered that this is only one of many forms of 
declension in Sanscrit, and that even this form differs when 
applied to feminine or neuter nouns. In most of the other 
declensions the instrumental and dative very nearly resemble one 
another : thus, the dative of dhard " earth," is dardydi, and the 
instrumental darayd ; the dative of pritis "love," is pritaye, the 
implementive is prityd, and so forth. To this we shall recur 
hereafter. The general form of the cases in other than the 
short a declension may be derived from the following paradigm 
(vide Bopp, Grammatica Sanscrita, p. 85, or Kritische Gram- 
matik, p. 82): 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 

Nom. smasc. fern. ??ineut.* awm.f. in. as m.f.n. in. 

Ace. m, amm.f. mn.* aum.i.in. s, as m.f.n m. in. 

Instr. a m.f.n. am.n.* bhydm m.f.n. bhis m.f.n. 

Dat. e m. f. n. ai f. ay a m. n.* bhydm m. f. n. bhyas m. f. n„ 

Abl. t m.n.* as m.f.n. bhydmm.f.n. bhyasm.f.n. 

sm.f. dsf. 

Gen. sya m.n.* as m.f.n. osm.f.n. amm.f.n. 

s m. f. as f. 

Loc. im.f.n.dmf. 6s m.f.n. su m.f.n. 

232 It is customary to divide Greek nouns according to 
three, and Latin nouns according to one consonant and five vowel 
declensions f. The differences which constitute the declensions 



* Only in the a declension, 
t The student will find the Greek declensions arranged according to 
our views in the Greek Grammar, 157 — 194, and the Latin in the Varro- 
nianus, p. 227 sqq. 



398 



THE CASE-EXDINGS 



[Book in. 



are differences of root and crude-form, not differences of termi- 
nation. The case-endings must have been originally the same 
for all nouns ; indeed we can observe striking resemblances be- 
tween them even in the Greek language, as it exists in the 
writings which have come down to us. For instance, the dative 
singular and the dative and genitive plural are always distin- 
guished by the same endings, as is generally the accusative sin- 
gular also. A writer in the Journal of Education (Vol. V. p. 19) 
remarks, " That at one period of the language, probably prior to 
any written books that have come down to us, all the Latin and 
Greek nouns had an incremental syllable in the genitive and 
oblique cases, we consider to be nearly demonstrable." We do 
not think there are sufficient grounds for this generalization. 
There is no good reason, so far as we know, for supposing that, 
in the oldest state of the language, the accusative was ever a 
longer form than the nominative. If we consider the Latin and 
Greek nouns in the oldest forms which we have of them, and 
extend our observations by analogy to all cases, \\c shall have 
the following schemes for the case-endings in Latin and Greek. 
It will be recollected that we take merely the case-endings, and 
do not trouble ourselves with the roots or crude-forms of particu- 
lar words. 



233 



Nom. 



Ace. 



(</) I. a us Declension. 



Sing. 

i sometimes al.;.nrbed,M-| 
shnilated, or dltlfrf l>v 

-m 



Plur. 

-r*ie*( Tariously 

L^lmodit 

[the singular 
-[//i]*< moons: 
rbed 



Dat. and Loc. -/ or -hi 


1 or -bos 


Abl. 


-d or -tus 




Gen. 


-J*, -jus, -sis 

El AMPLE. 


-[r]tan 




Sin?. 


Plur. 


Nom. 


lapi[d]-s 


lajdd- r L s]es 


Accus. 


lapid-e-m 


lapid-t {m]* = to 


Dat. 


lapid-?-[bi~] = lapid-i 


lapid-U 


Abl. 


lapid-c-[d] 




Gen. 


lap id- is 


lapid-c-rum 



Chap. 2.] 



OF THE NOUN. 



399 



It is not necessary for our present purpose to consider the 
differences of gender in the Latin noun, but our scheme for the 
Greek case-endings must have regard to these alterations. 



234 



(b) Greek Declension. 



Masc. 



Norn. 



Accus. 
Dat. 
Abl 
Gen 



9i, -(pi, -:[>] 
.orl a 



Singular, 

Fern. 
-era, -la 
■la-cra, -la 
-crav, -6a, -da, &C. 
-aa-i = crrj, &C 



t: 



Neut. 



4-*, -<§-< 



wanting 



-v, -r 

same as masc. 



Norn. 
Accus. 
Dat. 

Ablat. orl 
Gen. I 



Masc. 



-aa-iov — arjs, 
Plural. 

Fern. 
-C7a-€9 

-aav-s, &JC 
-aa-i-oriv, &c. 



&c. do. 



Neut. 

wanting 



-i/-T = a 
same as masc. 



■Giov-s, -ivv -aa-iov-s 9 aa-oov, &c. do. 



It will be observed that the plural masc. and fern, is formed 
by adding to the singular the collective cr- (above, § 152), which 
in the dative plural assumes nearly the full form of cri/i/. We 
have shown elsewhere that the Hebrew plural was similarly 
formed by means of the prepositions D^ and J"IX, both signifying 
"with" (Maskil le-Sopher, p. 13). The neuter plural of the 
accusative is merely a reduplication of the singular v or t, and 
this combination -vr is invariably softened into a (above, § 114). 
With regard to the mas. singular, it is clear that the nominative 
case-ending of the noun, denoting the subject, is to be referred to 
the second pronominal element which indicates relative proximity. 
To this the genitive or ablative, denoting removal from the sub- 
ject, adds the third pronominal element under the form -v. 
The dative, which denotes juxtaposition, repeats the second ele- 
ment under the form i or (pi, which we have recognised with the 
same sense in k-iri. The accusative, denoting the object, is 
content with the third element alone. From this it appears that 
the cases of the noun are connected only with a special develope- 
ment of the second and third pronominal elements. 



400 



THE CASE-EXDIXGS 



[Book in. 



The dual presents abridged forms of the plural, the nomina- 
tive and accusative being distinguished by a vague -e, which is 
often absorbed, and the genitive or ablative and dative being 
both expressed by the same residuary ending -iv. The abridg- 
ment of a-ses into ae in the nominative plural of the Latin a- 
declension shows how the nominative and accusative dual have 
been merged in a single representative. But it is impossible that 
the genitive and dative dual can have sprung from any disinte- 
gration of those two cases in the plural or singular. It is clear 
that -iv for -0ti/ or -(pts is the plural form of the locative in i or 
<f>i, just as the Latin plural in -bis or -fall stands by the side of 
a singular in -hi. But as the Greek genitive is strictly and 
properly an ablative, and as the ablative and dative plural are 
uniformly expressed by the same locative case-ending in Latin, 
we need not be surprised to rind the same neglect of case-distinc- 
tions in the mutilated dual of the Greek nouns. 



Norn. 
Accus 
Dai 

Abl. or 
Gen 



M 

\uyo-s 
Xuyo-v 
\oy ( ,) = \oyu-(pi 



Examples. 

"line. 
Dual. 



\uyt 



}\uyou = \oyo-io \ 
= Xoyo-aio-vj 

Q3) 1 



Tlur. 

-t = \oyi>- 

Xoyo-ta- 
otv Xoya v = XcT/o-cr | 



Nom. nov-aa 

Acc. 

Dat 



I 



jiov-oai' 
juou-ar) 

= fLOV-aa-t 

= /ULOU-<JCl-(j)t 

Abl.or)juoJ-o">/9 

Gen. J =fxov-ad-iov 



fjiov-ca 



Plur. 

HOU-(T(lt ■ /JLOU-<TCL€S 

nov-cjcis = noo-aav-s 
7**9% 9 



liov-aaiv /uLOiMJwv = txov-c< 



Sim 



(7) Neuter. 

DmL riur. 



Nom. 

Acc. 

Dat 



> K€pa-S = KtfJ€V-T 
KefJa-Tl = K€p€V-Tl 

Gen. J =K€fJ€V-T€(JlOV 



ier-TK 



) K€pa- 






Chap. 2.] OF THE NOUN. 401 

235 TVe shall now discuss in detail all the cases of the 
Sanscrit declension, comparing them with the corresponding 
Greek and Latin cases, and pointing out what are the substi- 
tutions in these two languages for those Sanscrit cases which 
they have not. 

(l) Accusative. 

The proper sign of this case is m in Sanscrit and Latin, and 
v in Greek. It is well known that the laws of euphony, which 
prevail in the Greek language, do not permit the appearance of 
any labial at the end of a word. It would be of little use to 
seek for an explanation of this rule ; and in the present instance 
there is reason to believe that the Latin and Sanscrit ni are 
weaker forms of an original dental more truly represented by 
the Greek v. The Sanscrit m of the accusative is generally 
transformed by anusvdra into a nasal n ; it is probable that the 
Greek final v occasionally had the same sound, and that it then 
subsided into the broad a, which is so frequently its representa- 
tive (above § 114). Some such view is also necessary to explain 
the fact that the Latin final m is disregarded in prosody, and the 
vowel preceding it elided, when the following word begins with a 
vowel ; so that this m is merely the nasal liquid in its ultimate 
state of obscuration. Indeed Quintilian distinctly explains the 
ecthlipsis as a kind of anusvdra. He says {Inst Orator. IX. 4. 
£ 39) : hide belligerare, po' meridiem : et ilia Censorii Cato- 
nis Diee Hanc, ceque M litera in E mollita : quai in veteribus 
libris reperta mutare imperiti solent : et, dum librariorum in- 
sectari volunt inscientiam, suam confitentur. Atqui eadem ilia 
litera, quoties idtima est et vocalem verbi sequentis ita con- 
tingit, ut in earn transire possit, etiamsi scribitur, tamen pa- 
rum edprimitur : ut, Multum ille, et Quantum erat : adeo 
ut p&ne cujusdam novce liters sonurn reddat. Neque enim ex- 
imitur, sed obscuratur, et tantum aliqua inter duas vocales 
velut nota est, ne ipsa} coeant. As an accusative case-ending, 
therefore, we must conclude that the Latin m and the Greek v 
are traceable to a common origin, which is more truly repre- 
sented by the Greek affix. 

236 In Latin, Greek, and Sanscrit the nominative and ac- 
cusative of neuter nouns have the same termination. There can 

Dd 



402 THE CASE-EXDIXGS [Book UL 

be little doubt that the true explanation of this phenomenon is 
that given by the late Mr Coleridge, especially in its connexion 
with the fact that in Greek the neuter plural is generally followed 
by a singular verb. " The neuter plural governing, as they call 
it, a singular verb, is one of the many instances in Greek of the 
inward and metaphysic grammar resisting successfully the tyranny 
of formal grammar. In truth, there may be Multeity in things ; 
but there can only be Plurality in persons. Observe also that, 
in fact, a neuter noun in Greek has no real nominative case, 
though it has a formal one, that is to say, the same word with 
the accusative. The reason is — a thing has no subjectivity, or 
nominative case : it exists only as an object in the accusative or 
oblique case" {Table Talk, Vol. II. pp. 6l, 2). It would perhaps 
have been better to say at once that both these facts depend 
upon the same principle, that there is, namely, no nominative 
case of neuter nouns, either in the singular or in the plural*. 
The reason of this we shall see better when we come to explain 
the meaning of the termination of the nominative. 

237 It is difficult to resist the impression that there must 
be some connexion between this accusative -m. -v, and the old 
locative ending -n. It is clear, as we have before shown, that 
this locative ending becomes -m in the Latin words interim, m 
iam, <t-iam. Sec, though in other Latin words the -n is retained 
e.g. in, quin. //<-»/.. pro !■, cvc. In Greek the adverbs ci/ci/k, 
a.Knv, Sec are clearly locatives in meaning, though in form they 
are perfectly analogous to accusatives. We may also compare 
the accusatives fuir, rlv, with the recognised datives euu-. - 
o-0/r, &c, and tl -it instrumental in a = ana and 



* The following extract from an - k dual has been 

sent to us, as conveying a different explanation of the use of the M 
plural. Blaekert dc vi usuque dualh numtri. Frvccm. X. XI : quuiu de notione 
et vi cujusdam orationis partis, imprimis autem de conjunctione, qua? 
subjectum et pnedieatum intereedit, agitur, illud quod sa?pissiuie apud 
Grrecos, minus Bsepe apud Komanos mult urn valet, tenendum est nomina 
posita esse non in co numero, quan conccntiu yvStuUt Jbrma gramm a 
sed qui wm t m Uk t comgrm at. Ad hoc genus referendus est ille conjunc 
modus, ex quo sa?pissime subjerto gen. neutr. yhtr.. PiWiMtatmm (VerbunO 
sing, adjungitur quia res in gencre neutro posita\ quasi vita carente> 
inter se junctre esse videntur, ut hmm tantum corpus nat. 



Chap. 2.] OF THE NOUN. 403 

(§ 245). Moreover, it is well known that in a multitude of 
instances the meaning of the Greek accusative is entirely lo- 
cative : e. g. when it follows a neuter or passive verb. We 
find other examples of an interchange of case-endings in the 
use of -d as the sign of the neuter accusative-nominative in id, 
istud, and the appearances of a similar ending in ot-ti, &c. 
(Bopp, Vergl. Gramm. p. 183), whereas the -d was the ancient 
termination of the ablative in Latin, and also, as we shall show, 
in Greek. The ?, which the Greeks sometimes substituted for 
this §, is also used sometimes as a mark of the genitive case, 
because the significations of that case frequently enter into those 
of the ablative. But all this is very intelligible. It depends 
upon the nature of the noun, whether a dative, genitive, or ac- 
cusative case-ending should be used, when a given relation of the 
noun is to be signified. In some instances a locative would most 
appropriately express the relation intended, in others a dative, 
in others even an ablative. But there is, properly speaking, no 
mere accusative ; objectivity and location are identical ; only the 
former is the expression of general, the latter of particular posi- 
tion. If we speak of a thing as an object, it is the there, though 
the particular location may not be defined. We conclude, then, 
that the sign of the accusative case in Greek, Latin, and Sanscrit 
is the oldest form of the locative, assigned to express general 
objectivity, its use as a particular locative being retained only in 
certain pronouns, and its place being supplied in other words by 
the termination i when a particular position was to be described. 
This ending -i, as is generally the case when this vowel appears, 
is a mutilation of the element of the second pronoun, and is re- 
presented in its fuller form by 0*. It has probably lost the final 
v also, as we see in those Greek words which exhibit the accusa- 
tive-ending as a mere -a, as avlpa for avSpa-v, &c We may 
also compare irpoa-Se, irpocrQev; 7rd\i, iraXtu; irepa, irepav, 
&c. (above $ 114, and below § 239). 

238 With regard to the accusative plural we adopt without 
hesitation Grimm's opinion, that it is merely the accusative sin- 
gular with the plural s superadded. The stems which end with 
a short vowel in Sanscrit form the accusative plural in n, with a 
lengthening of the final vowel of the stem : thus vrikas "a wolf," 

Dd2 



404 THE CASE-ENDINGS [Book III. 

makes accus. plur. vfikan. If we compare this word with the 
Gothic vulfans on the one hand, and the Latin lupos on the 
other, we shall perceive that the Gothic is the complete form, the 
Sanscrit and Latin having lost, one the s, the other the n, and 
both having supplied the loss by strengthening the final vowel 
of the crude-form. If we now take the Greek Xukovs, which 
bears the same relation to Xmovs that ocovs does to dens, &c , 
it will appear, we conceive, that the same holds in Greek. We 
may add that tvtttwv for tvwtov{t)$ is analogous to vrlMa for 
vrikans. It will be observed, too, that in those cases where 
the accusative singular has lost its final m, n, and indeed in 
some others, the plural s is merely subjoined to the weakened 
form of the accusative singular; thus rv«Torra(r) mak 
Toi/ra-s. 

239 In neuter nouns the accusative and nominative plural, 
which are, for the reasons above given, the s end in 

-a in Zend and in the old European lai f the family ; but 

in Sanscrit we find an j, which, according to Bopp, is only a W< 
ened form of an original a ( JY/w/. G rctmm. pp. ~> a: : the 

final vowel of the crude-farm is lengthened, nieil 

n," as Bopp calls it, is inserted between it and the case-endii 
Thus madhti (neOu) "honey," makes in the plural madhu 
instead of fieOv-a. 

This appears to us a rather unscientific way of accounting 
for the Sanscrit inflexion. A more accurate examination of the 
phenomena will enable us to reconcile the different forms by 
reproducing the structure in which they all original. 

We have already shown generally that the broad a repre- 
sents an anusvdra or pppprowod H (j UK and the final n in 
particular is constantly so represented in nouns of the third 
declension, as in (p\tfi-a. -n-arep-a, \v. Moreover, we I 
shown that even -v-r may be represented by a - i, as 

in $€~Ka for jfw-jrcir {i l6l), and we shall see that the forma- 
tive /uar = /uei'T becomes -ua. as in au-u^. \c. There would be 
no objection then, ii priori, to regard the plural -o as a r< 
of vr\ and if the objective p or t of the singular had to be 
formed into a plural analogous to that oi the masculine nouns in 
-s, which, we shall see, form their plural by a reduplication 



Chap. 2.] OF THE NOUN. 405 

of the ending, we should be led at once to the assumption that 
the result would be the combination vt, or the reduplication w. 
Kow we have positive authority for the assertion that the 
neuter plural in Latin originally ended in -ad ; thus we find in 
the Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus, 1. 24: quei advor- 
sum ead fecisent. Again, we find in Sanscrit, as we have seen 
above, an interpolated n in the terminations of neuter plurals, 
and the i, which follows it, is most probably the vocalization 
of a second n, just as conversely nn is substituted for ni 
($ 215. b). Putting all these considerations together, we can 
hardly avoid coming to the conclusion that the proper and 
original plural of i-d was e-ad — e-nd ; that the genuine plural 
of madhu — madhu-n was madhu-'nn ; and that %v\-a from 
%v\o-v represents a primitive %v\-€vt. Our view is still farther 
confirmed by the fact, that while the Erse plural of the third per- 
sonal pronoun is siad (for swiad), the Welsh form of the plural 
is hwynt (for swynt). 

240 This theory explains all the common forms of the 
neuter plural. But there are two pronouns in Latin which we 
must consider as isolated in this respect, and we must endeavour 
to account in a different manner for the anomalous forms which 
they exhibit in the neuter plural. These are the correlatives 
hie and qui. We have mentioned above (§ 146), that qui, sic, 
hie, and is, are four forms, including the same pronominal root, 
and signifying relative proximity, in which the guttural ele- 
ment has successively degenerated. But a sameness of origin 
does not presume a continuous sameness of use ; and while hi-c 
has obtained a fixed value, as a demonstrative pronoun equi- 
valent to 6-$€, and is used idiomatically to denote the first 
person, is, in its common and simple form, is the mere ante- 
cedent to qui, which is always a relative ; compounded with the 
third element, is becomes i-ta, the correlative of si-c, and is-te 
the converse of hie ; and, with a further extension, it becomes 
i'terum, the opposite of heic and hue. Under these circum- 
stances, we shall not be surprised to find that the adjunct ee, 
which is invariably attached to si in this use, and which is 
almost always appended to hi-c, is rarely found in conjunction 
with qui and is. The declension, however, of these pronouns 
is long anterior to their distinctive use, and it would argue the 



406 THE CASE-ENDINGS [Book III. 

utmost degree of philological ignorance to maintain that be- 
cause the affix ce is not found in the usual forms of is and qui, 
it never attached itself to the inflexions of these pronouns. Even 
in hi-c we see a tendency to throw off this adjunct ; the masc. 
and fern, plural are hi, hce, in the ordinary use of the pronoun, 
though we know from Varro that they were once written hi-c, 
hce-c, and though the feminine appears with the affix in Plautus 
and Terence, (see Varronian, pp. 2.'>7, 8). Xow if we compare 
ea, ista, ilia with the feminines singular hac, q\ia>, we must 
conclude that these latter forms represent hd-ce. qud-ce, the 
former retaining the c as well as the transposed vowel, and the 
latter showing its original adjunct only in the diphthong <e. 
We observe precisely the same changes in the neuter plurals 
hcec, qua, which admit therefore of precisely the same explana- 
tion. Moreover, the diphthong is represented by the loi :_ 
only in post-hie and qml-_ which stand in the same rela- 

tion. And as we have l &c, 

with a similar long 5, wc may infer that these plurals I 
passed from ea-ce through mm and eai to ea {Varronian. p. 9i); 
an opinion which is farther confirmed by the Latin phrases 

t (Festus, p. 282, and Midler. 
Aintot. \\ in, . fco. Ihf T> mtine Table exhibits the pronouns 
with the affix - :.»rmer in the combination 

2^ost-esa-k = poit-kae 

241 We have before stated that the dual is mer. ' 
by-form of the plural. The nominative and accusative dual in 
Sanscrit are. as in Greek, the same. In some neuter nouns the 
dual nom. accus. | ime as the plural; in others ther 

an omission of the characteristic H. Thus dtunr. ikes 

in the dual dAni m dana-i, the plural being dini H I ; 
" speech," makes in the dual V&chfo-t, the plural 
where we have different compensations for a final n. 



* A writer, who can neither discover the truth nor P : when 

discovered, obstinately maintains that lbs long -i in tin/*!, li 
from an absorption of m, and that the original forms were awtoam, . 
"on the analogy of pottqm 

aware that f*am is not here a ease after po&l, or onto, but the pari 
of comparison, so that the full form is, in fact, postoxptam, antmgmmm, &q 



Chap. 2.] OF THE NOUN. 407 

(2) Nominative. 
242 The proper sign of the nominative case is $. In 
Sanscrit this sibilant is usually softened by visarga into h. In 
Greek and Sanscrit it is often absorbed in an a-ending in femi- 
nine nouns ; in Latin and Zend it is frequently dropped altoge- 
ther in this case. When we recollect how constantly the final s 
is mute in modern French, we shall not wonder at these appear- 
ances of a similar insignificance of the same letter in the ancient 
languages. We find instances in old Latin of s concluding a 
short syllable though the succeeding word begins with a conso- 
nant, as in the senio confectus quiescit of Ennius, which can 
only be explained by supposing a visarga of the nominative 
analogous to the anusvdra of which we have spoken above. 
There are reasons for supposing that this was the case in Greek 
also. Thus it is possible that the rule about the pause is not 
violated in ^schylus {Person 321), as Porson thinks (Suppl. ad 
Prozf. Hec. p. 33) ; we can easily imagine that ' Apio/uapSos 
*2dp($€Gi might be pronounced 'Apid/uapSo' 2a/^Wr. As to the 
objection that Ariomardus was a governor of Thebes and not of 
Sardis, we might as well object to ^Eschylus for saying in v. 301, 
that Arcteus was 7rrjyais NeiXou yeirovwv AlyuirTiov, because 
the same Arcteus, by an amusing conversion, is called in v. 41 a 
governor of Lydia : dfipociaiTwv o eTrerai Ai/oaw o^Xos — rov? 
Mir p. 'ApKTevs t dyaOos — e^opixcoatv. Quintilian, too, seems 
to have thought that the chief reason for the visarga in old 
Latin was to avoid a concourse of consonants similar to that 
in this passage of JEschylus. He says (Inst. Orator. IX. 4, 
§ 37) : Ceterum consonantes quoqae, earumque prozcipue, quoz 
sunt aspeHores, in commissura verborum rixantur, ut X ultima 
cum S proxima, quarum tristior etiam, si bino3 collidantur, 
stridor est : ut Ars studiorum. Quoz fuit causa et Servio 
(ut dixi) subtraJiendai S literal, quoties ultima esset aliaque 
consonante susciperetur, quod reprehendit Lauranius, Messala 
defendit. Nam neque Lucilium putant uti eadem ultima, 
quum dicit, Serenus fuit, et dignus locoque, et Cicero in 
Oratore (c. xlviii) plures antiquorum tradit sic locutos. (We 
have here adopted the emendations of Rollin and Gesner ; the 
books have et S xdtima eum X proxima, which is nonsense). If 
this view is well founded, we shall not wonder that a final letter, 
of little force in pronunciation, should in some cases be dropped 



408 THE CASE-EXDIXGS [Book in. 

in writing also. Such we find to be the fact in the feminine 
nouns of the first declension, where the termination sa is repre- 
sented only by the length of the final vowel, and in many mas- 
culine and feminine nouns of the third or unparasyllabic de- 
clension. 

243 The explanation of this nominative sign is obvious and 
easy. The simplest form of the third personal pronoun in the 
Indo-Germanic languages is, we have seen, in Sanscrit sa-8, sa, 
tad; in Greek (<r)o, {a)rj, to ; in Goth, sa, so, thata. It is ob- 
served by Bopp (Abh. Ak. Deri. 1826, p. 66), that although there 
is such a great number of crude-forms in the Greek language 
ending in -o, there is not one which wants the nominative sign s 
except this pronoun. A similar remark applies to the Gothic 
language. There must be some very good reason for this ex- 
ception. We remark that, in modern German, when the adjec- 
tive has an article prefixed, it is declined according to a weaker 
form, in other words, it does not preserve the declension, which 
it exhibits when not preceded by an article: thus wc hai 
Wcin, gute-m FFem, "good wine," "to good wine;" but - 
(juti- II" . '"the good wine," "to the 

good wine;" the case-ending of the article not being repc 
in the adjective. Conversely, we find in Greek that the case- 
endings are preserved in the noun or adjective, but not in the 
nominative masculine of the article. Thus we have 6 ( = go) 
ayaOo-s ai'OpwTro-s, not 09 ayat^ -0. W hen, however, 

this pronoun assumes a distinct personality it takes to itself a 
nominative ending like another noun; thus, o uvQpwnos, 0$ Tavra 
7rotet, " the man who ma] i.e. 

this man) makes these (binge." We have before remarked that 
in the article it is only the nominative, masculine and feminine, 
of the demonstrative pronoun which exhibits the form 6, >/. or, 
substituting the sibilant for the aspirate. <ro, at] ; the other 
cases present a form beginning with r, as nominative-accus 
neuter to; gen. tov, tjJv, tov, &c. Whereas in the relative. 
as it is called, the form beginning with an aspirate is used for 
all cases and genders: now this relative expresses distinct per- 
sonality, or a subject, in the masculine and feminine genders 
(that there is no subject or nominative in neuter we have 
before seen); but when this pronoun is used merely as a pre- 



Chap. 2.] OF THE NOUN. 409 

positive article, it of course expresses personality or subjec- 
tivity only in the nominative case, for in that case only can 
the name of any object be considered as a subject; this is the 
reason why all cases and genders of the article 6, rj, except 
the nom. masc. and fem., assume the objective form in r-. We 
have shown before that, of the three fundamental pronouns, 
the first represents the here, the second that which is near to 
the here t the third the mere object ; we have also seen how in 
the idea of nearness the second pronoun includes the relative 
and reflexive pronouns as opposed to the mere demonstrative, 
and that it is also used to form a nominative case to the third 
pronoun; we now see that this element under the form sa 
represents subjectivity as opposed to objectivity, and is for 
that reason used as a sort of post-positive article to note the 
nominative case. 

244 The plural nominative ending in Sanscrit is -as, which 
we might be content to explain with Bopp (Vergl. Gramm. 
p. 26l), by considering it "as an extension of the singular no- 
minative sign s, so that there lies in this extension of the case- 
suffix a symbolical indication of plurality." For this we gene- 
rally find the ending -e? in Greek. In the first and second 
declension, however, the nominative plural is -at or -01. It is 
nearly demonstrable that the final i in these instances, as well 
as in Latin, has supplanted an original s, a remark which ap- 
plies also to the Latin genitives of the first declension ; thus for 
familai, familai, the common forms, we have also familids -fa- 
milia-is. We have no hesitation in asserting that Xwco-t, -^wpa-t, 
stand for XJ/co-e?, ^eopa-es, an d that tne Latin fifth declension 
in s differs from the first declension in a only in the termina- 
tion of the crude-form (Bopp, Vergl. Gramm. p. 263). That 
this -6? presumes an original -o-es, appears, in part at least, 
from the following considerations (see also Varronian. p. 229 
sq.). As the accusative plural is formed from the accusative 
singular by adding s, we may be justified in supposing that the 
plural nominative is formed from the singular by the same addi- 
tion ; and as a double s is not allowed at the end of a word in 
these languages, we must conclude that the plural s was joined 
to the singular by the intervention of a short e or a, so that in 
all probability the original form of the plural nominative of 



410 THE CASE-ENDING- [Book III. 

'l^Ovs, for instance, would be 'i^Oua-e^, which is practically 
shortened into '[-^Ques, as eXeyeao is into eXeyeo^eXeyov, &c. 
(comp. Bopp, Vergl. Grarnm. p. 220). 

In our own and other modern languages we find n as well 
as s the sign of the plural. In the verb-endings in Greek we 
find the plural -/ueu instead of -/xes. We shall discuss this in 
the proper place. 

245 (3) a Implementive or Instrumental. 
b Dative. 
c Locative. 

>Ve shall consider all these three cases together, because we 
believe that their meanings spring from the same source, and 
because these meanings are all represented by the same case in 
Greek, that, namely, which we call the Dative. 

In Sanscrit the instrumental singular is marked by an ending 
a or ina, the latter ending being appropriated to nouns the crude- 
form of which ends in a short vowel. The terminat 
considered by Bopp (Abk, Ah\ /><//. 188$ p wmn. 

p. 1SS) to be identical with the preposition o, which is elsewhere 
used as a prefix, with the signification u on," and wh: 
be a residuum of a-na. The prepositions tn, avd, wa have the 
same meaning, and involve the same pronominal elements (above, 
$ 170). Hence, the instrumental in -ana or -ina and the loca- 
tive or dative in are traceable to a common or.. 
That the idea of an instrument or cause may be included in 
that of position or containing, is obvious; and that a preposition, 
the intention of which is originally (as indeed is the case with 
all prepositions) to denote position, can be used as a word mark- 
ing an instrument or cause, is clear from the functions of 
and V7r6 in Greek, and per and eft in L:itin. The phrase cV 
^e/ocrt sufficiently points to the connexion between immediate 
proximity and the active use of an implement. The sign of 
the dative in Sanscrit is c =ai or one of its longer forms ai 
or at/a. The termination of the locative singular is in most 

- /, so that the dative is only an extensi on of the locat 
The masculine nouns in j and u, and sometimes also the femi- 
nities, have an anomalous locative ending in an; in this case 
the final vowel of the crude-form is thrown off, or chan_ 
into y, as in patudu, saklnjuu, from pati, "a master," sakhi. 



Chap. 2.] OF THE NOUN. 411 

"a friend." We believe that Bopp is perfectly right in sup- 
posing (Vergl. Gramm. p. 228) that du stands for as, a change 
which we also find in the dual ending of the nominative, ac- 
cusative, and vocative, and consequently that it is a form of the 
genitive, which is used with a locative meaning like the Greek 
ciutov, ov, &c. ; and in the Latin humi, domi, militice, Co- 
rinthi, &c., the locative has assumed the same form as the 
genitive. It is to be remembered too that, in the Sanscrit dual, 
the genitive and locative are identical; they both end in 6s. 
The instrumental and dative dual are identical with each other 
and with the ablative. The termination is always -bhydm. In 
the plural, the implementive ends in -bhis ; the dative and 
ablative in -bhyas, and the locative in su or -shu. 

246 It now remains to inquire what is the relation, in 
form or otherwise, between these cases and the Greek dative, in 
which their meanings seem to be included. The characteristic 
of the Greek dative singular is -i or -(pi ; of the dative dual -iv, 
it being identical with the genitive of that number ; of the dative 
plural -icri or -ts*. Bopp has remarked (Abh. Ah. Berl. 1826, 
p. 78) that the Sanscrit prepositions a (= ana) and abhi (= ana- 
bhi, § 172) are synonymous ; that the former constitutes the 
singular instrumental ending, the latter, with an end-syllable 
•am, the dual -bhydm = bhi-dm, and, with the end-letter -s or 
end-syllable -as, the plural bhis or bhyas. The dative and 
locative singular present abhi under the different forms of ai 
and i, the former standing for abhi just as tais does for tdbhis, 
and the latter for bhi just as avTw-i does for avro(pi, avro-iv 
for avro-cpiv, and auro-is for avr6-(pis. The Etruscan inscrip- 
tions as compared with the old Latin, on the tables of Gubbio, 
present ufeph=ovi, fitluph=vitlu (=vitulo), &c. (Miiller, Etrus- 
ker, I. p. 48). The terminations of the Sanscrit implementive, 
dative, and locative, are therefore resolvable into synonyms 
analogous to the Greek dvd, d/jL-cpl, and (pi. The Latin ti-bi, 
vo-bis present us with the form <pi and its plural variation; 
for as the nominative and accusative plural are formed from 
the same cases in the singular by the addition of the plural s, 
so we may conclude that the plural of (pi would be formed by 
turning it into d)ts, as bi is turned into bis. The termination 
-{(P)u> bears the same relation to (pis, that -jxei/, in the verb- 



412 THE CASE-EXDIXGS [Book III. 

endings, does to -/ie?, the other form. The Sanscrit locative 
plural ending -su, -situ is identical with the Greek -cri-v or 
-i-ai-v. We have before remarked, that the letter n is the 
most striking mark of the locative, and that we find this letter 
at the end of locatives of all genders. The v e0e\KWTt*oV, 
then, which we so often see at the end of Greek datives plural, 
is not a merely arbitrary addition, but a real part of the word, 
dropped according to laws of euphony in the newer bagn 
The anutv&ra, or nasal at the end of the plural locative in 
Pracrit, points to a similar final n in that language. For the 
Sanscrit su, situ we find c&VO, hr.i. in Zend, from which Bopp 
not unreasonably concludes [VmrgL Q p. 288), that the 

original form of the Sanscrit plural-lucative ending may i. 
been sva, and this leads us at once to the r pronoun 

sva, Greek af/)e, and is, therefore, identical with the collective 
termination -cro? = cr0o9. The relationship n cr(pu>, the 

locative of this pronoun, and the locative ending (pi, (pu 
clear from what wo have said in a former chapter. The ter- 
mination of the dative plural in Greek is generally -i-c. 
have a similar form : . it. Thus, enka-s makes locative 

plural vnki'-shu- crik>t-i-shu. At other timi u de-form 

is not thus altered. This is the rule in San-rit feminine nouns. 
Thus, ji/wd, "a t It also holds in cer- 

tain Greek words as in the feminii. jm, *( >\ 

Oupaai, &c, and even in masculines, as raii'iam (Bookh, ( 
pm Insert).?. 1. p. so). As the penultimate vowel, howe 
is invariably lot „ probable that the dative singular is 

included in the form to which the plural affix is appended. 
We are at liberty, therefore, to conclude that the loc.i 
plural is formed from the Lo IT by the addition of 

the collective ending -sra = avr, the ehanu of the latter 

being absorbed in the lot - wliieh we I 

mentioned as exceptions. If this uppQfl well-founded, 

the Greek laniraaffe furnishes a confirmation of the theory 
which we have elsewhere proposed n structure of 

the Hebrew plural — namely, that it is formed by appending the 
prepositions D>* and ftM signifying "with" | MaMl Ie-$opher 9 
p. IS). 

The loeative-ending -Oi is, like -{pi. referable to the second 
pronominal element (abOTO, 



Chap. 2.] OF THE NOUN. 413 

247 (4) a Ablative. 

The plural ablative in Sanscrit has the same termination as 
the dative ; the dual ablative is identical with the instrumental 
as well as with the dative. The connexion in meaning between 
the dative and instrumental cases we have just shown. The 
Sanscrit ablative properly expresses removal from a place, i.e. 
it answers to the question " whence." It will easily be perceived 
how this might be resolved into the idea of a cause or instru- 
ment, and also how the same meaning might be made applicable 
to the ordinary use of a dative ; for instance, " I give to him" 
might be represented by " I give through him," or " he is the 
cause as well as the object of my giving," for in such cases the 
object to ivhom is very often the cause by which. In Greek, 
the use of the dative to signify the occasion or instrument is but 
little different from that of the adverb of manner (Gr. Gr. art. 
457) ; and this adverb, as we shall see presently, is a residuum 
of the ablative, which is similarly used in Latin. We require 
generally viro with the genitive to express the cause, and this is 
equivalent to the Latin ablative with ab (see Gr. Gr. 487). 

The characteristic of the ablative singular is -t, when the 
crude-form of the noun ends in a ; in other declensions it more 
nearly resembles the genitive, to which also it corresponds in 
meaning. The English writers on Sanscrit grammar consider -at 
as the termination, but Bopp rightly concludes (Vergl. Gramm. 
209), from the analogy of mat, tvat, the ablatives of the first 
and second personal pronouns, and of the Zend ablatives, that 
the ablative-ending is merely the letter -t. 

We find this termination in the Latin met — Sanscrit mat, 
which appears in the combinations egomet, memet, &c«, and in 
the conjunction se-d, more anciently written se-t. Under the 
form -d, this ending appears as the regular characteristic of the 
ablative in old Latin. Thus, on the Columna Rostrata we 
have: prcesented sumod dictator ed olorom in altod maridpucg- 
nad vicet (Varronian. p. 179). 

It is to be remembered, that in Latin the same letter ap- 
pears as the characteristic of the neuter-objective singular as in 
id, illud, &c. ; also, as has been mentioned above (§ 239), in the 
neuter plural ; thus, in the Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus, 
we have quei advorsum ead fecisent; and as me, te (anciently 
met, tet or med, ted) are used both as accusatives and ablatives, 



414 THE CASE-EXDIXGS [Book III. 

so sed, which appears as an ablative in its conjunctive use, is an 
accusative in the senatus consultum just mentioned, where it 
appears after inter. This brings us back again to what we said 
about the Sanscrit a, which, though a preposition denoting mere 
position, is used in an instrumental sense. To us it appears 
nearly certain, for reasons which we will give directly, that the 
ablative-ending -t or -d is the second personal pronoun which 
appears under the forms dua, d;/a, tha, &c, and which, though 
it may and in fact does signify position, and indeed vicinity, is 
also used to denote the last term of a scries proceeding from the 
subject, i. e. the nearest to the subject, and hence proceeding or 
removal in general : for which reason, as we have shown in a 
former chapter, it is used to form the superlative degree of 
adjectives. 

The ablative relation in Greek is expressed by the genitive, 
with or without a preposition. In most Sanscrit words this rela- 
tion is also expressed by the genitive, or by a form very nearly 
resembling it. We believe, notwithstanding what Bopp says 
(Abb. Ah. II //. L8£6, ]«. 97 , that the genitive and ablative were 
originally identical. 

The only instance in (ireck of a near approximation to the 
Sanscrit ablative in -t. Latin •<!, is to be sought in the adverbs 
in -a)? as they are called. We rind the ablative -</ at the end of 
adverbs like bened, tacil/umal, which are clearly the old abla- 
tives ban ,;V/. faeiUu In the same way ovtws, icaXw?, 
Sec. are the old ablatives of oirvr, mkift • :eek 
language euphony will not allow the appearance of a $ or r at 
the end of a word, and o**f bears the same relation to 
scrit synonym samdt that iiimat does to daddti (Bopp. 
Gram in. p. -J 

We have before seen this termination of the ablative under 
the Latin form in the adj -hk, and as we shall meet it 

again in the forms /an \c. and in patronymics like Arpei- 

£>/? = Aro«t-&of, See. A comparison of Acppodtrrj with the 
Sanscrit abhniditti u she who comes out of a cloud" (from the 
ablative abhnit, written abJinid in composition, and itd) shows 
that the first part of the word is an adjective equivalent to the 
ablative of a(ppos, which should be atypwS or d0/cxe < ; the in- 
cluded form aippoci- from a^ - indicated by the succeed- 
ing long vowel, which would otherwise have been short : coinp. 



Chap. 2.] OF THE NOUN. 415 

'irris, 'iTctiuos, &c. (Bopp, VergL Gramm. p. 21 6, note). We 
shall see directly that this fuller form of the ablative is neither 
more nor less than the genitive. 

248 (4) b Genitive. 

The endings of the genitive singular in Sanscrit are s, sya, 
as, and as. The latter is appropriated to feminine nouns which 
end with a vowel ; thus priti-s " love" makes prityds, which is 
perfectly analogous to irakew ; for -that this was a dissyllable 
(probably pronounced 7r6\yu<i) appears from its accentuation, 
and its frequent use at the end of a senarius in the Attic 
dramatists. The length of the termination is not unconnected 
with the short vowel in the penultima. Thus, although we have 
Xao?, vaos, &c we find also \em, vews, &c. ; and conversely we 
must write aos - aFos for ewj, whenever this particle is a tro- 
chee in Homer ( Varronian. p. 239). When the final vowel of 
the feminine stem is long, this termination is invariably preceded 
by y or v, as jihvdyds, vadhvds ; when the final vowel is short 
it is optional whether we write a guna of the vowel and the 
simple s ending, or the full ending in yds. Thus, we may have 
from priti-s not only prityds, but also prites = prit-a-i-s. The 
termination y-ds is represented under a weakened form by the 
Latin j-us in cujus for quo-i-us, &c. The terminations s or as 
are used according as the stem ends with a vowel or a consonant. 
In the former case the termination may still be considered as 
-as, for the vowels i and u are always affected by guna in the 
genitive : thus, pati-s "a master 11 makes pates (= pat-a-i-s), and 
sunu-s "a son" makes sunos (= sun-a-u-s). In all these instances 
the genitive corresponds to the ablative. When, however, the 
ablative ending is -at, the genitive ends in -sya : thus, vrika-s 
makes ablative vnkdt, genitive vrikasya. To this, as we have 
before shown, the Greek genitive in -oio bears the same relation 
that eS'iSou does to iSiSoo-o, the form required by analogy : so 
that tolo might be written tocfio (Sanscrit tasya), and Xvkoio 
might be written Xvkogio (Sanscrit vrikasya). The Homeric 
forms in -ao (Bof)iao, Alveiao) stand for ~a-io, and this for -a-aio 
(Bopp, VergL Gramm. p. 220). We observe that this genitive 
ending, which is peculiar to the Sanscrit declension in a, does not 
affect the final syllable of the stem with guna: it is also probable 
that the guna of the final syllable in the ablative of this declen- 



416 THE CASE-ENDINGS [Book in. 

sion, and the genitive and ablative of other declensions, is occa- 
sioned by the loss of some final vowel or vowels, as in 'A<ppo$i- 
'Irrj mentioned above. Since, therefore, there is no reason why 
the genitive and ablative should be different in the first, and 
identical in the other Sanscrit declensions, we conclude that the 
genitive and ablative of the first declension are to be considered 
as merely by-forms of one another. This is almost reduced to 
certainty by the following fact. AVe have mentioned above, that 
the old ablative is still preserved in the adverbs in -a>s, and we 
have seen this adverbial termination in the Greek genitives, like 
WXews corresponding to the Sanscrit prityas, &c, which, there- 
fore, are only by-forms of prkydt, &c. Again, possessive adjec- 
tives like trjfwaios, &c, are obviously connected with the geni- 
tives Srj/uLo(<r)io t &c, (Bopp. Vergl. Gramm. p. 294, note). But 
i<W, a possessive of the same kind, is clearly formed from the 
ablative of the pronoun '/, and ti*n bears the same relation to 
'^0^ that medius does to iieaaos = /meaio? ; from all which we 
conclude that the ablative rrikut = vrik rtkasi/a, and that 

the genitive and ablative are identical in Sanscrit as they are in 
Greek. Among other advant. MDfttd by this view of the 

case, the termination of the ablative admits now of an easier 
planation ; it is in fact tya, just as the ending of the dative is 
aya = abhya = aml>lai<r. 

249 The genitive-ablative relation is also expressed by 
in Greek. The connexion of this suflix with the Latin 
Sanscrit tas, thas. Am, d/tas, we have already pointed out ; and 
it will easily bo seen what relationship si; 
nit-Ut and the proper adverb Jtumaned (comp. bened &c. in the 
Columna Host rata), or between ovpavoOQ) and the genitive ou- 
pai'6(a)io : (see Varronian. p. MO). In point of fact, the ter- 
minations -6cv and -aio are only different modifications of one 
and the same form. We often find that fc- = at-, e.y. in 
0cos = 0-10$. And while the vowel, which followed the palatal 
of which 6e or ai is the representative, has ken fori in -^o . 
aio has parted with its final nasal, which is so often seen to 
be removable. This observation points the way to an inte: 
ing and instructive analogy. We cannot doubt that adject 
in -*os- = -o-<os are formed from the genitive in -to = -aio, and 
we have seen (above j) 107>\ that these adjectives correspond in 



Chap. 2.] OF. THE NOUN. 417 

signification to the quasi- comparatives in -iwv =* -iov-s. If, as 
there is every reason to believe, these latter are older, stronger, 
and more complete forms of the adjectives in -to = -crto, it is a 
just inference that -iov = -aiov was the fullest and most original 
form of the genitive case. 

250 This view is confirmed by the Greek genitive plural 
which is otherwise an inexplicable phenomenon. According to 
all reasonable expectations, the genitive plural ought to be de- 
rivable from the genitive or ablative singular by the addition of 
-?. In common Greek the genitive plural consistently ends in -aw, 
which is immediately attached to the crude or uninflected form, 
the circumflex however in the first declension points to an original 
form in -d-cov, which is still found. But if ' ArpeiS-a-o =ATpei$- 
a-aiov, still more easily do we pass from Arpe^-d-oov = 'ArpeiS- 
d-ov-<s to 'ATpetS-a-aiov-s. This result receives a further support 
from the analogy of the Latin and Sanscrit. Although in com- 
mon Sanscrit nouns the genitive plural ends in -nam or -dm only, 
the pronouns, which generally preserve the authentic forms 
longer than the nouns, give us -sdm or -sham, as in te-shdm = 
horum, td-sdm - harum. Now this fully accords with the Latin ; 
for -rum, which is the proper and genuine termination of the 
genitive plural, not only in the vowel declensions, but also in the 
others (Varro, L. L. VIII. § 74, Cn. Gell. ap. Charis. I. 40), 
must have been originally -sum, and this points to an older -sdm 
corresponding to the Sanscrit -sdm (Muller ad Varron. L. L. 
u. s. p. 192). It is not easy to arrive at any certain conclusion 
respecting the n which appears in many Sanscrit genitives ; but 
when we find the more easily explicable form in the pronouns, it 
is reasonable to conclude that this nasal or nasal guttural is, like 
the Latin r, a corrupt representative of the original sy-, Persian, 
hy-. The passage from the palatal y or j to a sound like the 
Hebrew Ayin is very conceivable. At all events, any thing is 
better than, with Bopp, to import the foreign difficulty into the 
Greek language, by supposing that \vkwv is a representative of 
\vk6-v-wv, the v being dropped as in juei^co from /mei^ova (Vergl. 
Gramm. p. 286, note). 

(5) Vocative. 

251 The vocative is either the crude-form of the noun, the 

Ee 



418 THE CASE-ENDINGS OF THE NOUN. [Book III. 

vowel being generally represented by the lightest sound e, c, or 
the same as the nominative. The nominative case corresponds 
to the third person of the verb ; it presumes a subject spoken of. 
The vocative corresponds to the second person : it presumes a 
subject spoken to. We believe that the first arose from the 
second ; the idea of a subject in its objectivity being suggested 
by conversation with another subjective reasoning being ; for this 
cause the sign of the nominative case is identical with the ele- 
ment of the second personal pronoun. In the second person of 
the imperative mood, where the person spoken to is most directly 
and impressively addressed, we find sometimes the crude-form of 
the verb as Tinrre, at other times the element of the second per- 
sonal pronoun more strongly expressed, as in k\v-9i ; for the 
other persons of this mood a stronger form is invariably adopted. 
The vocative Xvkc stands related to the imperative rvrn 
as the nominative Awco-? does to the indicative rArrai for 

TU7TT€-ai. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE PRONOMINAL TERMINATIONS OF THE 
UNINFLECTED FORMS. 

252 Derivation-suffixes of pronominal origin. Their classification and meaning. 
253 (1) Forms with the first element only. 254 (2) Forms with the second 
element only. 255 (3) Forms with the third element only. 256 (1 a) Ter- 
minations compounded of the first and other elements. 257 (2 a) Terminations 
compounded of the second and other elements. Nouns in -us, -w's. 258 Nouns 
in -<rv-vt], -i-vos, &c. 'AXjjOjvos. 259 Nouns in -tTtjs, -njTtj?, &c. 260 Col- 
lective nouns in -wv. 261 (3 a) Reduplications of the third element. 262(2 6) 
Second element as -d or -0. Patronymics, comparatives, and participles. 263 
Adverbs in -oj;i/, &c. 264 Adverbs in -tj, &c. 265 Connexion of these forms. 
266 (3 6) Third element as X- or p-. Identity of these forms. 267 Also of the 
forms t-Xo?, T-pos, &c. 268. Reasons for believing that the forms X- and p- 
are derived from -va, both from their use as pronominal syllables ; 269 and 
from their employment as verbal roots : 270 especially in expressing the ideas 
of progressive time and recurrence. 

252 rTlHE root of a noun or verb, which properly speaking 
I never exceeds a single syllable, may, as we have said 
before, be considered as the independent variable ; the noun or 
verb is a function of this variable, and contains, besides the root, 
in the former instance, a set of case-endings, in the latter a set of 
person-endings, both of pronominal origin. But between these 
case- and person-endings we find, frequently in the verb, and 
generally in the noun, a derivation-suffix. Having discussed the 
case-endings of the noun, we proceed to the consideration of 
these derivation-suffixes, which determine the class the noun be- 
longs to, and declare the particular modification of meaning with 
which it is used. Of the prefixes, which express the relation in 
space that the noun is supposed to bear to the other words in 
the sentence, we have spoken under the head of the prepositions. 
We do not intend here to mention those compound words which 
contain two or more distinct verbal or nominal roots. We shall 
confine ourselves to those suffixes which are of pronominal origin, 
and which may therefore be considered as the constants of the 
function • compound words are, as it were, functions of two or 
more variables. 

In these pronominal suffixes we observe all the peculiarities 
which we have noted in the pronominal elements separately con- 
sidered ; there is not one monosyllabic or primary pronoun which 

Ee2 



420 THE PRONOMINAL TERMINATIONS [Book III. 

does not appear as a termination, and scarcely one combination 
of monosyllabic pronominal elements which is employed inde- 
pendently but is applied to this purpose. But though we can 
most clearly trace the pronominal elements in these formations, 
it is scarcely possible to assign them a definite meaning on all 
occasions, any more than we can translate literally all the long 
compound pronouns. That they had a distinct signification at 
one time cannot be doubted, and it is at least useful, for the 
purpose of classification, to arrange the terminations according 
to the significant pronouns to which they externally correspond, 
even though we are not always able to assign to them, in their 
use as suffixes, a meaning perfectly and perceivably identical 
with that which they bear when used independently. 

The three primary monosyllabic pronouns are, as we have 
seen, (l) pa {ma); (2) qva, or Fa; and (3) ta : the first ex- 
presses the idea of " here ;" the other two are modifications of 
the idea of " there," distinguished according to the relative 
nearness or farness of the object. These primary words are, 
we have seen, compounded with each other, and otherwise modi- 
fied, in a great variety of ways. The second admits of the 
greatest number of modifications ; its original and proper element 
Fa or qva becomes sva, va, sa, hva, ha, lea, pa, <ja, and ya; 
and the sibilant passes into the dental articulations dva, da, tva, 
tu, &c. The third is changed only into na. Any one of these 
stems may be strengthened or rendered more emphatic by the 
addition of the affix -ra or -Id derived from net. The Sanscrit 
vowels and diphthongs a, a ; 7, i ; 4 ; which are all used as pro- 
nouns in composition, are only initials. 

In the formation of nominal derivatives in Greek, we ob- 
serve generally that the first pronominal element expresses that 
the thing proceeds from, or immediately belongs to, the sub, 
the second, that it has a relation to the subject ; the third, that 
it is a mere object, or something removed from the proximity of 
the subject. 

253 (l) Forms with the first pronominal element only. 

The termination -aao-? masculine, -/ir; feminine, is generally found 
With a class of nouns which represent the action of the verb proceeding 
from the subject, and may be expressed by the infinitive active used 
as a noun: thus <re«r-/uo'-?, "the shaking," = to o-clav, wot-hos, "the 



Chap. 3.] OF THE UNINFLECTED FORMS. 421 

falling/' = to TriTTTeiv (root ttct-) ; or the thing in which the action of 
the verb is exemplified ; as ^-/xo«?, of7-/xo'<?, " that which binds," i. e. 
either an inclosed field or village (like the English "toune" from 
" twine," which signifies both a field and a town), or the fat in which 
the thighs were wrapt up for sacrifice ; eper-pds, re-mus, " that which 
rows," &c. The same meaning may be observed in pvtj-pij "a recollecting," 
eino-Ttj-fxri " an understanding," &c. We cannot agree with Buttmann 
(Ausfuhrl. Sprl. § cxrx. 22) in thinking that the ending -ptj is ever 
equivalent to -^get = juei/T. The termination -pos is generally pre- 
ceded by <r, as in dea-pds, from Tidrjpi, %e<r-pd<;, lecr-fxri^ from Bew (com- 
pare however S>7-/ud<?), or by its representative 0, as in dpid-pd?, dpO-pd?, 
pvd-po? (compare however pv-fxds). A k is occasionally aspirated, as 
in ttAo^/xo'?, from ttXckco, Zoi^/mo's, from Zw'kw, or even inserted instead of 
<r or as in av-^pd^, from avw. The force of this ending is well shown 
by a comparison between the Latin pri-mtes, "the first of a series 
beginning with the subject," and the Greek Trow-To?, " the last of a 
series ending with the subject;" between aUmus "the nourisher" and 
alu-m-nus " the nourished." 

254 (2) Forms with the second pronominal element only. 

Nouns in -<m, -tiJs, both feminine, express a relation to the subject, 
and therefore approximate in meaning to those in -pd$ : thus we may 
compare 7roaK-<n<?, " a doing," pipy-crx, " an imitating," (pdais, " a 
showing," &c, with eS»/-Tik, " an eating," imf-rvs, " a showing com- 
passion," oo^<t-tu9, " a dancing," 77-00.*-™'?, " a doing," &c. These two 
endings are related as tu and <ru : between them stood the old form in 
-ti?, as 0a'-Ti?, " a speaking," prj-Tis, " a thinking," ttuV-tj?, " an en- 
quiring," &c. Compare the Latin pes-tis, " a destroying," ves-tis, " a 
covering," &c ; pa-tus, " a drinking," spiritus, " a breathing." When 
we compare por-tus with Troofl-juo's, op^^-o-t? and do^o--™? with 
dpxr]<T-p6<s 9 we see that, as the meanings of the first and second ele- 
ments often correspond in separate words (§§ 135, 150, 154), so there 
is scarcely any difference in signification between these endings. To this 
class belong the Latin supines in -turn and -tu, and the Greek verbals 
in -Teo?, -to?. By the side of the words in -tu?, expressing an action, 
we have a set of masculine nouns in -t^s denoting the corresponding 
agents: thus with €7t»/-tu5, 6pxri<r-rvs 9 we have eV^-T^'?, op^cr-T^?, 
&c. We shall show directly that these endings are connected in origin 
as well as signification with the verbals of which we are speaking. 

The termination -<ros = <r(po<s, implying a collection, is a representative 
of the full form of the root Fa. We have spoken above of its use in 
forming pronominal adjectives like 6W0?, t-0-0?, &c. It also appears 



422 THE PRONOMINAL TERMINATIONS [Book in. 

in substantives, as in Qia-aos, " a collection of sacred persons," 6Cp~<ro<;, 
" a collection of leaves," Trvp-vds, " a gathering of fire." 

Among the modifications of the second pronominal element, the form 
-ko-s is very common as an adjective ending. The terminations -«- 
-e-K-9-, -d-K-s, -I'-k-?, -v-k-c, and the Latin -i-c-s, are only modifications 
of this ending, as the adverb-ending -k-? is of -k«t, comp. dXwVi/f with 
the Sanscrit lopdka, «<&»£ with the Sanscrit kabiq* (*' a water-jar") ; 
and the forms fxowdt, tvp<*£, iroAAaKj?, reTpanis, &c* From t 
we must distinguish those words in which the guttural belongs to the 
root and the -c constitutes the ending, as in eVi/j/f (root /*«-/-)» »W£ 
(root oaK-). This termination m'>- • B a quality in 

question " what V — as in 7roi>/T<-Ko'<r, M like a poet," dvcpi-nd<;, 4i like a 
man," &c. : just so l,u!<i-k<i = j>>< 

Forsch. II. p. 458). Still more common is the termination in -10- 
swering to the Sanscrit f&-9: in fact there is hardly a root or tern 
tion to which it may not be joined with a qualitative meaning. I 
the form -/a«r, -uw, it is of extensive net in tin* construction of quali- 
tative nouns, Bach as vcavla*;, kovj md of proper names express- 
ing a quality, a> KoAXio . l 

this sullix also in the num. r I nouns ending in -»/, and 

in those, denoting in -*tti t! . Tpirjpdp^rj^, stand I r 

a VX'/ a ' Tpit)papxj/u<;, just as rpii)pap\ -ents rpitipapxyafAi. It 

is not, however, inbjoined to tin which it appears to 

be perfectly equivalent (compare m , flu* with . nor can we 

persuade ourselves thai it fa over app nple element of the 

second person, though BOmC Bohotaa have suggested that tenninatione 

like -<rio<; in Greek and -.»//•/ in Sanscrit are compound-* of sa and ye* 

We believe that the terminations -<nt, ■*«■) are ]«.-rfcctly equivalent in 

form as they certainly are in meaning, and differ from the form in -la 

only by being mors complete (faieA , A third class of qualit. 

endingB is connected with the modification -r</. These appear in a 

mutilated form, and therefore the real termination 

first Sight, at least in the uncompoumi with the addition of the 

third pronominal element this Mirtix becomes IDQfl 

without that addition it is not Med in Sanscrit, In (ireik we 

ypci(p€-v-<; = 7^o(/)j-ko-?, 'nrir€-v-<; —\-nr. RlC WOld : eT.- 

does not belong to this Blase. It is compounded of hum (\<F 

and a root j8ar*>, of which we can only say tha: the same 

as that of j&tyotj pd, a vocative (see Valcken. Admims. p. 383): compare 



The comparative phBofoget will bt amused I :■ difficulties ; ParaJip. 

V- - 



Chap. 3.] OF THE UNINFLECTED FORMS. 423 

<X\eu? (=vis populi=*Z6€V6-\ao<;), , Ayti<Ti-\ao<;, &c, and see Pott, Etym. 
Forsch. II. p. 278. The feminine corresponding to this masculine 
ending is -co ; thus n^ore-J-?, Upco-rco ; N»/\e-u'?, N^A-to'; Oefxio-re-vs, 
defXi<TT-<a, &C. The words eJ-e<TT-co, KaKeo-T-co, aet-eo-T-to and e<TT-to 
point to the connexion between this class and the nouns in -w? = For-?, 
fern. -vXa. For it is clear that we ought to derive eJeo-Tco not from ev 
e<TTi, which is the derivation given by H. Stephens, after Hesychius, 
but from the participial eZ eo-Tto?. Thus Thucydides, V. 46 : (rcpicri p.ev 
yap eu ecrroorcov twi/ it pay par u v apiarrov elvai SiacruKTao-dai rrjv evirpa- 
yiav. "We shall point out the connexion between the masculine and 
feminine of this suffix when we come to the compound terminations. 
The nouns in -ttos seem to contain the second pronominal element in 
its Attic form (-ttou, 7rot9ei/, &c.) : as paa-rpo-Tro'i (see Eustath. 308, 2), 
XeSpo-iros, ^apo-7ro9, and perhaps darepo-iro^ (Schol. Eurip. 373), 
and Kaplo-TTos. The solitary form l^do-lo-irS* contains this ending, 
subjoined to the element Bo- ; of which hereafter. It is possible that 
this ending may also lurk in the Homeric ^Ve-oo- 7re-i/'-s, yTre-po-Tre-v-rtjs, 
the root of which seems to be contained in dira-rtj. 

It might be supposed that the termination -t>7-?, gen. -tou, which 
signifies a male agent, as Kpt-Ttj? " a judge," &c, consists of the third 
element only. There is reason, however, to believe that this ending 
either presents the second element under the form r«, which is the case 
in all nouns like k0j-t>/? of the first declension, or adds the element ya 
to the third element t- in the nom. of the few nouns which end in 
-t*7?, -tow, just as ya alone appears in the nominative of compounds 
like evrcippj* from Tei^o?. Words formed with the ending -r^ are 
sometimes passive ; thus yeve-rtjs signifies both " father," which is the 
more common meaning, and " son" (Soph. (Ed. Tyr. 470. Eurip. Ion. 
916). AVe have also dr't-r^ " dishonoured" (iEschyl. Agam. 72, 
Eumen. 246), deiyeve-rai 0€o\ in Homer —alev e'o'i/re?, and Pindar 
calls Bacchus Kia-a-ode-rav Qeov (fr. 45, 9). But this meaning is more 
generally found with words in -to?, which termination appears not 
only in a large class of words with a passive signification, but also in 
the ordinals and superlatives. In the two latter cases it is probable 
that the termination is connected with -6ev the mark of the genitive 
case, and, therefore, with the second pronominal element, and the 
verbals in -Teo?, -ti/?, -ti?, &c. 

255 (3) Forms with the third pronominal element only. 
There is a large class of neuter substantives properly terminating in 
the element -t-, which is however softened in various ways by the pro- 



424 THE PRONOMINAL TERMINATIONS [Book III. 

cess of declension (see Gr. Gr. art. 182). One of the most common of 
these alterations is the substitution of -0-9 for -o-t, and the omission of 
this sibilant in the oblique cases : thus Trpayo-s for irpdyo-T means a 
thing done, the genitive being -n pay eo? for -rrpdye-ao^ (according to § 
114). The third element also appears alone in a number of participial 
adjectives, such as ypcnr-Tos, " written," ^kt-to'?, " anointed," Im-mw, 
M dreaded," &c. Although the termination of the passive participle in 
Latin and Sanscrit is identical with that of the supine, as it i- called, 
in Latin, and the Sanscrit infinitive, and though it that these 

supines and infinitives are of the snmootighl with the I 
it may be doubted whether we ought not termination of 

the passive participle as resulting from the third pronominal element 
only, and therefore as different from that of these 1 -.uM 

be mentioned that these forms diner by a Q 
a differ ence which may indicate that th not idem 

Another reason for inferring a difference between these e: I the 

verbal- formed from the lOOOnd -tern IS, that the former perfectly coin- 
cide in meaning with the word- formed with the snmx -•»?, which 

tainlv hafl no connexion with the SBCOnd element, an f the 

third in i nn. Thus both -rw and -»<oc are used to form 

passive participles : oompaie p i t nu t and ne- n i -nu-s and bk&- 

tit-s (both Signifying the Sun in E 

in the same langaaga, and crtu-i.". (tcw-toc, in Ghosh. I ban 
Sfi-vo'?, c ire all expressive 1 

ived under certain relation-; and the BOM may be said of the 
corresponding noun- in - h as opya-vov. In o-w.Xay-^for, from 

<T7r,\»/'i', we have probably the verbal root X a "*"- ^ 8 °» tne vr^arX 1 "* 
or sti led as an extm si<>n of the trtr\t\v. It will be 

remembered too that n and / are bseitsd in th tenses of verbs 

in precisely the same manner, tlius we haw n ----«-<»' and t*/+-9-*b in 
Greek, si-n-n; and in Latin (Pott, Kt m. /" f K II;. 

The qualitative nouns in -t>/t-s ^ rot, Latin -t<U-s(ta-*), - 

appeal to be formed either from ablative 0BBB1 of the third pronominal 
root, or by combination of the endin_ 1 with that of the third 

element. The termination -i-»; is found with a similar meani: | 
tfio-vrj, dyxo-vti 1: more clearly dnvnloped when compounded with the 
first and second elements M in \ - and the a 

tives k'p.i * rjbo-w-voK. The words 

K-poi-ivv from t\-.t.'. deserve particular notice on account 

of the aplueresis of the preposition. See ah ipare 

the Greek t*\- 



Chap. 3.] OF THE UNINFLECTED FORMS. 425 

256 (1 a) Terminations compounded of the first and other pro~ 
nominal elements. 

Of these the most common are the compounds of the first and third 

pronouns. They express the action as proceeding from the subject, but 

with especial reference to its results. We have participles in -pevos 

(Latin -men, -mnus, Sanscrit -mana-s), and nouns in -par = p€VT. 

These nouns and participles are equivalent in meaning; the latter is 

only a reduplicated form, with a substitution of the termination -1/0-5 

f it pay- l^- It ) 
for the combination -i/r. Thus j ( *"*", J \ equally signify a 

I ire-ir p ay -pe-vov ) 

thing done, and differ from irpayo^ only in their reference to the subject 

as the doer. The Latin and Sanscrit give the full form, as in ar-me-n- 

t-um, mo-me-n-t-um, &c, in the former language, cri-ma-n-t-as, &c, 

in the latter. The Greek compound suffix often assumes the form of 

-juw-i/, as in \ei-pu>-v, yuoo-pcou y irXev-piav^ &c, to which ser-mon, pul- 

mon, &c, correspond in Latin : it sometimes appears as -po-vtj, as in 

%ap-po-vtj, Tretcr-po-vt], (pXey-po-vrj, Tr\rj<r-po-vri^ Trrj-po-vrj (comp. Trrj- 

jua-r), and dp-po-v-ia, (dp-po-vi-KO-^). 

257 (2 a) Terminations compounded of the second and other 
pronominal elements. 

Under the form -ya or -va or -ha the second pronoun forms with 
the third the termination -ya-t, va-t, or va-n-t, in Sanscrit, For or Aot- 
in Greek. Like the shorter form in -J-?, this ending generally confers 
a qualitative meaning : thus sinha-vat, " lion-like," hhaga-va-n-t, " pros- 
perous," bha-va-n-t, "a lord" (from bhd, "splendour"), 0w?, 0<oto'?, 
for 0aFoT-?, 7raT0a>5 for 7raTp»-FoT-s (here the Sanscrit pitri-vyas pre- 
sents a longer form of the second pronoun), and the participles in 
-aK = Fot-<? (compare the neuter and oblique cases). The Greek com- 
pound terminations in -<o«? = Fot-s have a feminine in -ma, in which 
the v, or labial part of the digamma, is still seen. The shorter 
but analogous termination in -u-s has a feminine in -co. Here the 
case is reversed, the masculine having kept, while the feminine has 
lost, its characteristic breathing. We are disposed to infer from the 
feminine ending -v?a, and from the appearances to which we have 
before called the reader's attention, that the termination -u-? was ori- 
ginally written -u<? or -Fi<?, and that the termination -m is a contraction 
of Fa. The change from vis to us is shown in the Oscan ke-us for ci- 
vis ; see Varronianus, p. 95. We have endeavoured to show before 
that the vowels i, w, never appear but as the representatives of some 
lost or vocalized consonants, and we think that whenever they are found 



426 THE PRONOMINAL TERMINATIONS [Book III. 

in a Greek termination, we may conclude that the element of the second 
pronoun is comprised in it. The Sanscrit feminine corresponding to the 
Greek in -vta, is -uskl It is to be remarked that the feminine noun 
'Hoi? corresponds to the Sanscrit ash-as; and the analogy between Haw, 
"Eco?, and the particle em, originally «Fo? (V p. 239), may 

convince us that the former involved a digamma, which is farther con- 
firmed by the form Avok. In the same way, aQm must be regarded as 
derived from aJco-F^. The masculine i/owc, which 
more at length in a future chapter, includes *Wt-i mentioned above, for 
the original form was »/VF«ot-c. It u abo curious that in the Scla- 
vonic languages o-va corresponds to the Greek ending in -a>, ai 
= Joa?i?iis uxor (Pott, EtpnoL Fonek II. p. 1S6). 

2.")8 With the third pronominal root under the form -#* the second 
makes a elass of abstract noun- fa tfl a-uxppo-av-iti, cikciio-,- 

Ka\\o-<rvi>ti, &c, which are nearly equivalent in meaning fto thott h 
and -fxo-utj. Indeed, MoXAdtfvnf, which means 4 * that which i? <>f the 
quality of beauty," diiVer- very little from niXAo-4 >l * objective 

beauty." We have BO hflfljtatimi ill claSBll tcnnin.v 

with -ai'i-vt), to which it bean the hum relation tha- I i -<n- 

/io? -«o? to -eiot, -«a to -<nc, an ■: live in -.<> to that in -<rio. 

The adjectivea in -*-*oi axpreai the material out of which any thing is 
made, or rather they imply a mixed relation, of quality and oripi 
the object demoted by the a nb a Unih which they an- iari 

Thus f«X- od," u v, 

and oA*0-4-wk signifies- "gamin made up of that wh: 

true." This last adjective U particularly appli- Ma that which 

U all that it pieteodi to bo, Gm metai aid* 

teratod metal. Compare the akq0UfO* rrperrevjUl uf Xcuophon (A nab. 
L 9j $ 17) With the Kofapot cr-roaTtK or to KaBapov rov vrpa-rov of 

Herodotus (I. 211, IV. 135) and Thueydil I \ '. B , wh r the reader 
will remember that the better class of citi/ -ted to those of 

lower origin a- ~ [ ~ - -&"•. 

71J) foil.). This force ofaAiffooi atettJ M have escaped the notice of 
all the commentator- on T '■■• 15*): 

(0 \- | i (Vain o ira?? wfwowiufwc 

out . 
where Jf\ic«» does not refer to oxen drawing the plough, as the c 



• Pr Wofdsworth, vorv i proposes to alter v\»r, 

but we still prefer the old reading with the interpretation giren aboTe, which is 

farther confirmed bv the additional passage from Theocritus. 



Chap. 3.] OF THE UNINFLECTED FORMS. 427 

suppose, but bears its common sense of "weighing," "being heavy," 
" drawing down the scale." So that the passage means that Hercules 
brought up Hylas with a view to expel all dross and adulteration from 
him, in order that he might, by " weighing well," like pure gold, turn 
out a genuine man: just as Plato, speaking of the military caste in his 
state (Resp. IV. p. 428 e), says: TroTepov ovv iv t»7 voXei oiei iJ/jlTv 
■%a\K€a<; TrXelovs eveaeadai tj tovs dXrjdivovs (pvXaxas tovtovs ; because, 
according to his fiction, the artizans were made of copper or steel, but 
the guardian soldiers of pure silver (III. p. 415 a). In the same way 
Theocritus says (Epigr. XVII. 3): w Ba^e, ^aA/ceoi/ viv aW aAa- 
divov t\v u>h' duedrjKav. The adjectives in -t-juo? or -o-t-juo? express a 
quality by virtue of the first part of their termination, and also an 
action like the nouns in -/jlos. In fact, by this appendage, the relative 
word becomes subjective; thus aAw-o-i? signifies "a capture," and aAw- 
<n-/ios 7ratai/, "a song of triumph from the captors." 

259 It is difficult to believe that the large class of words in -irri?, 
-tart]?, ~ctTr]<;, -»/t^9, -(art]?, ought to be classed among those termi- 
nating with the affix -t^s only : for, if so, how are we to account for the 
penultimate syllable ? It may seem strange that the Greeks should have 
written both TroXitJTti?, or iroXiTri^, and hrjfjLorrjs, <pvXeTt]<; ; but it cannot 
be denied that the former contains something in addition to the termi- 
nation of the two latter. We must endeavour to ascertain what this 
addition is. The termination -*t»j«, which is probably always an ab- 
breviation of -iaTt]<i or 'irjrt]<;, is appended to substantives of all de- 
clensions; thus, -^(apiTtj^ from X^P a -> OTrXiTt]^ from oVAoi/, vroXirr}? from 
ttoAk. With the exception of fiireipwrr]? from tJTreipos, the termination 
-coT-r/s is appended to those nouns only which end in -ia and -eia. Now 
these nouns are combinations with the second pronominal element un- 
der the form ya : thus, 'IraA-o'-?, 'IraA-za, 'IraX-iuiTris. In this case, 
therefore, we conceive the termination is compounded of the second and 
third pronominal elements. May not the others be so likewise ? In 
the Latin terminations -as (for dts) genitive -dtis, the third pronominal 
element does not appear in so full a form as it does in Greek, but the 
length of the penultima points to a combination of the two elements as 
in the Greek. The whole question will be set in a clearer light, if we 
consider in general what is the origin of the ethnic names. Now, either 
the name of the country is derived from that of the people or vice versa* 
When the former is the case, the name of the country generally ends in 
-la or -i-k>/, which are relative endings affixed to the gentile name: 
thus, 'IraAo? makes 'IraAia, AciKtav makes ActKwviKtj. But there were 
two classes of inhabitants in countries of which the Greeks were wont 



428 THE PRONOMINAL TERMINATIONS [Book in. 

to speak and write; the native inhabitants, and the Greek settlers. 
Thus, if 'IraXia is the country of the 'ItciXoi, a person living and acting 
there would be 'lraXi^Trjs, which is therefore a secondary formation, 
or includes both pronominal endings. The Romans, in like manner, 
would call Hupan-ia the land of the Hispan-i, but a Roman living 
there would be called Hispaniensis (see Ruhnken ad Sueton. Ccesar. 
§ 37). If all the Greek nouns of which we are speaking are secondary 
formations, we can now understand why we have iroAiVis woAfnft, 
but (pv\€Tti<;, and crjfxdrrj<!. The two latter are derived from the sub- 
stantives <pv\rj, c^Mo?, which are themselves formed from the verbal 
roots 0u-, cFe, by the suffixes -Xrj, -/jo?; the introduction of the syllable 
ya, ia, would therefore be quite superfluous. But ttoA-k from the root 
7ro\- (-TroAu'c, &c.) is equivalent to 7roX<a, just as the suffixes -<m and 
-o-ia are identical; the form TruXttjrrj^, 7ro\<Vr7<r, is therefore necessary 
for the second derivative. For jwctpwrtp, oVXerr/c, we mu-t -uppose 
intermediate forms f/Ve^io?, oV,W<r. Tlx 1 in the 

secondary derivative, and may be i nferr ed from the words cVoxXio?, 
iravoTrXia. We might there for e Mip pOW the uri_'in;il existence of a word 
o'ttAo/tv/c or oVXicuVr/c corresponding in ferm and meaning t-» dcnni'turn* 
(Horn. //. XVI. Hi;, cf. Eurip. 11, r-. V. 159— l6l): fcf the SirXow, or 
u thing moved about in defence** (e™), and the pd*a\o* or "1 

brought heavily down to strike" (/»eV»), would constitute the two a 
protective and olVen-ive. of the primitive warrior (see on Antigone, 115, 
6). There is the HM paralhli-m l>etween a' river 

that bounded the earth, and wty a w h the h m --t-l ».xpan-e which rested 
upon it, according to the ancient idea. There is no occasion then 
for the derivation pr op o ood by Hopp (Gloss. Sansc. p. 331). In like 
manner for the patronymics -<'a>-v, -lu-vr/, -<-vr/, we must presume fa 
mediate proper names in -fat, 4a, It is important to remark that the 
nouns in -ia? have occasionally by-forms in -faff ; thus, we have both 
vefip-la* and ve/fy-rrr/c, the latter having a compound, the fennel 
a simple ending. Pott's supposition (Etymol. Forsch. II. p. £ 
that -td~Ttj<: contains the Sanscrit root 1 or yd, "to go," is founded 
on what we consider a misconception respecting the nature of these 
formations. 

k 2(U) The large class of nouns in •>V, -wpm, must ho referred : 
same origin as the genitive plural, and therefore, as we have already 
seen (§ 860), are derived from a combination of the second element 
under the form en- with the third element »-. They denote a nfcn 
collection or aggregation : thus. wAp A is a "place for men," wap$c»~m* 
"a maiden's chamber" (hence the temple of the - ddess Pallas), 



Chap. 3.] OF THE UNINFLECTED FORMS. 429 

ay-<av " a general place of meeting," dixTreX-wv " a place of vines/' and 
even al-au " a collection of periods." To all these the derivation from 
the same source as the genitive case is very appropriate, for the same 
idea is involved in each. This community of origin is farther shown 
by the form -ea>V, which is found in Ionic and old Attic (Lobeck, 
Phrynichus, p. 166). The further affix ~ia is sometimes found, as in 
poc-uv-ia, pv-u)v-la. 

261 (3 a) Reduplications of the third pronominal element. 

Except in the nominative case of the few nouns which end in -t»;?, 
-tou<? (above § 228), and in words in -vrj, -vios, -vlko? (§ 255), the third 
pronominal element can hardly be said to be in itself the vehicle of any 
ulterior formations, although, when appended to the other elements, it 
is often followed by additional syllables. The forms -re-p, -re-pos, &c. 
must, like the third numeral, be considered as corruptions of a com- 
pound of the second element under the form tv or rt, and p-. But the 
third pronoun under the form na is very often followed by the other 
form ta, and in Latin and Sanscrit this combination is reversed. Thus 
we have cras-ti-nus, pris-ti-nus, in the former, and in Sanscrit we find 
both -tana and -tna y as in hya-tanas = hesternus, and nu-tnas = novus. 
The Greek termination -vr, whether it appears in nouns or participles, 
is always very much shortened and disguised : as tvtttwv for tvtttovts, 
c-tcis for o-Ta'i/T?, -yap teW for xapievrs, &c. In the Latin participles it 
is more fully exhibited in the nominative case, as amans, monens, for 
amants, monents, and most completely in quantus, where the Greek 
has 7ra«? for ttccWs (see Pott, Etymol. Forsch. II. p. 303). So also the 
proper names of places in the South of Italy and Sicily, which, in 
Greek, end in -ovt-?, or -avr-<; (-ou<?, -a?), generally appear in Latin 
under the form -entum, thus, Acragas, Taras, Pyxus, Maloeis, Cru- 
moeis, become Agrigentum, Tarentum, Buxentum, Maleventum, Gru- 
mentum. The transition step appears in the assertion that the iEolians 
formed these names as masculines in -ei/ro? (see Niebuhr, Hist, of 
Rome, I. note 148). In Sanscrit and Latin the combination -nt- is 
appended to other pronominal stems, as in the compound suffixes 
-mant, -vant; men turn; and we must suppose it originally included 
in the Greek /uaT = /uei/T. The termination -nt expresses the general 
state or being of a thing without any limiting accessary notion, hence 
its applicability to the formation of participles, and other perfectly 
general words. In Sanscrit, but not in Greek, we have a combination 
of the third and first elements, as in punya-ta-mas " purest." The 
superlative-ending -Ta-ro? is a direct repetition of the third element. 



430 THE PRONOMINAL TERMINATIONS [Book IIL 

262 (2 V) The second pronominal element under the form ca or Ou. 

We have already mentioned that the element c- or 6- is to be 
regarded as a corruption of the second pronoun. At first sight t 
articulations might seem to stand rather for the third than for the 
second element. Perhaps, however, the question will be determined by 
an examination of their employment as flectional endings. The simplest 
shape in which 3- or 6- appears is as the bat letter of feminine crude- forms, 
as in (pvydc-<: (<£i>7Ct-?), "E\Aac-? ('E,\Aa<r), \tj<TTptc-<; (Ar/a-r^), opvi6-<: 
(o^i/t-?), Kopvd-s (ko/ju-?), &c. According to Bopp ( Very!. Gramm. 
p. 1 39), the c- is merely a secondary, unorganic addition, intended as a 
vehicle for the case-endings, and yet he say- (\> 1 1-7), that Kopx r 1 -? and 
Spvid-i are compounds, the one denoting " what he head," 

as from TiOtjfxi, and the other " that which goes in the wood," as from 
6eu) "to run." We believe that in all case- | and 

significant a pronominal suffix as any other : lot instance, why is \oya- 
£-<? not a derivative, if \«-rot is? In the first and most general of 
patronymics, -rraT-c-c, this ending appears in the shortest form, and also 
in the patronymic Gco-yvi-c-s (comp. Oov-Kvcl-crjc). The root of traT-c-t 
is that pronunciation of the first tennis which in all tl. 
the Indo-Gcrmanie family : the first sounds uttered by an 

infant, to express u ones one Of the whom he sees — h\< 

father, — and one ofhifl first Will — food ; I -imilar combination of the 
mother and the bread is found in the i 

merely a modified utterance rat sound, 

and / ■■/ the Second, Ottered by an infant. Comp. -raVirac, pappa, 
"papa," k *pap."' papulhj with . "mama. 

" mouth," /««('■ isBS. p. o(5. Combined with the termi- 

nation expressing an agent, We have ra- --tjp in Greek, and 

similar words in all the connate languages : from the former root with 
a more general ending we have fro-ofsBArornfrd nyy&€?t t then «w- 
cVc. in Creek; j>io-r (Lac. trot/ >), /»affm, pu*i!' (his, 

disci-j>'!i>i(i, Sec. in Latin ; Sense. 

pur- nyit Jilitts), and so on. The same derivative sense may be recog- 
nised in the feminine nouns in c- or 0-. * That which com. - 
belongs to the woe lit nrottt, Lat. am us) would be as good an 

explanation of opviO-< a< any other, and the importation of a verbal 
root is quite gratuitous. The termination d- appeals in a longer form 
in the verbal substantive-, like /&»-&>«, \\ and in the common 

patronymics, as Kpoi l-ct;*. I »;c (the name I occurs in 

Herod. VI IT. 65, fca). In the JBoKe dialect this suffix appeal 
-£<o<? [Bekkeri A need, p- ^"pp a 



Chap. 3.] OF THE UNINFLECTED FORMS. 431 

ydp 7TCU5 6 YlnraKos), and the second pronominal ending precedes 
the -S>7<? in 'Ayta'o^? from 'Ay*?, BaK^ta'3/;? from Bock^i?, &c. Compare 
7ro\-itj-Tti<; with Srifxo-Tris. As some of the female patronymics are 
formed in the same way as the feminine nouns mentioned above — thus 
from Bopeas we have masc. patr. Bojoea-oV, femin. patr. Booea's (Bopea- 
Sck), Soph. Antxg. 985, from TaVraAo? we have masc. patr. Tai/raAi'oV, 
femin. patr. TavraXk = TayraAio 1 ? (Tai/raAiBoc), &c. — we cannot con- 
sider the 8 in the feminine nouns mentioned above as an unorganic 
fulcrum, and must regard it as the elemental letter of the termination 
da, which we have recognised in the ablative or genitive case ; and we 
have seen, that, in the fullest form of this case, -cnov, -toi/, it serves as the 
inflexion of the comparative degree. Hence, it is interesting to remark, 
that we find -hov as well as -B^s = Byas used for the expression of a pa- 
tronymic. In the patronymics in B- the feminine form is shorter than 
the masculine; in those in -<wi> = iov-s the converse is observable, the 
feminine being -«oi/r/, and -'iutj. The fair inference from this is, that the 
feminines in -3-<? are anterior to the masculines in -Srjs, but the fenrr- 
nines in -mvr], -ivr\ later than the corresponding masculine nouns. As 
it is pretty clear that the patronymics in -3>7<?, and -mv find their com- 
mon origin in the sign of the genitive case, we may expect that, with a 
little vagueness occasionally, their significations will correspond. In- 
deed, the distinctions which we observe are casual or arbitrary, and the 
vagueness is shown by the accumulation of one ending after the other. 
The terminations -ioi/t-B*;?, id-crjs, -lov-ihr]?, would sometimes express 
the son, sometimes the grandson ; thus from* , AToei/9 we have 'ATpelwu, 
'ATpeictis (Agamemnon or Mcnclaus, the grandsons of Atreus); thus 
also we have the forms 'lairer-iov-i-lris from 'IaVeTo<?, Ta\a-iov-i-hr]^ 
from TaAao?, 'AKpi<ri(tiv-id-Zrj<; from 'Akjojo-jo?, &c In the names of 
tribes, supposed to be the extant representatives of remote ancestors, 
we always have -£>/? or -3a<, never -toves ; for example, the Athenian 
tribes are called 'Apyadrjs, RovTadai, T^vTrarpilat, &c, and we have 
clans or castes called 'Ofxrjpldat, 'Ao-kA^-h- idlai, &c. The termination -Beus, 
whence 'Apyad^, expresses also general derivation without reference to 
any proper name, as in the words u<3eJ?, sing. XeovrtSijs, ^i/tS^?, plur. 
The Boeotian patronymics in -wi/3as seem to be derived from participial 
names, as XatpMas from x a 'ip ol/T > Xa|0wi/Sa? from ydpovr, KpeMa? 
from Kjoeoi/r, IlaycuvSa? from irdyovr, 'E7ra/xen/«i/c"a?, or ^irajxivMa^ y 
from eirafxvvovr. The participle dniuwv=dfjivu(av i involved in the last word, 



* That this is the genuine Boeotic spelling is clear from the inscriptions; see 
Bbckh, C. I. I. p. 723. Thus we have 'A/xivia?, nos. 1584, 1608. 'A/juvoicXeis, 1563 b. 
'Eira/JLiviovBas, 1574. 



432 THE PRONOMINAL TERMINATIONS [Book III. 

is particularly interesting from its outward identity with the compara- 
tive dfxeivwv. When we place the correlatives dpeivwv and -^eipwv side by 
side, we are led to the conclusion, that, standing as they do for d-pev-iuv, 
^ep-icoi/, they must be formed from some such words as a-^ei>-cv<r, ^€/>-€i/V. 
Now the former of these, on the analogy of a-o£b<:, d-oao-rjTrjp, would 
imply some one who stands or remains (Eurip. Here F. 163. Soph. 
Antxg. 671) by us in battle: while xep-evs would denote a handicrafts- 
man or labourer ; and thus the usual opposition ( I ' . 76) 
between the better and the worse, between the warrior and the workman, 
would be expressed in the terms of the language it-' If. The more com- 
mon form of the word expressing assistance in batik i- tiftwtm, and we 
have the same form with the same in- ailing in the Latin munia = 
Tncenia, and murus = mcerus. The explanation of this long u is not 
difficult. We have already seen that comparativ. - in -mm pn-nppose 
a positive in -J<r, or -pds. We have no trace of the latt» r have, and 
meat t h erefore assume the former. If, Uioieane, the posi; 

euc, the verb would he <ui f i/.i/'u), and this, on I i«, would 

pans into fl/HMw riyUvm. jnot an dfutimw ironld paaa into dfiuvm*. The 

cliange of apmm into apum would be natural enough in the 1 

diaKrt, whicfa often ro batitnted » for v (Ahrena, D 81). 

Besides the participle in -u>r, which forms the basil of tfc name 

'Eiwap . we have also the form A.Kip-iac correspo; 

A('«c, &c. Consequently, the form T.- iptumAm* may be considered as 

a variation of the double form 1 ianes plays on 

the interchange of*A/Mu fat and *A 1 ) ; anda 

parisoa of Tfl/i-uiv- and rau-a-'r mayahow 11- apoadant 

tin* forms in -Sow and -uu . I m M ■ proper 

name (Aristoph* Eodm. 365). With thai explanation, the comparative 

dnelvtau will stand in good parallelism t nym dpt'mv y from 

"Am* or 'A/ici'c, and both will signify pie-eminence in war. Similarly, 
upeio-aoov, another synonym, l ofeiM to the possession of greater stn 
or power, and perhape there may b f -onm$ 

(anciently ofwdaat), ftcX-ryof/S tV -T y g t, and aVamu *. To return, 



* There has been a great deal of raguc writing on the subject of these compara- 
tives. For instance, Bopp { Vtrgl. (•ramm. p. tSttJ proposes to consider a-^eiV«» as 
compounded of ■ privativum, and fktbm* = minor, and he finds the same compound 
eoneealed in Mmifl I Poderlein {Syn. u. Etym. V. p. 849) derives dptbm* from pivot, 
pepswo, in the sense of " >% illinir," and rinds the same idea in the connexion which ha 
assumes between r.\d vel-le. And the Profess u-ati re Grammar, 

U) whose liuiierous performances we ha\e occasionally adverted, has put together a 
tissue of absurdities in his attempt to traee the Greek. Latin, and English synonyms 
for goody better, best, and treU, to a common origin. For instance, 



Chap. 3.] OF THE UNINFLECTED FORMS. 433 

however, to 'E7ra/Aeii/coi/Ba<?, we may regard this word as a proof of the 
contacts between the participles in -icv and the comparatives in -iu>v 3 
and we may conclude that the patronymic ending -£a<? is appended to 
these Theban names derived from participles, without the insertion of a 
relative element, on account of the resemblance of that participial form 
to the comparative or relative words in -lav thus strengthened; for 
-i/Bas = -i/3to? is not far from -vt-ios. And we shall proceed to show 
that the ending B- itself is sometimes used with a sort of participial 
meaning, which we have seen involved in other uses of the second pro- 
nominal affix (see Varronianus, pp. 240 sqq.). 

263 "We have a long list of adverbs terminating in -Zijv, which, as 
Grimm rightly observes (III. p. 239), are to be classed with the Latin 
in -im, -tim, and the German in -ingen, -lingen ; thus he compares 
fialt]v, gradatim ; fi\r\hr}v, wurflingen ; o-vWtjfiZtiu, conjunctim ; ypd/3- 
%t]v, rizilingen; dpirdyhrjv, raptim; Kpv(3hr]v, clam; B^o/xa'Bf/j/, lauflingen ; 
<pvydlriv, junctim ; &c. These adverbs sometimes appear under the 
shorter forms -ha, -Boi/, -Bk, sometimes under the longer forms -vha, 
-vZrju, and -v6a, the last however in two instances only, fxivwda and 
oklyivda. We occasionally find nearly all these terminations appended to 
the same root, as Kpv/3%a, Kpv<pr{b6v^ KpvcpdSis, Kpv/3^rjv^ upvcpavhov. Butt- 
mann (Lexil. I. p. 16) regards those in -Irjv as accusatives feminine, used 
as adverbs like 0**71/, dirpiaTriv ; but although the old locative case, 
which he calls an accusative, may be used as an adverb or preposition, 
and though, as we have seen, nouns are formed by the suffix -Sij?, -B-s, 
yet the absence of any nominative in all the adverbs in question, and 
the way in which the suffix is attached to the root, forbid us to con- 
sider them in that light. We have seen that the suffix -Be implies 
motion to a place, as in oiicoiz-Be, OuXvfxirov-Ze, and that it is connected 
in meaning and origin with the patronymic termination -^5, -B-s, and 
the suffix -dev, Sanscrit -dkas, Latin tus, the difference between otico- 
0ev and oiKov-le, for instance, being that although -Be and -Qev are ori- 
ginally identical, and both signify motion from a place (hin) 9 yet, by 
the accusative 1/, retained in the latter word, the idea of going is changed 
into that of coming {her). In this secondary use of the affix -Be, we 
must remark that in nouns it is always added to the accusative in -1/, 
and that in pronouns it is always -o-e. We sometimes find also the 
extension -B«. It will be remembered that there is no absolute distinc- 



umus = o-bet-umus = bet-est = best; the initial vowel being there merely to furnish the 
astonished reader with the necessary exclamation. Some cruel wag will suggest that 
the author of such derivations ought to be promoted at once to the professorship of 
superlative philology ! 

F F 



434 THE PRONOMINAL TERMINATIONS [Book III. 

tion of hin and her in the Greek verbs of motion, and that Ip^o^ai sig- 
nifies " I go" as well as "I come," the former meaning being expressed 
distinctively by the perfect oi^ofiat or arnica, the latter by the perfect 
i]Kio. A careful examination of all the adverbs now under consideration 
would convince us that the meaning which they convey, whether I 
are more immediately connected with nouns or with verbs, is simply 
that which would be produced by the suffix -Qev, or the patronymic 
suffix -c>7<r, -c-<r, that, namely, of proceeding from, being deduced from, 
caused by, in the manner of, fee Thus, to take those formed from 

nouns, K\ayyt]-cou is equivalent to KXdyyrjdev, Kma^jcd to K.avd^rj0(p, 

&c To disease i\, 1 from rerbs, ire mast fast consider what 

would be the meaning of a noun formed from a verb-root by the suffix 
-o>/c, -c-9. Thus, from the root (3a- "to go," we hav. 
also /5a-c«-o-K, eve., and c/ot-/ia(c)? "a shoe:" from fpvy- "to fly" we 
have (pvytj, "flight" or M Jiving," but <£irya(c)c " a flier;" so that these 
words (\ press that which comes out of the action of the verb, i- <•. the 
manner of it. Just such a meaning we have in the adverbs /Su 

. <pvy-ca. The for . difter only as tvwto- 

ikOov, TV7rT('fuOtt, nlrn the verbs, which, as we shall 

hereafter ikon lv identical. The forms in -vca, -*crfv, are 

■aoJogOUi to the terminations in -tn- ; cf. Ti'pv-**, genitive Tipv-vtiut, 
with ! Tlie two in -*da must be compared 

with (it'll. iiOetf. 



96 1 Ufa well known that these adverbs arc not formed 

which take a (' in their derivatives, with the exception wl fimlfa /Jufor, 
from ftim (Buttmann. AusfuhrL Sj»rl. § 11<), S3). From verbs of this 
kind we have generally adverb- in -#n, a- eVpfMfr**] from dvofxtL^m. 
This form is mot particularly common in connexion with verbs in 
-»-£co, as t'\\>/i -t-l u>. i'\ \rjf-i-art, a . dvcpavoc-i-vri, \c. In 

some of these adverbs tuted for <r, on the same euphonical 

ground which has produced such forms as; fimm% rom /Ja<rra-£«#, 

though from *. -~v c , and ccv-tik by the side of 

-trT»/c, and though we have i>.'\e "tti|<, <r«yyt»»(<r-riK, <rm<Pf>oti- 

(tti/c, and SCfH and Hnfnft (see Lobeck, Parol i pom. 

p. if)). According to this principle, we have aV* m <r-ra(u, and 

uo-k-t\ from olnto-ijo (Hermann, ad Soph. A ■ - Il 'ill be 

remarked, however, tha: : these verbs have y or k in the noun- 

derivates, as > t '/ /» # 

ecu, K- .>i^fc>-£a>, o»'u«7f/, +9Qifim KT*l <rr ■■ 

o-xafft), mSypa, id the truer account undo;; that 

the (' of the indicative is a representa: : . . or rjr, '.verbs 

of this class have neither v nor s before the -n, as ayM 



Chap. 3.] OF THE UNINFLECTED FORMS. 435 

a-rp€7rri, dvilpvri, &c., especially when the root terminates with o, as 
ap-Ti, eyptjyop-Tij iyep-Ti, &c. These terminations belong originally to 
the same class with those which we have just discussed ; namely, to 
the verbals in --m, -tv?, -reo?. They are all locative cases, and bear the 
same relation to the Latin locatives in -tim, -ter, that the ordinary loca- 
tives in i do to the older locatives in -iv, -im. Those in -wo-rl, as peya- 
A&Hj-Ti, hrjfjLKao-ri, lepaxrri, veutari, &c, are very singular forms; they 
comprise, in fact, an union of the old ablative in -«? with this locative 
suffix, an union similar to that which we have pointed out in oiKou-he, 
f3ov\vTov-%€, &c. Besides these locatives with the suffix -Tt, -k-ti, 
-<r-Ti, from verbs, a great number of adverbs appear as the immediate 
locative cases of nouns, with the ending a or i ; thus we have dpio-di, av- 
Tofioel, iravlrifxei^ dfxa^el^ &c. It appears quite impossible to settle the 
orthography of these endings. Blomfield {adJEsch. Prom. 216) would 
write -i in all those to which there are corresponding nouns in -o?, on 
the analogy of oikoi, 7re3o?, &c. ; and -et in the others. But the tradi- 
tionary orthography on which the varieties depend is too consistent to 
admit of any such alteration ; nothing is to be inferred from the analogy 
of oiKot, for o'ik€l is recognised as a genuine form by Theognostus, and 
the Dorians wrote tovtcT, TijveT, arret, eV-e?, as general locatives, with- 
out any particular expression of gender (Bekkeri Anecdot. p. 1404). The 
variation in the orthography and also in the quantity of these endings 
{Bekkeri Anecdot. p. 571 ; Gramm. ap. Hermann, de Emend. Bat. Gr. 
Gr. p. 448) must be reckoned under those anomalies which are due 
only to caprice and accident, and which are so numerous as to defy all 
the Procrustean efforts of the Porsonian school. With these locatives 
in ei, i, we must of course class those in ai, as ^ajxai, ird\ai, irapal, &c. 
We have also older locative forms in -v corresponding to these adverbs: 
comp. alev, aid; sometimes even olev, comp. -Qev, -0e?, -tus, -dhas ; 
■jraXiv^ 7ra'/\t, ird\ai ; irpiv, irpd, (Seuoo, eVuTrrero), ^reo', Trepav^ irepa, 
Trapat, irpuii, irapd, &c. The forms in -tj belong also to this class, for 
in the Boeotian dialect ptj, i/>/', eVetSf/', &c. were written pel, vel, ewiSei, 
&c. (Bockh, Corp. Inscript. I. p. 720). So that, on the whole, strange 
as it may appear, we are compelled to admit an original identity of ter- 
minations apparently so different as -oi/, -t]v, -o (compare the secondary 
person-endings of the passive voice -ptiv, -co, -to, &c), -<, -I, -iv, -ei> 
-at, ->7, -e?. To such a distance from an original form in the ending 
word will the arbitrary or accidental divergencies of human utterance 
lead those who speak the same language! or shall we say that the 
principle of association, working and fermenting in the mind, has gene- 
rated these by-forms in language to preserve in the outward symbols of 
thought the idea of likeness in dissimilarity? 

Ff2 



436 THE PRONOMINAL TERMINATIONS [Book III. 

265 To return, however, to the suffix da. VTe have before shown 
on more than one occasion, that, in spite of the obvious suggestion of a 
simple change of the tenuis into the medial, this element is not a repre- 
sentative of the third pronominal stem ta, but a shortened form of that 
word which appears as the second personal pronoun and the second 
numeral. The nature of the present researches and the wide field in 
which they are carried on, does not allow us to bring forward all our 
proofs at once ; we are now, however, enabled to set forth with addi- 
tional confirmation, some of the statements which we made in th- 
ceding chapters. It appears from the investigation which we have just 
concluded, that there is an obvious connexion between the termination 
-Tf7?, expressing agency, the patronymic -o/-<:, where the r; includes y as 
in the passive aorist mwqf (comp. the £ofio patronymics in -Swt, 
erj-Xos, for eti'e-Aoc, BpaAot, " as char as day"), the adverbial termina- 
tions in -cov, -o/i/, -ca, -0a, -ti, -tim, -oc, and the verbals 
-rue, -Teos. The person-ending-; of the passive verb may convince us that 
the termination . mu-t have emanated fn.ni -Joi through -crjr, 

-Zov ; comp. cTi>7rTo'-/i>/r with Tv-trTo-fiai, Tv-wre-aOtji with TVITTe-adoVj 
and Tv-n-Tu-ficOov with i >f i » fu$a> > mes the included -«' 

of -tjc, 6Y&, and carries Qfl hack at QMS to the guttural part of the 
second element. We have before pointed out the identity 
with the ahlative -<l or-/, the superlative -rot, aud the patronymic - 
The adjectives in -c<ck, which generally express immediate proximi: 
space (Lobeck, Phr>/>t. p, .*>.V> falL ttiy belong to this class, as 

does also the Slavonic ending </.'-, -A. or M me*. 

p. :!!)4). There is only .:id on which all these forms 

can meet, nannly, the element need for the second personal pronoun, 
ti-d, dr<(, <///(/, or (ha ; and one or other of these natural varieties is 
r epre se nt ed by every one of the -. which in meaning and 

DM seem to be equivalent. The (ireek is a softened c almost verging 
upon i/ or j. It is found where v appears i; and in some 

a it appears to be equivalent to f. which i- eit*. th a 

guttural or dental prefixed : POtDpeW 

^tfi-foe for x$ l -t lo<: f f»cr»-(J with c'u, eve. In the terminations -tvc, 
-Teo<? (for TtFo?), the original tra is more e % rned, the ra being 

vocali/ed in the former. In the end: 

representative of the additional element by which in these oatm 
second pronoun is distinguished from the third. In general, it nu 
laid down that the appearance of either i or u in a syllable is the r 
sentative of some lost element. These leti have taken some 

pains to show, are the ultimate vocalization of certaiu consonants, and 
not simple articulation-vowels, like <j and its lighter forms 



Chap. 3.] OF THE UNINFLECTED FORMS. 437 

have seen that i sometimes stands as the sole representative, not merely 
of u, but even of the digamma or a compound of the guttural and labial. 
It is this letter alone which is left to distinguish tjs, the corrupted 
Hellenic form of the interrogative and indefinite, from the common 
pronoun of the third person, and it is also this which alone remains in 
-tim, -Tt9, as v alone remains in -tus, to indicate that they belong to the 
second pronoun. A similar remark may be made with regard to rj. 
But although this evidence must induce us in almost all cases to class 
-da with the terminations formed from the second pronoun, and to dis- 
tinguish it carefully from those formed from the third, it must be con- 
fessed that certain perplexities remain which it is very difficult to 
unravel. Some might conclude, from the sense, that the Latin verbal in 
-n-dus must be compared with the Greek verbal in -Teoc. But then 
we have active participles oriundus, amabundus, which seem to differ 
from orien(t)s, aman(t)s, only as quantus from Tra'i/r-?, or Tarentum 
from Ta'pai/T-?. Again, cupi-dus is found as a synonym for cupien(f)$, 
and rapi-dus on the contrary for rap-tus ; the forms splen-di-dus, can- 
di-dus, which have reduplicated endings, appear to be equivalent to 
ple-nus or ple-tus, and ca-nus or cas-tus. In these cases, as in the con- 
fusion between the verbal in -tu-s (or supine) and the passive participle 
in -tits, which appear to be of different origin, we must be content to 
say that time and custom have produced identities where we should 
have guessed that there must have been originally a difference, even 
without the resources of comparative philology to tell us what that 
difference was. We are not without other examples of the same sort 
of confusion, which is always troublesome and perplexing. Thus, va, 
another form of ma, is to be distinguished from va, a mutilation of Fa : 
and pa, another form of ma, must be distinguished from pa, another 
mutilation of the same Fa = kpa. We have also mentioned the different 
syllables to which the Greek t] corresponds (above, §§ 150, 199). This 
da being the ultimate form of tva, we shall not be surprised to see it 
combined with the more original and simple form of the second prono- 
minal stem, in -id-lr}*, -So-71-0? (e£0o-Bo-7ro<?), &c Its appearance in 
composition with the element -na is perfectly analogous to the com- 
pound terminations -fxo-vr], -juw-i/, -o-v-vrj, -o-u-i/o?. Thus we have d\ytj- 
Zw-v, dx6ti-lu-v, KOTv\ri~lu>v, &c. to many of which, adjectives in Za-vd? 
correspond, as T^e-Bw't/, T^tce-So-i/o's; but of course there are many 
adjectives in -Sai/o's, — oi/Vi-8o-i/os for instance — which have no corre- 
sponding substantive in -BwV A long series of Latin words in do(n)-, 
dinis, may be classed with the Greek nouns in -to : the Latin termi- 
nation seems to have the same force as the Greek ; compare grave~do(n) 



43S THE PRONOMINAL TERMINATIONS [Book III. 

with *yM**, &c In Greek, -Wt, -Wr, appear to be sometimes 
equivalent to one another and to -t^; thus we bw^U,^- 
8ojV, and paKe-rris, as synonyms. 

266 (3 6) TAe third pronominal element va under the form Aa or pa. 
There are two terminations of most extensive use, -A<x, -?<*, which 
seem to agree in meaning. The former is found in a number of adjec- 
tives expressing objective relations, as ™</>-Ao'<r, c<r<-\o' s cttu^-Aos peya- 
A<x, or substantives denoting things of a certain kind, as Kpora-Xov, 
0vixe-kti, v€(pe-\ti : sometimes under a longer form, as W fi flrn X mrt, \evya- 
Ae'o9, vn<pa-\to<;, Zciltcl-\€-v-<; j sometimes compounded with the element 
-uos\ as in irevKa-Xi-poa ; sometimes with the element -m, as in f- 
(«X4f), t„'-X<-ko S &c. In Latin it DIM f in all these forms and 

some others; thus we have tremu-lus, faci-lis, rincu-? +U> 

fi-lim (Ro<r, 0u.ciO, fe-H-c* (felix), famc-li-cus, Sec. T und- 

endings -Amok, 4mw have been preserved in the Gothic and German 
languages, and even in modem Kngli.-h. Tims we have WA»«E 
"like," from a verb Hgutying M to see:" and fcp*4itt is "what like," 
German ■ MOip*W lO-Uk* "so-like." « su-eh/' The Gothic 

;/,, ( irrinan ,//. W . «* M-**™*** • com " 

pare <ra'-0r;c from ffri (<ra-/m«) and <^w? (above, § 181). 

The termination -pot seems to be equivalent in value to -\oc. 
Compare mcX+?M with rrv+-A«t, Afu 7 a-A«o« with Airy-p^, ^gic/km 
with p*f****, **i W-p~ wit rt«n w °r<k 

ofahm* pfe-fia («*#-), ndences to 

all the simple form- In the compound- incidences 

are still more striking : 0Ompi» Ji t* ■ / ■ «• 

fo*-f*-«a, to*-ff-f«, &c. with ■ . K iWM ft W W , ftfr, MMh 

M with fMri-O-Jm, «» : and in regard to the eoinpound -\;-«x we 
BIAj observe that the Greek and - hsft with the same meaning 

Up** (UpaKov), -</-;•/>, where the d is one of those prefixes, pr- 
pronominal, which so often appear before simple roots: compare I 
with the Stntcrit OffSi Lithuanian assarm. 

In faet there ean be no doubt that -\oe, -f« arc etymologically 
identieal, the latter being only a m^Urni/.ati-n of the former, a^ 
often the MM ; compar rewco; etiebtr, crcUr ; apostolus, aj&tre, 

&C (see above. f 107). ' The very same word with modified DIM 
presents both ending. Thus we find *-a'-A««, ira-W. and »p«V, from 
vopoi : and similarly we have b- ^ and m 

root »uc- u to pierce, - It will be remembered that wmxtkm and 
to? and even VMuAo-OTMerm are synonyms : the root <ttij- like *«- 



Chap. 3.] OF THE UNINFLECTED FORMS. 439 

means " to pierce" (see Buttmann, Lexil. I. p. 18). llmpS? seems to 
have its proper meaning in Soph. Ajax, 1024 : 

ttoj? <r air o air curia ttikoov 
tovV aloXov kvwZovtos. 

267 The identity of the terminations -Xoe, -pos, is still farther 
shown by the correspondence in meaning of the compound endings 
-T-A.05, -t-X»7, -6\o<z, -d-\r] with those in -t-^<k, -T-pa, -0-pos, -6-pa ; 
compare for example, exe-r-Xrj "the plough-tail," with apo-r-pov 
"the plough" itself; and see Pott, Etym. Forsch. II. p. 555. 

We have already made some remarks on the combination t + r 
when speaking of the numerals and comparatives (§ 157), and have 
mentioned the probability that the element r- is not the third pronoun, 
but the second, under the form tv- or ti-. As a termination we have 
not only the forms -re-joo-c, -t-joo?, but also -Tep-<s, -T»/p-?, -rop-?. 
In import these forms differ little from the simpler ending -Trj<s. Ac- 
cording to Buttmann (Ausfuhrl. Sprl. § 119 b) the latter is more 
general, and is used as a kind of participle; thus, while olntj-ropes 
means " the inhabitants of a country," we have in Plato, Phcedo, 
p. Ill C: Kal or) icai deuv ehrj tc kci\ lepct uuto?? eivai, ev ok tw ovti 
olKtjrd^ elvat 6eov<s, "in which the gods really dwell." In some 
cases the difference seems to have been merely that the Attics preferred 
the stronger form in -Trjp : thus, they wrote yvwo-Ttip for yvuxTTtjs, 
corrjp for Sot*7<?, &c. (Pierson ad Mcerid. v. yvuxrTrjpas). Nouns in 
-Trip may even be used with a passive signification, like some of those 
in -t»/c : thus, we have evtvTrjp 7reVxo? in Sophocles (Trachin. 6*71)- 
The termination -rtjp does not differ at all in value from -rwp. Words 
compounded with the latter are invariably paroxytones, with the former 
oxytones, a fact which we might thus express ; the nouns expressing 
agency, which, either from being compounds, or from requiring em- 
phasis on their root-syllable, draw back the accent, change the termi- 
nation -Trjp into -tw/). Thus, iraTrjp makes diraTup, because the 
accent is thrown back towards the negative a, and we find prjTup not 
ptjrtjp, because the emphasis lies upon the verb-syllable. Just in the 
same way we have acppuv and aucppwv from (pprju (see § 116). Some- 
times this compound termination appears under the forms -T-p6-<s, -Tpa, 
and -Tpo-v, as in larpos, waXaia-Tpa, KevTpov, which must be supposed 
to be corrupted from -Trip, as the more common -ta-ra is from -tva-ra 
found in qua-tvor, (above § 158). In Sanscrit we have both tri and 
tar, in Latin tor, -turns, the latter generally as a future participle ; 
also in the feminine as a noun expressing the office or function of a 
person designated by the ending -tor; thus, prce-tor, prce-tura, &c. 



440 THE PRONOMINAL TERMINATIONS [Book m. 

The forms -t/)o-9, -Tpa, sometimes appear as 6po-v, -6pa, as in d\e- 
fyoc, ovptj-dpa (not connected with Bupa, as Horne Tooke supposes, 
Diversions of Purley, II. p. 31 6), ir\e-6po^ &c. Giese suggt- 
Dialect, p. 108), that this aspiration of the t is caused by the p. I 
however, is not to be considered as inevitable, otherwise we should 
have no terminations in -Ty>o-c. A similar change has taken place in 
OpTov compared with T/reTt, and in "t mpared with dntL The 

identity of the terminations -6pov and -Tpov is manifest on aeompar 
of uv-Tpov with ftupa-Opov. The former is not connected with ave^o*;, 
atjfxi, as Pott supposes, but with opo, and it signifies a passage above- 
ground in a solid substance, — .j. ■ rock — m opposed to ^dpa-dpov 
(= fiaQa-Qpov), which implies a passage in tip > ground below 
may also compare dvOpwrros from aval pufWTnv or dvacpdv = ara 
ttcu/ (see Lobeck, Para I. 118). The feminine of these termination- in 
Greek is -re-r^a, -Tpia, -Tptc, -rtjp'ic, and -Tpa 3 HMflrit ffl, 

in Latin /We. The-.- Gonna haw been nrplsinofl in the la^t chaj 

By the addition of the BSDOIld pronominal » bnunt . | tin- fur- 

ther forms -rv'puH in Greekj and - tor t us in Latin, botli f c 

tivefl and for :i<lj< ■ rrfljNPtj iroTrjpio*, $enat<r 

tnri'i. l>y a similar addition tie- Sanscrit verbal-ending tar-ya is 

formed from the second pronoun too. The i rnsi in -Trjpiov 

denote the place when the work of the sgent who is designated by 

-x»yc, -t»//» is carried on. When we wish to ^j>eak of a similar place 
in reference SO SO Agent d«-lin. I by the ending i-c - F . it u only 

nooeeBsry to give the word to adjective form, and pnl it in I 

gender. Thus, from I F -.>o^xio* (. 

pare -<r<c, -*tot, eve.). The comparatives in -j«v from a in -vc 

are other instanfflffl of this formation, B language has tennina- 

tions -Icr, -brOj brum ; Desponding 

Suffixes which we have been con-idrrinj 

brum; pul QW, votu Ct'it, MOpul CI' IMS. The latter seem to be an 

form of the ending QSjftff, OOmpOStd of the - 'nent and -/ta 

(\<k). a comparison of n-o*r with o3-0of,and ru-'rum with i^im, 
makes it possible thai sinexiou may subsist between these 

endings similar to that which we find between /<rra and tty>, so that 
the ft will be a remnant of the labial involved in the BSOOnd element 
F <, just as the <• in or, -•'. le pW SU tttS the gutter ■ of that 

compound articulation. We refer to this class of nouns the names of 
months ending in - -' r. W. 0SJSne4 

pose with Bopp [VorgL (tram. } that than is any aeeessit] 

having recourse to the Sanscrit substantive r me." 

liohlcn ( ( /</,s' a/tc Jiu/it/i. 11. 445) considers the ending 'brum conn 



Chap. 3.] OF THE IINTOFLECTED FORMS. 441 

with the Sanscrit bhri " to carry," so that candela-brum would signify 
" the light-bearer." If the importation of a verbal root were necessary, 
why should we not go at once to the Latin root fer ? The large 
class of verbals in -bi-lis, to which nouns likefa-bula might be added, 
should induce us to explain the nouns in -ber, -bra, -brum, like those 
in -cer, -cris, -crum, namely, by a reference to the constant inter- 
change of I and r. This is particularly exhibited in Latin in certain 
assimilations arising from abridgment. "We have shown elsewhere 
( Varronian. p. 272), that sacellum was originally sacra-culum; it is 
well known that puella is a corruption of puerula, and no one will 
doubt that castellum is derived from cas-trum. The affinities of this 
last word are very interesting, and we will digress from our immediate 
object to trace a few of these ramifications. The root cos- conveys the 
cognate significations of rt purity " and " protection," which are related 
as effect and cause. When religious reverence throws its shield over 
any person or locality, it becomes, according to the Greek notions, oo-io? ; 
but it is j3e(3r]\o<; when that protection is withdrawn. The idea of 
order and arrangement is similarly opposed to that of confusion and 
license. We can therefore understand why the same root cas- should 
enter into cas-nus=cdnus " white," ( Varronian. p. 39, 74), cas-tus " reli- 
giously pure," casa " a covered building," cas-trum u a fortified enclo- 
sure," Kada-po? "undenled," k^-to?, " the ornamented garment of 
Venus," Kcih-fxos a a suit of armour " (mythically the husband of 
dpfxovia), Ka<T-T(op " the mailed warrior " (o x aXKO l x ' lT P <x ' i Pind.), koV- 
/uo«? " ornament and order," Sanscr. cud " purificare " (Humboldt, 
Kosmos, Vol. I. note 27), &c. Combining all these and many other 
parallelisms which might be adduced, we shall see that the Latin 
cas-trum, like the Greek Te/xevos and its cognate temp-lum, combined 
a signification of safety with that of sanctity, and held out a warning 
to all intruders. The plural, which is most generally used, merely 
indicates the collective nature of a camp, and is therefore quite analo- 
gous to mcenia, &c. * 



• The Professor of Comparative Philology, to whom we have more than once 
alluded, in his anxiety to gain a character for originality, has ventured to propose 
that castrum means "an axe," and that it is derived from cado, which, borrowing a 
principle from this book, he connects with ccedo {Proceed, of the Phil. Soc. II. p. 249 
sqq.). His grand reason for this conclusion is, " that the suffix -trum denotes always 
an instrument." Now to say nothing of plaustrum and claustrum, which he quotes, 
are antrum, theatrum, monstrum, fenestra, veratrum, and many like words, properly 
designated as instruments? It is palpably absurd to press the phrases movere castra, 
ponere castra with this view. No one ever felt any inconsistency, when it was still 
left for despairing ingenuity to convert a camp into a tool-chest. Besides, castrum 
occurs in the singular, and who would think of translating castellum, " a little chop- 



442 THE PRONOMINAL TERMINATIONS [Book III. 

268. From all these comparisons, it must appear pretty obvious 
that -\o? and -pos are identical terminations ; and when we consider 
the manner in which they are combined with pronominal elements, we 
cannot doubt that they must themselves belong to the formative element 
of inflected language. But it is not so easy to determine in which of 
the pronominal roots we are to seek the common origin of these par- 
ticles. At one time we were disposed to connect them with the dental 
degenerations of the second clement ; and the principles of etymology 
are not opposed to this conclusion ; nevertheless, after sifting all the 
evidence, and balancing one induction ■flllflt the other, we have come, 
with full conviction, to the mult, that the elements A- and p- are 
by-forms of the third pronoun, and immediately derived from the other 
dental liquid v. The following are the leading proofs. 

Although cci-\o<; seems to stand in a certain opposition to cei-vd*, 
these words are easily reconcileable according to the principle of com: 
which cannot depend upon the termination, fol en-rrayXos m e«irA«- 
corresponds in meaning to ftci pp t j and ti jether in 

the Latin di-ntx, which answers to C€i-v6s, just as conversely mag- 
nu8 does to pMyn-Aot. Then, in the (Jr we may 

compare opya-vov with u p^ TU X» W, <r€7<r-Tpov ; 6p<p-ios and dp<pa-*6s 
with tv<P-\6k ; \vy-pos with aTvy-vds; cy^d-pd* with [Y]£V-*ov; mu 
and KuOu-piK with mm- -ock with i \((t-vo<; ; and many others, 

which clearly show that the terminations -X<x, -pos, -kk, agree in 
expressing objective relations, or in d that an object presents 

UeelftO our obnaiflUou M taring a certain capability or cue. 

It will perhaps D€ regarded as an important confirmation of this 
view, that the only Latin and (ireek pronouns which exhibit the liquid 
/, A, — namely, illo or alius and <iliu>\ oAAoc — are manifestly der 
from cii'ci = pa-vti (§ l(i6), so that M»»*M and i I not only 

in meaning (§ 1 :>.'>), but, ultimately, in form. Wt have a tfgl l toi 
deuce of the same kind in the use of the liquid *J by the II. 
express the most emphatic employment of the I ndo- Germanic pronoun 
n- (above, § 184). 

969 But we rest our demonstration of the identity of the prono- 
minal elements A, p, \> chiefly on the extensive and essential corre- 
spondences of their use as verbal roots. And, first, with regard to the 
identity of A- and />- as they appear in W 



per?" An absurd e fja o logj provokes our mirth; but those who are anxious that 

scientific grammar should take root in tins count rj will regret to find such crude 
puerilities recorded in the aunala of a lear. 



Chap. 3.] OF THE UNINFLECTED FORMS. 443 

The intensive particle pa, which belongs to this family, seems to 
convey the idea of facility, easy motion, and so forth. We have ac- 
cordingly recognised its connexion with pe-eiv, pa-lios, &c. Now there 
are two Sanscrit verbal roots with the same meaning, ri and m, both 
signifying " to go." We do not conceive that the sibilant prefixed to 
the second interferes with its relationship to the first. The present of 
srl is sardmi = adeo aliquem. This word is of course related to de~ 
serere, salire. We consider too that conserere and consulere are the 
same word. " Without doubt," says Niebuhr {Hist, of Rome, I. p. 
512), "the name consules means nothing more than simply collegues : 
the syllable sul is found in prcesul and exsul, where it signifies one who 
is : thus consules is tantamount to consentes, the name given to Jupi- 
ter's counsel of gods." This is not altogether accurate* : the word 
consentes means "those who are together" (compare ab-sentes, pros- 
sentes) : consules " those who go together," prwsul " he who goes be- 
fore," exsul " he who goes out." That the Romans habitually spoke of 
" going," where we should rather indicate " being," is sufficiently proved 
by the words in it-, as paries, aries, miles, pedes, eques, &c. If sa-li-re 
and se-re-re are the same word, li and re must be the same root, and 
therefore lev-is and rap-idus are connected. The former contains the 
root AcF, which we shall show in a future chapter in all its various 
uses. It signifies both "to see" and "to take;" we have the former 
meaning, e. g. in h-p(J)K<o ; the latter in rap-io, rap-idus, and lev-is, 
lev-are. We may also compare Sanscrit vrlkas (Sabine hirpus — virpus, 
or vripus or irpus, Lithuan. icilkas, Latin lupus, Goth, vulfs) with the 
Greek \v-kos, the connexion of which with Acu-kos = Xepnos, XvKt], lux, 
Kvicafias, and the root AeF " to see," is well known. Thus the old diffi- 
culty about Apollo's epithet Xviceios vanishes at once. 

270 With respect to the identity of p- and v- in this reference, we 
will take the liberty of repeating here what we have incidentally stated 
on a former occasion, when we endeavoured to show that the ideas of 
progressive time and recurrence are connected with our conceptions of 
the regular flowing of water. As the cycles of hours and seasons are 
always recommencing, it is plain that our first notions of progression in 
time must be nearly allied to, if not identical with, those of recurrence 3 
and there is no object presented to the senses which is more likely to 
suggest the idea of the course of time, than the noiseless, but unceasing 
flow of the running stream. Not to enter upon any metaphysical dis- 



Lobeck too has subsequently expressed his dissent from this remark of Niebuhr's 
(Paralipom. p. 128, note 16). 



444 THE PRONOMINAL TERMINATIONS, &c. [Book m. 

cussion of this point, etymology renders it sufficiently plain, that the 
words which imply "flowing," "progression," and "recurrence," are 
connected with the same elemental root. 

The particle, which, in the Latin language, expresses return, rever- 
sion, and recurrence, is that which forms the first syllable of these * 
words — namely, the prefix re. In the Greek language, the functions 
of this particle are performed by the preposition d-vd, while the par- 
ticle and affix -pa, -p denotes, as we have seen above, motion in a di- 
rection previously indicated. Now the idea of motion in a direct line 
is the idea of perpetual recurrence, for the line is a series of points with 
evanescent intervals ; and this again is the idea of progressive time. 
For our purpose, therefore, it only remains to show that in their em- 
ployment as verbal roots, A-, />-, v- are indifferently used to express 
these connected id- 
It will not be denied that while ve'o^ai, vlo-o-ofiai, wVto?, &c. express 
return and recurrence, and while veo* implies change, which is included 
in the idea of motion (above, § 55), th . &c. con- 

vey the meaning of M being in the water, being borne along the stn 
&c. Now a very similar conception is expressed by th roots 

/Jew, pev^a, v-Am, tt-\v-i>u), \ovu< .■/-,,, &c. ; com- 

pare 'A\t-w<><j with mqma laran*, flutnt. W€ ihoold naturally ex- 
pect to find these root- in the In<l<>-( J. rmanie term fcf "a year" — 
a period which includes all the changes of the seasons, whi. 
always progressive, yet always recommencing; always changing, but 
always resuming its identity. Now in the ancient Etruscan, which 
we believe to have been pure Pelagian in it- find the 

wordy/-/ signifying ie termination OORBSpoi 

patronymic /- in s ri-lius, which in Greek is U- or c- ? as in 

'ArfCt-SnfCj v7-etor, we may OOmparS ri-l with fx?-0pov, which denotes 
the motion of water. Similarly, the Latin annus, more anciently 
anus, must denote at once "the cver-ilowing"' (ac-iuoc). and "the | 
returning" (de\ vedfxevcx;). Accordingly. ti-inis=ja-nu4 stands on the sine 
footing as d-riL who WMOU to have ben the God of the Tuscan veer. 

It will be admitted, we Brant) that the remit of this investigation is 
to identify the element \- = o- with the third pronominal root *-. . 
if any one seeks to undervalue the important | inquiries, he 

may be told that these combinations have enable d TPb" tne 

only link wanted to complete the chain of evidence, which | 
wonderful and systematic perfection of the formative contrivances of 
inflected bngna 



CHAPTER IV. 
NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 

271 (1) "EveKa. Its true meaning suggested by its apparently pleonastic use. 
272 Connexion of evetca = kv e*cct and e/caTi. 273 Words containing e'/ca- ; their 
cognate meanings. 274 Ideas of separation and will meet in that of unity. 
275 Analysis of e-ra. 276 Proper names which include these syllables. 
277 Compounds of evena and a pronoun. ~E'lveKa should be written for ovveica, 
when the latter appears as a preposition. 278 (2) Xdpiv. Distinctive use of 
X<*-pi-v and evena. 279 Meaning of u-pos xdpiu. 280 Examination of the class 
of words to which x a '/° 15 belongs. Xu>po<s, x°P°' s ? an d X^P a ' 281 Xepaos, 
Xoipds, X 6L P> &°* 282 Xdpo\J/, xdpvfiois, and x<*P U)V - 283 Xdptov and Trj- 
piW. 284 Military applications of the words x"PM> XP e ' La > & c « 285 The 
same idea conveyed by dp^s, ripa, &c. 286 A similar reference discovered in 
the primitive meaning of x«P a £- 287 Associations by contrast in the accepta- 
tions of the root x a P-' 288 More doubtful affinities of x a /° ts « 289 (3) Aiktjv. 
Its prepositional use. 290 Meaning of dUrj. 291 Connected applications of 
Xa'pis and oi/c*;. " The Graces" and "fair dealing." 292 This is supported 
by the etymology of dUt}. 

271 rpHERE are three words, evidently cases of substantives, 
_L which are used in much the same way as prepositions, 
that is, they are employed in connexion with the genitive case, 
or, in common language, they govern that case. These words 
are (l) eVe/ca or e/can, (2) xdpiv, and (3) SiKtjv. As these 
quasi-prepositions have a sort of connexion with one another, and 
as the first two belong, each of them, to an extensive family of 
words which has not been sufficiently explained, we shall devote 
a separate chapter to their consideration. 

(1) It is generally laid down that eVe/ca signifies "on account of/' 
"for the sake of;" but it is proper to state that the genitive case, with 
which eveKo. is generally found, may stand alone with the same signifi- 
cation, as when Thucydides says (I. 4) that Minos cleared the iEgean 
sea of pirates as far as he could, tov ret? irpocroZov; fxaXXov leuai avru), 
and also that the genitive case may be accompanied by some additional 
preposition conveying a similar meaning, or by x°-P lv •' as w ^ a PP ear 
from the following passages ; Sophocles, Philoctet. 554s : 

a TO?<riv 'Apyeioicriv dfx(p\ <rov vena 

fiovXevp\a.T eo-ri. 
Thucydides, VIII. 92: kol\ 6 p.ev Gnpa/jLevrj? eXdcov h toV Ylapaia... 
o<tov koli diro /3otj<; evena (apyi^eTO to?? onX'trcti?" 6 le 'Apia-Tap^o? 
na\ ol euavTioi tw irXriOet (read tw aXtidei) exaXeiraivov. Xenophon, 
Hellenic. II. 4. § 31 : irepiroav ce Trpea-fiew 6 Ylavvavlas irpos tou? kv 



446 NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. [Book IH. 

Tleipaie'i CKeXeveu d-niivai eVt rot iavrwv' eirei o' ovk eireiOovTo^ rrpoa-e- 
ftaWev ocrov diro fior}<; evenev, 6V&)? fit) crj\o<; etrj evfX€vtj<: ai/To?<? cJV. 
Lysias de Evandri prohatione, p. 176: 6 6e\<: top irep\ tuv coKifxacriuiv 
vofxov ^_ov^ r]Ki(TTU~^ irep\ twv eu oXiyapylu dpfjdvTuv cvenev e6t]Kev. 
Plato, PoliticilS, p. 302 B : ov fxtjv a\\' e"? ye to o\ov t<r»? dira.vff 
evena tov toiovtov 7ra'i/Te<? Ipwfxev -^dpiv, !<€$</. III. p. 701 D I a\\' 
eiraveptoTav to vvu crj Xe^Oev^ to tivos Crj \dpiv evexa tuvto eXe^6tj. 
In Aristophanes, Thesmopk. 372 : 

% Mr/'cot/c etrdyovtrt Ttj<! 

■^tapa*: ovve< \_le<J. uvck~^ ltr\ ft\d[3tj f 
it is probable that the last three words are a mere repetition of those in 
v. 367: Kcpcwv ovvck [twtmT] M think, however, that it 

is unnecessary to place them between brackets, as Dindorf has done. 
In the other p show that t*€*a is neither superfluous 

nor insignificant. Tlie phrase ovov diro fioi}<: evena, \. uicydides 

and Xcnophon, it probably a military expression : for a Greek battle 
generally began with a shout, and if t 1 - did not go farther than 

that, it was of 000186 only a sham-fight And i : h on says 

that PaOMQlM attacked tin /nerely so far as shouting went: 

he made ■ Um attack: and Tl 

chns and the young oHgarcha who aooomp an ied bin were tina 

indignant (we read either tw aXtj/Bm 01 Vi tuJ d\tjO(i y the I 

having been merged in the former from fa similarity of appearance), 
Theramenes only a£ mn the conduct of I rs, — oVo* 

utto floijt €i'€Ka copyiitro, he showed hit anger r as maki: _ 

outcry went. In thc-e two passages, t lien, twmta clearly means "only." 
In all the other instance- of alleged pleonasm the signification 
is "especially," w in particular." Indeed, it is probable that, in the pas- 
sage of Lysias, we ought to bracket, not irepi, as Bekker has done, but 
ov% tjuKTTa, which seems to be a gloss upon evenev. Th 
analysis, which we shall now attempt, will show us that both these 
adverbial meanings " only" and "especially" are included among the 
primitive significations | 

2 7- The relationship between wcm and 
written in the Ionic dialect, is the same as that wm" ween 

the Italian synonyms i/j fuori and fuori, which are used indifferently 
as prepositions signifying " without." "Emm, the older word, has the 
complete case-ending, and is used without the preposition tV, which 
plied the place of the locative in the more recent la 
contains the proposition m prefixed to a mutilated locative of Jwc. Tlie 
formation of ****** 4 9 tea is perfectly an «rra = tV 



Chap. 4.] NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 447 

avra and efxira = ev irao-iv. In eWfca the aspirate of the noun has been 
transferred to the beginning of the word, according to a principle men- 
tioned before, and of which the Greek language furnishes many ex- 
amples : thus o irpo 6Zov makes (ppovhos^ and 6 irpo opwv, (ppovpos. 
Indeed, it would be absolutely necessary that when ev ena became a 
single word, the aspirate should be so transposed, for the analogies of 
Hellenism do not permit an aspirated vowel any where but in the first 
syllable, and it is remarked as a strange peculiarity of the Athenians 
that they said raws instead of raws — (p'iXap%o<; yap ov<ra na\ tjyejJLovtKri 
Ttfv (pvcriv t] 3a<rvT»7? to?<s TeXevTaiois p.epe<xi tmi/ 6vojj.aTcov ov§ap.b)<; ey- 
Kadeipywrai (Athenaeus, p. 397 f). We find a similar transfer even in 
the case of aspirated consonants : as in Tpe<p(o, dp€\}s<o ; e^w, ef «, &c. 
From these instances, and from mere erases like doipaTiov for to I/jlcitiov 
we must distinguish (a) those in which it appears uncertain whether 
there is a transfer of the aspirate or not, as in Tedpnnrov from rerpa- 
and <Wo<?, (b) those in which the aspiration seems to result merely 
from a contact with the />, as in dpaa-a-co for Tapdaa-u, and (c) those 
words (like ddpvfios compared with Tvpftti, Opeofxat with Toe'to, and 
dpvTTTia and Bpavui with rpvcpq and Tpvw) in which the aspirate seems 
to result merely from a kind of vacillation and uncertainty of use (see 
above, §§ 100, 164). "Ekc* as a mutilated though old form of the dative 
or locative may be compared with X'nrd in the phrase ^p/eu/ X'nr eXaia), 
where eXaio? is a regular adjective from eAa'a, and X'nrd eXaiov signifies 
" olive-oil" (Buttmann, Ausf'uhrl. Sprl. Vol. I. p. 229) ; Kepa for xepan 
gives us the intermediate stage. But we have the proper ending of the 
locative in the form evenev, from which eveKa is derived (above, § 114), 
and which is often used even in the more recent Attic writers : com- 
pare na, Kev j evda, evdev ; eVetra, eireirev ; irpoaQa^ irpoadev^ &c. 

273 The element e/<a, which is the essential part of the synonyms 
enan, and cWa, occurs also in the following words: eW/fy, e'uds, 
eaaOev, eKaXtj, €Ka/jLtjZr], exacTO*, eKarepos, e/caTf/, eicaTos, eKrjXos, and 
ckwv, besides a great number of derivatives, as eKa-epyos, eKarrj-PoXo^, 
€k>7-/?oAck, &c. To classify these words we will first set apart the 
proper names 'Ekc*/^, 'EnaXti, and 'Ena/ji^t]. The remaining words are 
a substantive e/ca?, genit. enadev, dat. ena or 'Uev found in eveK(* v ), with 
which are connected the two adjectives ckcx-tos (fem. e^aTtj), and ckwv 
(eKo'-i/r-?) ; the comparative and superlative etcd-repos, eKaer-To? ; and 
the dative eKtjn of a substantive eW (e/c-ya-r-s) no longer in existence, 
by the side of which we have the adjective eKrjXos. Such is obviously 
the proper grammatical classification of this set of words, so far as 
regards the forms. We must now investigate their significations. 



448 NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIO [Book III. 

'Eku?, which is used as an adverb, denotes distance, whether in space 
or time; as kuW ov\ end* trov (Sophocl. Philoct. 41), "he is not far 
off;" ovk ckgis xpovov irdpea-Tai (Herodot. VIII. 154-), "he will be 
here at no distant period." The word belongs to the oldest state of 
the language. A grammarian under the head ttoIch yXdoaaat Kara 
tto\€i<: remarks, OecraaXwu — ua't. irfipou) [filth riAw >' I. p. 1095 note), 
which is much the same as calling it a Pelaagian word (Niebubr, / 
of Rome, I. p. 30, note 6[)). "E«a0ev generally means ki from, or of, 
that which i- distant:" it may he used as a synonym for oca< II 
Odyss. XVII. 25: t*aOev ce tc ao-ru <paT uvm), as the genitive of I 
words is also used to denote locality. The idea of d 
vcyed by "Ettarotj 'Eftanf, whioh arc epithets of the Sun a: 
the two dittani powen [Tkmtry Qrtekt, 6th edition, p. [-3]), 

and by the epithets cKa-ejryot, c'* especially applied to them. 

The numeral fVcaitw has HO real connexion with 

Been by the accentuation ; i' that it belongs to 

entirely a different olaSS (§ 1()2). The idea of di-tance has passed 

thai of separation in the words M Tt e r«a<r-TcK, 

".me by himself omi of many ;'" Ihs latin is analogous to o\iyo<r- 
roAAov-rot, of whioh a 
modification n which imply, acting by oneself without 

interference on the part of I 

own will and plca-un-, doing any tiling « : liout 

consulting or being influenced l»y any other person. Of the two ad- 
jectives €kuv refers rather SO tlie free-will of the agent, €*tj\o* |q 

freedom from disturbance, and his DOeneqacari pleasure and an 

both of them eqnall; the idea tliat the }>ers« : 1 is some 

one by himonlf thai ia, oonaidersd without reference to any one else. 

Hence ik<dV is particularly < 

ftia tc t . and it il B8ed in speaking of errors which man 

have committed with ■ full knon I the consequences, as v. 

Prometheus says (JEschyL P "»): 

-«rrdp.rj9* 

ov ovk apitjcroLMi. 

In the phrase < jeetm points still mom dired 

independent agency, 08 10 BerodotuS, VII. 1 64: sVmni t€ dm. 

thai the | 

Atticism to hr\ esWit etmi (Thucyd. II >c generally in 

uninterrupted rest and quietness, the I nou-intcrfcr. 

without. We have already explained the principle according to which 
onlyaby-fbrm ; 116): it dy stated 

by ApoUonins (BMeri Anted, p, 558) thai 



Chap. 4.] NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 449 

in the same way as evre to ore. Homer invariably uses %k^ti in con- 
nexion with the name of some divinity, to express that the action in 
question has been effected by the aid or special favour of the protecting 
power. Thus Odyss. XX. 42, Ulysses, addressing Minerva, asks : 

eXirep yap KTeivaifxi, Ajo? re aedev re en^ri, 

Trfj K6v VTreKirpoipvyotfxi ; 
It is used in this sense by Pindar, e. g. Pyth. V. 9 : ckoti ^pva-apfxaWov 
Kd<TTopo<?, or as expressing human agency, as in the old proverb : enrjTi 
2vA.o<r<oi/To<? evpv^wptr], " room enough, thanks to Syloson," (Strabo, 
p. 638); and finally, which is much the more common usage, as a syno- 
nym for evena, whether as signifying " by means of," " on account of," 
" for the sake of" (propter), as in Pindar, Pyth. X. 58 : excm oTe<pdv(av 
datjTov eu a\i£i drja-efxev ev ko.\ TraXairepois, or with the meaning " as far 
as," "in regard to" (quoad), as in iEschylus, Pers. 343: -nXtidovs fxev 
uv <rd(j) "<rd' €k<xti fiapfidpovs vavaiv Kpartjaat — " if it had depended 
only on the number of their ships, the Persians would no doubt have 
gained the victory." 

274 TVe have now considered all the simple words into which 
eVa- enters, and it appears that there are only three meanings, distance 
or separation, icill, and unity. It is, we conceive, easy to show that 
these are only modifications of one and the same idea. And first, the 
ideas of separation, distance, and unity are identical. That which is 
absolutely distant or separated is said to be alone, i. e. all one : and 
thus the first numeral is expressed either by the pronominal element 
ma, denoting the subject as opposed to the object, or by some pronoun 
e-na (unus), or e-ka, which combines the idea of definite locality with 
that of distance. Again, the idea of will is immediately derived from 
that of self. A man's personality, individuality, or character, depends 
upon his will, as Schiller says ( Wallensteins Tod, IV. 8) : " den Men- 
schen macht sein Wille gross und klein," or rather the will and the 
character are the same, for, as Novalis remarks : ' ' a character is a com- 
pletely fashioned will" (ein Character ist ein vollkommen gebildeter 
Wille, II. p. 284). Now the very idea of a distinct person or indi- 
vidual is that he cannot be divided, that he is an unit ; hence Pascha- 
sius rightly asserts — in Deo et homine, gemina quidem substantia, sed 
non gemina persona est, quia persona personam consumere potest, sub- 
stantia vero substantiam consumere non potest (quoted by Hooker, Yol. 
II. p. 288, Keble). So that the meanings, "separation" or "distance," 
conveyed by cku?, 6koto?, and " will," borne by exwv and 'IkyiXos, as well 
as the sense " only" or " especially," which we have extracted from 
evena in the cases of alleged pleonasm quoted above, are all derivable 

Gg 



450 NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. [Book HI. 

from that of " unity," which is the meaning of eW*tp« and Ua*™. 
"Eve™ and iWn, in the ordinary use, bear all these modified but nearly 
connected significations. 

275 Comparative grammar shows us that the element «-*a- is, in 
fact, identical with that compound of two pronominal stems which 
forms the first Sanscrit numeral J-fcw, and the Latin adjective a^uus, 
denoting unitv 01 The identity of J an *T 

a comparison of <&*i with ' tad by the b -1* of 

the breathings and MU MW w dl (flwM, § 116). It happens in some case* 
that a class of WOrdi OMKMMafl ■ MMMM1 OM • rve their 

ternal resemblance more completely in (J reek than ■ although 

the changes which the root hll U r in *■ fo ™» 

than in the latter lan-u-. This M 0» 

the clement ;*,«- originally be-an with an a-pirated labial. M ■#!""" 
from the fart that all WOrdl OdHtUDBg MM Ml I 

from the hv-form m\,;\..c, th. y have in - I I instance b-cn con- 

,t in the Ohnge tO the Upinfe, Ol in th- MypMMMM of the labial 
i-K-mmt , *b ^ m»erit DM merely transposed the guttural semi- 

1 in the numeral i-h* - <ii-*«, and has retained the labial al 
ill," r./.v/.s- '* will M a-WfcM " uuwdhng, f 

The ablative ac<U of niftu is used to e_ 

« on aeeount of," jiM U ■* ha * been 8 * id aboUt lh ° 

MmifOwdl in I former ehaptcr, we shall have little difficulty in ad- 
mitting the relationship of HmmSm* 

Bret numeral in that la. Ihk f lllll , however, that the fat 

patt of the compound n : 

relative UMBMM. The same MOM M the ease with the noun draf, 
aneientlv pronoun, F . which, as we shall I from 

Fo-po', the older and in "J a * -m * 

Which MOBI kO bi lllMlllllnrl in meaning with the first Sanscrit 1 
ral, the lir>t syllable ifl always found without am 
UpiraM or ultimate -uttural. however. WM really an essential \ 
the first ^liable of this element. b«H the Latin MMV, winch is 

elearlv the represontati ' thmt 

although •"*"»i **i ■ Btdl MMMrf in meaning 

with the rnotl emphatic deim Ml they imply distance or 

Separation, and thou-h bear the same or a very similar sense, 

all these words are related, in their tirst syllable as well 
second, to the MOOnd pronominal element, an 

for. although a may DOOM from M as well as from F =*!&* 

ihat the different elements <'-. <n-. >v- *H »™ "V O** 8 * 



Chap. 4.] NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 451 

common origin than the element Fa. And thus the simplest demon- 
strative root a, though in all its appearances it seems to correspond in 
value to the elements of the first or third person, must in this instance 
be connected in origin with the element of the second; the idea of 
proximity to, having merged in that of identity with, the subject, as 
in the Italian ci mentioned above (§ 150). The etymological fact is 
certain; the explanation depends upon the exclusively demonstrative 
nature of the original pronouns. There is, in fact, no reason why the 
ideas of separation, distance, and unity, should not be expressed by the 
combination signifying " this which," as well as by one denoting " that 
which;" and we have seen other instances of this reduplication (§ 133). 

276 It will perhaps be as well to explain the three proper names 
into which the element cko. enters. 'End/St] means either an only child, 
or one born among the last of her father's family ; in either case it is a 
title of endearment. With regard to the first part, it may be compared 
with TtjXv-yeTos, or the Sanscrit eka-ja = qui solus natus est (Bopp, 
Gloss. Sanscr. p. 58) : its termination seems to be analogous to that of 
\vKa-/3a<:. The name '£koA*j was borne by a mythical old woman who 
was very kind to Theseus in his childhood, and as a by-form of e»o;\o?, 
expresses her good nature. This appears from the words of Plutarch 
(in rita Thesei, CXIV.) : tijv 'EjicdAijv eTifxcov, 'E,Ka\iur]v viroKopitjDfxevoi, 
cul to K(XKeivr]v vkov ovra no/jiicij tou Qtjaea ^ev'iCpvaav dcnrdaaadai 7rpe<r-> 
fivTiKtas nai (piXcxppoveTadai toiovtois VTroKopiafXol'i. 'KKa-p-^drj IS the 
name of an active and willing female servant in Homer (Iliad,¥L\. 623), 
and may be compared with Ylepi-fjujdtis, and with Yaw-pttihtis, the name 
of a heavenly menial. 

277 The forms e!W«tt, Tovveaa, ovveKa, and oBovvckcl also require 
some remark. In the first, the preposition lv appears in the stronger 
form elv (above, § 1 70), which is used by the Attic writers, not only 
by itself, as in Sophocl. Antig. 1226: eh "Ailov 16/jlok; ; JEschyl. Suppl. 
872 : dpaiau e\v avpai<; (according to Lobeck's ingenious emendation) ; 
but also in composition, as in Sophocl. Antig. 346: ttovtov t elvaXiav 
(pvaiv, Sophocl. fr. 480: Trj<s elvohta<i 'Ekce't^s e/X 09 - This form of evena 
occurs in the Attic prose-writers, with the exception of Thucydides, aa 
Thomas Magister tells us : ko.\ cucku ko.\ eYvetca, IlAaVwi/, A^oo-0eV»/<?, 
Ka\ ol aWoi. OovKvli^ %e de\ evena. Of its use in Plato, the following 
instances may sufiice: Legg. p. 778 d, p. 916 a, p. 9*9 ©• It has been 
remarked by F. A. Wolf (ad Demosth. Leptin. p. 338) that the form 
efvexa never occurs in the Attic poets, but that they always write evena 
or ovveKd with the same signification. That is to say, when efteita 

Gg2 



452 NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. [Book III. 

occurs, there are almost always various readings, whereas we often find 
ovveKa without any variation in the MSS. It seems, however, quite 
impossible to suppose that ovveKa could be used as a mere preposition. 
It stands precisely on the same footing with tovvcko. and odovveKa, 
which are compounds of tov and orcm with eW*a, as ovveKa is of ov and 
evena. Accordingly, the first should signify "on this account," the 
other two "on which account;" rovvtKa also = rlvo<: rum, "why." 
(Steph. Thes. I. p. 1204 a). It would be better, perhaps, to I 
Tovvexa, on the analogy of the other two WOld* MttthiS 
§ 624, 2 obs.) adopts the old derivation of o'douveica from on and ouV«ca, 
objecting to the obvious etymology from otou and evena, give: bj I 
beck and Buttmann, that ifthil bod been the ease, it -huuld have boat 
written orovveKa, like tovmko. But r g rfw ta i< purely Ionic, and the 
Ionians did not throw the a-pirate forward-, f«>r tl 

•V oo-oj/, KciTUTrep, and SO forth. tflnHMI tin- Attic- would write ddov- 
veKa just as they wrote 0w7r\a for -rd o7r\a, dtjpepa for Tf tiixepn, Sec. 
Reisig in hii exposition of th \>. < xwin.) advances 

an opinion still more untenable, for hi («a as a compound 

of odi and ovvckii, and tran-i «/ fJtj W tM l causa quuhjue Jit. 

The proper 086 ofowem and ptfo w wa is, as conjunctions nearly equiva- 
lent to dti, and signifying "that" or " beca bag which I 
seem to have obtained by a kind of attraction 01 brachylogy, like their 
synonym dvd' J»: Sophoel. Autii. Ju 

dvd tav £X et * P* v Ttov °*' w f3a\tov Karv. 
The fuller form may be surmwd from a former line of the same 

(237) : 

rt I :0 M n it'iui'ai'; 

that is to say, dvd' oJ stands for arn toi/'tou on, just as ow^tca is put 
for toutou eV»ca, on. Atnnionius lias given the distinction 
ovveKa and cfvCKfli correctly enough. 11 9 fares a «cai rfrfxa 

(pepet i ovveKa pev atjpalvet to on. fn V',' 1 "'- "• 111108, t: 

fore, with Ahlwardt (III*- Ayfr. S l>13)in 

thinking, that, as the MSS. in many cases, and conum m I all, 

authorise the change, we >hould >ub>titute aft— , which is ack: 
lodged to be good in Attic prose, for ovveKa, whenever it stands for i 
in Attic verse. Conversely, we have P fop o e c d t 
efuCKSv in Pindar, Jsthm. VII. QVIII.]. 83, because we do n I 
that ftna' a can be a conjunction, any more than we think that the com- 
pound ovvcku can perform the functions of a mere preposition. 

27** CO The difference bctw m and \dp ir * m l ^ vlT 



Chap. 4.] NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 453 

as prepositions, has been correctly stated by Ammonius: "Ei/etca ko.< 
Xdpiv Zicupepet* 6 fxev yap "Ei/exa \jsi\tjv Ttjv alriav BJ7A0?, olov — eveKa 
'AXegdvhpov Ka\ eveKa 'E\e'i/>/? ea-TpaTevcre Mei/eAao?* d he Xdpiv fxerd 
t»7<j aWia? S*/\o? kcu rrjv ")(apiv — X^P IV Mei/eAa'ou 'A^iMeus eo-TpaTevce. 
tout6<tti, MeveXaio ^aot£o/*ei/o?. In other words, the strength of the 
motive only is implied in eVeKa, while in ydpiv we are told the action 
is intended to please some one, or to benefit him in some way; and, to 
express the distinction with reference to the original meaning of the two 
words, eveKa or eKari states that the action has taken place according 
to the will of a certain person, or with particular or exclusive reference 
to some person, thing, or action ; whereas x^P lv always indicates that 
the action is done to promote some thing or other, or to please or 
benefit some person ; just as the Germans would say urn meinet Willen 
in the one case, and rnir zu gefallen in the other. This distinction is 
obviously preserved in the following line of Euripides {Helen. 1254) : 

ttXovtov Xey ovve% (leg. e'l'vex)-, on deXeis recur*/? yap iv ' 
" with regard to wealth in particular, as far as wealth or expenditure is 
concerned, say what you would have, to please this lady." Something 
of this kind seems to be intended in the opposition of x<*p lv to eveKev, 
which we find in Aristotle, Polit. I. 8. § 1 1 : wa-re o/jloim hfjXov on 
kcci yevofxevots olrjTeov tol re (pvra twv ^iowi/ cvckcv elvai Kai rdXXa 
ftoa rtui/ dvQputiriiiv x a p iu - 

279 It will be remembered that the Greeks said not only 'Adrj- 
va'iuav \dpiv } but also rrjv 'Adrjvaltav ydp iV (Herod. V. Q$) ; also ejntjv 
X^p lv i <T1 i 1 ' X^P lv -> ^^ e mea 9 ra ^ a -> tua gratia" Besides these modes 
of expression, we find ev x^P lTl T " / °' ? or Tlv 'h ^ e eveKa = iu e/<a, and 
irpo<: x<*P lv ™°** The last phrase, 717)0? x^P iV -> nas crea ^ed some dif- 
ficulty in two passages of Sophocles, as to whether it should be taken 
with the genitive cases with which it is found, or absolutely, in the 
sense of ut volupe est ; it will not, therefore, be irrelevant to attempt a 
settlement of the question. The two passages are as follows ; Antig. 29 : 

edv he (IIoXvvetKOvs vckvv) aKXavo-rov, ara<pov olwvoTs yXvKVv 

drjaavpov elaopwcri 77-00? X^P lv fiopds. 

Philoct. 1155: 

epTrere, vvv koXov, 

dvTicpovov Kopecrai <rr6p.a ttoo? x a P lV 

efxd<s aapKos aloXas. 

It would be absurd to say that Trpds x"P lv can n0 * ^e * a ^ en abso- 
lutely ; in which case it means " to please oneself," as in Sophocl. apud 
Athenceum, p. 220: 71-00? x*P w re KOU ' P' ia -> Eurip. Supplices, 385: 



454 NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIO: [Book III. 

irpo^ yap™ 6d\}/ai veKpous. And so irpos r\covt)v is put absolutely in 
iEschyl. Agarn. 262. Eurip. Medea, 771 ; although it is found with 
a dative in iEsch. Prom. 502. Eurip. Iphig. in Aul. 1022. In the 
second passage we should be inclined to take irp6<: x ct P lv in th* s a0 -- 
verbial sense, but in the first we are convinced it stands in the relation 
of a preposition to flopus. The following reasons will perhaps make it 
clear that such is the QMS. First of all, it must strike any one, who 
has any feeling for Greek construction, that the words -wpo<: x^P l¥ 
ftopa<i come naturally together; for x a P l C (a ^ ai is particularly applied 
to setting food before people, as when Homer en) L 140): 

ctTtov o' cticoirj tci n It) irapeOtjKC (pepovcra, 
cicuTCt 7ro/\\' entdtTaa, ^api£o/jeV»/ wapeoirroov. 

And this seems to have occurred to the B on the passage of 

Sophocles, when he wrote: ijyovv tIs outo?? fiopdv x a p l<T€TClt -> ai 
Euripides (Si/J'/>1. 282): fir; aTa'<£oiK ^a'p/iara dtjptiv iraiCac »ca~ 
That irpos x lt P iV can ^tand "ith ■ genitive M well M by it- It" i- ki. 

to all seholaiB; in thin nunepbv 

vofuw irpos x (t P 11 '- Eniipi M 1 541 : -. Io^iwk x<*p iv '> •' 

evidently oonetntei it m : «d orroft o» to?« aVA»c, o*ov Kal tok <r*cp- 

poipdyois, (t\\(i ro?? 7r^jo? X"P iV °'/ , " cri /&V«* Tl 7* «'"'<» t** 1 ' <rapnm¥ , 

(<«l 11. 0. ]». 7i. ( >. 9)i ooly lie dm not seen the iotee of eltropdy, which 

means "to look at any thing with lmiging eyes," as in X 

1, § 15 (quoted by Btm .): orrs toi^ h\om iaopw. 

ye <ro\ crvfipovXtiuo tv to?? *a\<>iV tav Ttjv ov^/u SCOSB 

of the lines of Sopfa 1 that the body of 

Polynioea should be k (I on 

birds, when they are looking out with g I for a dinner." 

1280 The numerous and important family to which x*P tK D 
is deserving of a more minute attention than it has hitherto met with. 
There are, indeed, few - hich 

researches, such aa those in which we are could be d 

iitahly applied. We may divide the words with which con- 

nected into two ehttBMj first, thOM which contain the root \u-. wi: 
without an aihx; secondly, thoM which contain the qneei 
exhibit the termination p*-« To th< | a am , 

^oVkco, yavSdvut, \ \ v\i/, X €t< ** X*' 

Xd-rcu), o-^u'e'eo, and ~\ i . 1 . \ ■ . . yyat, 

\ . \u','a and \uyoc. If we examine th 
olasSj we shall see that the prevailing and prominent meat 
ing" or "openness/ In this the idea oi * hollowncss" is implied. 



Chap. 4.] NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 455 

as that which is hollow may be either full or empty, the contrasted 
notions of content and vacuity are also conveyed by words of this class. 
When the termination -pa, which implies motion or continuance, is 
appended to this root x a " signifying " to lay open," the idea of extent 
or surface naturally results. And thus we find that the words of the 
second class imply a surface, something laid flat or open, and by in- 
ference, a support or basis, something to rest upon. This meaning 
appears most clearly in the words x w V ,a » " a tract of country," x^P°^ 
or x°P^^ " a pi ece of land," which though differing in the extent or 
space signified (§ 229), equally denote a hard, level surface. The word 
X°p°s specially designates a square or public place in which the mili- 
tary people of ancient Hellas met to celebrate their gods with songs 
and dances of a military character : hence the epithet €vpi>x°p 0<i which 
is applied to the ancient cities. The use of x°P°* to denote the people 
assembled on these occasions is quite a secondary one. We have hinted 
elsewhere the connexion of x°P° <; w ith x^P 0<; > X°°P a {Theatre of the 
Greeks, 6th Edition, p. [1 1], note) ; that this etymology is the true one 
is clear from what the King says to the Chorus, in iEsehylus, Sup- 
plices, 796 : Xawv ev x^PV Taavevde (see Introduction to the Antig. 
p. xxix. note). In speaking of the open sea, Thucydides uses evpv- 
^copi'a, in direct opposition to o-Tej/o^w^/a, and as synonymous with 
ireXayos (VII. 49). The latter word, which is connected with irXa^ * 
(Pind. P. I. 24 : e<? fiadeTav ttovtov TrXdna), and not with irXew, as Scott 
and Liddell suppose (Lexic. s. v.), always means " the high sea ;" whence 
TreXdyios means " out at sea," Thucyd. VIII. 44, Polyb. IV. 41, § 2. 

281 We find the same root in ^e/D-o-o?, which has the collective 
ending -cro? subjoined, and designates the hard, dry land, as opposed 
to the sea. It is also an adjective used as an epithet of yrj, and meaning 
"hard," "untilled," "unbroken by the plough:" Sophocl. Antig. 251 : 
o-tu^Ao? le yrj na\ xep<ro$, dppwg ovl' eirrjixa^evp-evr) Tp o %o?(n v ; whence 
it is applied to unmarried women, (Ed. Tyr. 1502: lt]Xalt) x^p 0-0 ^ 
(pdapfjvat Kaydfxovs v/j.d<; xp € ^ v: by a metaphor similar to that which 
Creon uses (in the Antigone, 569) in answer to the question of Ismena : 

Io-ju. aXXa KTei/ei? vvfxcpeia tov aavrov tckuov; 

Kp. dpooa-ipLoi yap x^h**" €1<TIV V" ai ' 

The use of x oi P™ is mucn tne same as the ordinar y one of X^™*- 



* We may mention obiter that the vXayKToi ^VXa/ces of JEschyl. Pers.269, ap- 
pear to us to describe the tktivwXftyes cLktoX of the Straits of Salamis: see our note on 
the Antigone, 588, p. 181. The epithet irXay/cros is well explained by K. O. MUller, 
{Klein. Schrift. I. p. 309) by a reference to the appearance of motion assumed by a 
coast, when the line of breakers keeps oscillating backwards and forwards." 



456 NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. [Book III. 

The collective ending of the latter renders it more applicable to signify 
an extended, continuous surface of dry land, whence xep<rdvvti<ro<; means 
a quasi-island connected at one end with the main-land, a peninsula, 
whereas ^oipd<; signifies an island entirely surrounded by water ; thus 
Delos is called ArjXia x oi p^ (^Eschyl. Eunien. 9). It does not signify 
a rock under the water, as the Scholiast on Pindar says {ad Pyth. X. 
81), but merely something hard and fixed against which a ship might 
strike, and thus it is used as an epithet of ireTpa in the passage of Pin- 
dar on which the Scholiast is writing: xa^J c dyxvpav epeiaov ^tWi 
Trpwpade, ^oi^aoo? aXnap neTpa^. In the plural ^oipdc€<: signifies 
" scrofulous tumours," "glandular swellings," from the general meaning 
" hard," " projecting," borne by xotpds; just as the Latin name, str 
for the same disease, is obviously derived from struo. It is singular, 
that another Latin word, by which the king's evil ii d, name- 

ly, scrofula, is a diminutive of scrofa, "a sow," just M xotpds is con- 
nected with x°^ oc 5 the common name for a pig (cf. >/ric> O. E., and 
Sc. gris, Icel.) ; and scrofa, scrofula (scrophula) are connected with 
xcrupus, icmpulm and rvp*t> which arc synonymous with the more 
usual meaning of ^oi^ac. The I t<on, therefore, for 

deriving xotpcU from xoTpos, as Blomfield does {Gloss, in JRte kyiL 
Pert. 1 J7). The names of anin. i be connected with 

those of certain qualities which they possess in an eminent d« _ 
When we renumber that the lit led xtjp or o~xypo<;> 

we might tnppoee that the bristly *kin of the hog wa> 1 by 

the name. But tfl this attribute «mU 1" 

root, Sanscrit rrih, Greek e^puc-* which appear in varaha, <ppi*<rciv y 
and per***, and as the general outer form of the pig and the hedge- 
hog suggests the more general idea of a hard projecting obj 
more reasonable to conclude that the name refer- to that appearance 
of the hog's back, which has given ri>e t<» the name of the Sum v 
hill, mentioned by ltlomficld in the note above referred to. The same 
idea is conveyed by j>orcus, fiorca, which we are inclined to con- 
nect immediately with the Sanscrit root rrih, "to grow up" (1 
Etiim. Forfeit. II. p. 53); the derivation from porricere suggested by 
Varro and Festus does not M ihle. The root/wv- - not 

only a pig, but also a balk or high ridge between two furrows ; and 
We have a similar resen^blance between the Lnglish '* farr 
litter of pigs,* 1 A. S. fcarh u a pig," and "furrow," A. S. /urn. For 
another meaning in which \o7pos and / >rc<i coincide, and which is well 
known to the readers i>f Aristophanes, we must refer to the appliea 
of x*P °" 0? t° unmarried women, mentioned above. Although it is clear 
that \t/LHia9 is connected with \-tu', it doe* not therefore follow that it 



Chap. 4.] NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 457 

is immediately derived from it, with the limited signification of Ai0o<? 
XeipoirXtidris, as the Grammarians and Blomfield (Gloss, in JEschyl. 
Sept. c. Thebas, 287) suppose. Xepud? itself indicates only the hardness 
and roughness, not the size of the stone. Indeed, it appears that the 
by-form x e P^ rather implies a collection of small stones, shingle, &c, 
whence irdfMpopos x € P^ (Pind. Pyth. VI. 13), than any one large and 
heavy stone. The German hart, English "hard," are evidently con- 
nected with the quasi-root x a P~ m tn ^ s signification. With regard to 
X* l p itself, the primary meaning seems to be a combination of the ideas 
of extension and support, out of which the secondary one of taking, 
holding, &c. very soon developed itself. In this latter sense it is con- 
nected with the Sanscrit verb-root hri, " to take," the Latin hir, and 
the Greek alpeeiv, tcdp-Tros, dp-rrd^eiv, &c. (above, p. 269* note). The 
verbs, xp 01 " *) xp' i l Ji ' K ' ru3 > & c *> * ae primary meaning of which is "to 
touch" (Ruhnken, Timceus, p. 104), are also secondary to x ei P m The 
words 7e'i/-To, hin-than, hand, pre-hend-ere, &c. although bearing the 
same signification, seem rather to be connected with the anusvdra 
form ^ai/SaVw. 

282 The idea of u opening" conveyed by the root x a ~ would very 
naturally be applied to yawning, a wide opening of the jaws, or, in 
in general, to the mouth, the fissure which most frequently meets the 
eye. Hence, we have, as connected with this root, the words ^el-Ao? 
"a lip," x ( *~ (TKU} "to yawn," ^'-07*01 "a yawning," yd-v^fwia "the 
wide opening of a bird's mouth" (Aristoph. Av. 61), x^ v t " * ne g a P m g 
bird" (x^ v ^X* 1 ^' Athen. 519 a), &c. By a further transition, the 
secondary root x a ~P" * s employed to denote the noise proceeding from 
a widely-opened mouth, the roar of a lion for instance. Hence it is 
that x a P° 7r °' ; an( i X^P°^ are common epithets for the lion, and Hesy- 
chius tells us that x° i P (av was a name f° r that animal : ^a^coi/* 6 \cmu 
dird Trj? x a P 07r ° Tr ) T0 S' The reason that he gives for it is absurd, 
for no one would derive x < *P <au from x a P 07r ° 9 y though he might derive 
Xapowds from x^P (0V ' The idea that the epithet xapoirds refers to the 
colour of the lion is quite erroneous, else how could Lycophron call 
Achilles irepKvds alxwrtjs ^a'ptoi/? for Treprnvos means black. Hesy- 
chius and his commentators had a distant inkling of the truth, as 
appears from the glosses and notes in Alberti's edition, Vol. II. col. 
1544: Xap ottos, irepix^pm (we should read Trepupepfc with Suidas), 
7\auKo's, gavdds, cpofiepds, on which Schrevelius writes: x a P 07ro ^ — 
a x^P 10 ) id est, %ao-«o), x a P° w > X a P ( ^ 7r<a ' x a P°' ir ^ ^ est 6 x a<TK(av ' 
G. Apollon. Schol. p. 62. Xdpvfthis. x a V« daxdo-a^. Xdpv/3his. 
fO/JLoftpoTos. n duwrnuofAevfj Qd\a<T<ra. Xapoirdv. gavddu. yXavicdv. 



458 NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. [Book III. 

(poftepov. -n-epupeprj, and Salmasius asks: An x a p 07r ^ est ° X c * <TKWV -> 
idem tw x ( *P wv > unde (poftepos ezponitur? We believe that ydpuv 
and ^a'^u/Soi? originally meant "the open-mouthed animal" and "the 
sea that sucked every thing in ;" as Hesychius says a few lines lower 

down: XaV/ia Orjpds' o\!/i<; 6rjpo<:. rj ^j^d<r/xa Tre\dyov<; to t»/c^ 

da\d<r<rti<; Trpoawrroi/ (according to Faber's reading), but that after- 
wards x a P 07r °* was use( i with that signification in regard to the lion's 
mouth, while X"P U}V came to signify the lion in general as a wide- 
mouthed roaring beast. 

283 There are two reasons which lead us to the conclusion that 
the lion's roar is particularly referred to in the name x c *P U)V - The first 
is, that Charon (o X"P WV U tne roarer ") is so constantly spoken of in 
connexion with the yQovia fipovTtj ; the following passages among 
many others will prove this. Di"g. Laert. VII. 28 (in rila Zen on is) : 
CTeXevra £e outuk. €k Tr}<; <T^oAr/<r diritav trpoae'ma.iae, tea) tov cdtcrv- 
Xov irepieppt^e. 7ra/<ra<r ce Ttjv ytju rjj X €t P l ^ > *? <TI T ° €K T, / ? Nia^ftft. 
"Ep-^ofxai ri fx aveis; Piloting I. p. 301, Porson u%m»\ to 
dpxovfievov toIs ScmctvAom etn\j/o<peTu' <rc?<r/uio<r SidfStj. Athenaeus, 
p. 34-1 ( : .... . . 

6 TtfxoOeov \dpu>v <r%o\a^eiv < 

ovk t»;<? Nio'/3r/c, ^tape^v ce iropd fx ov dva 

Euripides Alcestu, S 

Optii CtKWTTOV dpo) <TKCl(l>OS y VCKVUtV Ce TropO 

t^wi/ X € p' €7r * 1 KOV " r ^ ^dpwv li tj c t] taAci' \tK ; 

eneiyov' <rv naTeipyeis." Tcice to* Lie a"wep^6fxevo^ TOYI 
The many points of contact boiwoei : he roarer." and Ytjpumw 

" the caller," are also to be added to the evidence which establishes the 
etymology of the former nan ninus, p. 110, not' 

284 Our other reason for drawing this inference, is the perfect 
analogy that subsists between the root x a P~ aiu ^ tne root fi 9 * or / : ' *"- 
Thus we have xdp-wv "the roaring animal,"' Qom F ""the bel- 
lowing animal" (and here Um and rri/t, which M often come in 
contact, present another parallelism, for as x"P ut> > s "the l\> 

rris/m "the bull" iii Sanscrit, from whatever quality the name ma;, 
derived); gap-fUf, and /j\>F-'/, "the battle-shout." by an extension of 
usage "the battle itself;" hence poi/V mym96% d Kara t»;v fxd^tjv a "- 
§j>€tocj /SotjOo ;v Ta^uV(Il -w '.. \ from which C 

the word &onQ*i» "to assist:" also fipq/dtia and | running 

to a man's assistance in battle.'' "With the same reference we find iu 



Chap. 4.] NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 459 

Pindar, Pyth.YX^. 64: dvhpd<ri -^dpfxa (plXon ay^t<rroi/, where the 
epithet signifies "nearest at hand to protect." So also we have in 
.ZEsch. Ag. 237 : dyx LO " rov fxovocppovpov epnos. We have seen the same 
connexion of the ideas of neighbourhood, presence, and assistance in the 
word d/xe'ivbjv (§ 262). We have it also in the Latin prcesens deus 
(Cic. Tusc. Disp. I. 12, Hor. III. Carm. V. 2) : also in propitius, 
which is the antecedent of prcesens, unless we take the view suggested 
above (§ 269) : cf. Domitius, &c. Ilythyia (old fern, of elXevdm) might 
be rendered propitia. From x^p-M) in a perfectly similar way, we 
may derive xp ai<T l xe ™-> which the Greeks used as a synonym for fiorj- 
Oelv, and also for eirapKeiv, a word which we will discuss presently 
(Schol. on Apollon. II. 218). In immediate connexion with this word 
we have x^P Lq " help," XP? V " *° °^* er help or assistance," and XP^~ 
aifxos " a person capable of offering help or assistance." To this also 
belongs the use of xP eia m ^Eschyl. Sept. c. Theb. 49: egurToprjaai 
IxoTpav ev XP €1< ? Tl; X*7S an d Soph. Aj. §63: QavovT dv oljj.w£eiav iv 
Xp eia Sopds. The Greeks, therefore, would have understood why Sir 
William of Deloraine was called u good at need." 

285 A most remarkable confirmation of this etymology will be 
found in the word ypa, which Buttmann has so fully, and, upon the 
whole, so satisfactorily discussed. The root of this word appears in 
dp-rjs, " Avar," dp-eioiUj dp-i<TTO<;, dp-co, dp-ecrKU), dvp.-tip-r]<;, epi-rjp-os, 
dp-fxeva, dp-K€?i>, and dp-tjyeiu. The element ap-, tjp-, which forms the 
basis of this last set of words, has lost an initial digamma, as appears 
from a comparison of dperrj, dppqv, arma, ijpox;, 'Oapitov, with " war," 
Wehr, wehren, vir, virtus, "warrior;" as m is often only another form 
of v (comp. Mulciber with Vulcanus, the first pronominal element un- 
der the forms ma, va, and the German meinen with wahnen; Minne, 
with Ven, Winnesjafle " friend," " friendship," and Venus) ; we may 
also compare the words "Apr]? and dppr\v, with Mars and mas (maris) 
(Buttmann, Abh. Ak. Berl 1826, p. 58). Now the element Pap- is 
obviously related to the Sanscrit root vri, " to protect" or " shelter," 
from which comes vrih, " to grow up," as may be seen by comparing 
vira "a hero" with vpax: and vir, and variyas and varisht'h'as with 
dpeiuv, dpi<rro<s (see Pott, Etymol Forsch. I. p. 221). As the root hri 
" to take," which we shall see has other points of contact with xrih, 
the secondary form of this root, appears in %e<>, &c., so does this root 
vri appear in Papiai-epo? " the left or shield hand," (above, p. 272). 
In the words from the root pap-, which we have enumerated above, 
there is precisely the same transition of ideas as in the two sets of 
derivatives from x^pW and ^°^ whic h we have just been considering. 



460 NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. [Book III. 

This would be sufficiently clear from Hesychius only, if we bad no 
other means of showing it. See the following glosses: 'Ettj tip a. tt)v 
uer e-TTiKovpia*; xotpiu fxeydKrjv, rj etc t»J<? it epiov aids' a><? 'Ai/Tijua^o?. — 
'1l.it irj po$. eir'iKOvpos. €Tri9unr)Trj<;. — 'Ett it] pos. fiorjdds. y<*pw dtroci- 
Bou'c. — 'Eir ttj pea. etriyapiTia — 'Hpa. rjroi, oi/-rco<?. rj yapiv^ f3orjdeiav, 
CTTiKovpiav, irctTp) (piXio eir\ ijpa (peptov An', rj e<pt], and the words of 
Apollonius : 'Etriripa' Trju fxeT eiriKovpia*; yapiv. Mi/t^i (p'tXr/ efritjpa 
(pepu>u, ev ce tuj, ovce ri poi -rrocavnrTpa irocaiv etrirjp' dva $i>/i», to 
eTriKovprjTiKci Tt}<; \}^vyfj<;. oi/Voj? 'Apio-Tapxos. If, in addition to all 
this, we compare eiriripa(p€p€iv = €'irapriy€iv = €irapKe?v, with fVi/3o»;0e?»>, 
■ydpiv (pepeiv, and xp ai(T l xe ^ u -> we must feel an irres^tible conviction that 
these expressions are all due to the same train of ideas in a Greek 
mind ; that, in fact, the ideas of good, assistance, favour, and pleasure, 
were evolved in the Greek language from the military feelings of the 
heroic age. 

286 The secondary root x a ~P~ appears with the pronominal affix 
-K- in the word X"P a ^ an< ^ ■&■ derivative x a P a<T<Tt0 - It yy ^ 1* de- 
sirable to explain then two words. AVe are told that when X"P a £ 
signifies "a vine-prop," it is feminine, whan it denotes "a ; 
it is masculine: thus McBIlfl nyi <'p- K ch): Xdpa£, »/ jjo» 

7Tflo<? Ta?9 n/i7re',\oK, 6tj\vK<a<:. o ce tv to?? (TTpctToireCois dpaeviKtoK. 
And Phrynichus (p. 6l, Lol>eck) : 'II X^P a £ *P € * flf*»"™"* T ° T ^ 
d/xireXov aTtjptypa, ov nard to dppeviKov. A similar remark is made 
with regard to Kapag in the Etymologicum M<t<jn>im. From th> 
conclude that the two significations of the word belong to different 
of the Greek language. Now a^ircAoc was feminine from the 
first; and as the vine leans npOO and twines tOQnd its prop, like a 
sister, for support, it may be believed that the old n of 

X"pat; was "the supporter or helper of the \ine." in which sen- 
connexion with the family of words we have been discu- 
potable. In confirmation of this, let us observe that we find in Homer 
the word doaatjTtjp, in the person who stands behind i: 

help us up" (Iliad, XV. ~:>:)): 

r/V Tiva'c <paiiev eivai ao<r<rr}Ttjpa<; otciaata. 
Now doo-crt]Tt]p is obviously another form of uofoc, "a servant 
"helper'* (/Eseh. A>i<im. BQ9), anc * do^os means "a branch which 
grows up by the side of another branch," for, according to Theophr. 
(Hist. Plant. I. 13), ©JJk is that part of a tree from which the branch 
sprouts out, and consequently as d-h\<po<; means '* he who springs from 
the same deXipv* or womb," so d-oftK means "the sister-branch," "the 
branch which derive* it* origin from the same itodu* :" then' 



Chap. 4.] NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 461 

a-rjTrjpj which the Scholiast on Homer (loc. cit.) explains by fioridos, 
conveys the same idea as ^dpa^, and conversely xdpag may imply a 
fiotjdeia, and so it is naturally connected with x^P^i according to our 
former investigation. Xapdo-aio is of course formed from x^P a ^t just as 
KOLfxdecriti is from Ka/jLag ; and as Kapda-a-oo means "to make like a reed" 
(ndpa^), that is, "to cause to shake," so ^apda-a-w properly signifies 
" to make like a stake," that is, " to sharpen," and in this sense the 
word frequently occurs in the oldest writers. It also signifies to pro- 
duce the effects of a sharp instrument on some substance, just as 
dvdaata means "to perform the functions of a king" (aWf); and it is 
to this latter sense that we owe the important word x a P aKTt ip) both 
as it is applied to signify " the stamp on a coin," and as it is figura- 
tively used to denote the stamp of mind which distinguishes one man 
from another. In Hesychius we have the gloss: Kexapaypevos. 
wpyio-pevos, which is supported by Herodotus, VII. 1 : peyaXux; Ke^a- 
paypevov TO?cri ' 'Adr}vaioi<ri 3 and Eurip. Med. 157* Keivu) to<tov prj 
yapd<j<jo\). This meaning might seem to be derived from the first sig- 
nification of xapdcrcru), for dtjyopat and o^vvopai are used in a similarly 
metaphorical manner. If, however, the ingenious emendation of Ma- 
treas (apud Athen. p. 19 d) suggested by Blomfield {Gloss, ad Pers. 
689) is to be received, we must conclude that the metaphorical use of 
Xapdo-oetv is derived from the second of the primitive meanings. The 
passage in Athenaeus stands thus : 'Eirolriae Be outo? (J Mar^e'a?) xa\ 
irapd ras 'Apio-TOTeXovs dtropia^y kcii aveylvwaKe cr]po(ria oia rt o 
ijXios hvvei /xeY, Ko\vp/3a £' ov' kcli hid t'i ol cnroyyoi crvpirivovcn /ueV, 
<rvyKiado)viVovTai o* ov' kcu tcx T€TpdZpa^pa KaTaWar-reTat pev, 
opyi^eTai B' ov. Blomfield reads ppaTTfToi, which, as a synonym 
for opyl^€Tat y is more in place here than KaraXXdrreTa^ which bears 
just the contrary signification. 

287 It has been mentioned before (§ 53) that associations by way 
of contrast are often expressed by the same root or element in the lan- 
guages with which we are concerned. This is particularly remarkable 
in the class of words into which the element x a ~P~ enters « That the 
notions of emptiness and containing are both expressed by the simple 
root x a ~ nas already been shown. Now we find precisely the same 
conversion in the derived root x a -P--> the primary acceptation of which 
denotes " protection," " good/' " benefit," and the feeling of joy which 
the possession of such things imparts. By the law of association men- 
tioned above, it also expresses the feeling of desire created by the want 
of such things. Thus XPV& and XW * belon £ to tne same family 
with Xa/3<9, x/ocuov/ew, xp^ adai ' Tlie ^ eas c( > nve y ec l b y Dota tnese 



462 NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. [Book in. 

sets of words are included in the single word XP €ia > ^hich denotes 
both "use" and "need;" and the uncertainty, which arises in some 
cases as to the proper way of translating this word, shows how nearly 
these ideas are connected with one another. Hesychius uses xP €tav 
e^toi/ as an interpretation of xareiov, x^P°^» an( ^ XprfQ*"* anc ^ tDe 
doubt entertained by the critics as to whether we should read (JEschyl. 
JPers. 815) a-iacppoveTv Kexp^^vov, "in want of teaching," or <ruxppove7v 
nexpifxevoij " having wisdom," is a sort of proof that the verb also 
conveys these two ideas (Wellauer ad I. JEschyl. and Elmsl. ad E 
Heracl. 801). We observe the same connexion in the Latin carus, 
gratus, grates, and gratia, which Passow considers to be connected 
with this element. Cdn/s may be a corrupted participle from cdreo, 
just as purus is a participle of puto ; W &tW of rcreor WJ of 

procello (where the e is short by nature, compare cdlumtn, s-c£lus, 
prociilus, /3ou-koA-ck, &c.) ; obsciirus of ob(s)culo = oceulo. It is to be 
observed that the ending rus = sns (§ 107) is not at all uncommon in 
Latin words of this cla-ss : thus we have cla-rtis, glo-ria (jtkiat 9 k\i)o>, 
Sec.); ca-nis, ca-reo (x a <>0 ; seve-rus (o-e ou>, Unban scrum) ; 
We have a by-form of earns in cassiis, which seems to bo the proper 
form of a participle from some verb like ^a-re'eu ; coi '-or. par- 

tieiplc fassus. Gratus = cdrdt us might be the participle of a deriva- 
tive verb like dtf Hint, ii' it Mrintmi It w.»uldbe foreign to our present 
purpose to enumerate all the Latin v> mily ; ot! 

would be mmy fee WOW that the ideas of value, preciousness, c 
quent difficulty in obtaining, or even striving in vain to get, and 
therefore being without, are developed from one another in that lan- 
guage also, like the two meanings ..f th 

Doderlein, therefore, is mistaken when lie derives careo and cassus from 
Kc'tpetv, Kapijuai, carpcrc, Kup(peiv (Lat. Sytwn. o». III. p. 114, 

note), as opposed to carus and gratus, which, he admits, are connected 
with x a V" ? aim " X^'P * (P- 254). 

288 Bopp (G/,>s?ir. S.inser. p. 404) and Pott {EtymoL Forsch. I. 
p. 272) are inclined to connect X m *f m "**■ tne SojmbH hrtih. The 

primitive meaning of this Sanscrit root is •■ to be erect," and it is par- 
ticulary applied to the hair of the head, whence the epithet hrishto* 
roma, ""with the hair of the body on end" (BAagarad-di! i, XI. 4; 
Lassen, Ant/iologia Sanscrit ica, p. 4, 1. J)). In a secondary sen< 
signifies "to rejoice," u to be elated. .t," "to be exceed:: 

]>leased," " to have the hair of the body erect with pleasure ;" so that 
it seems to agree in all its meanings with <pplcr<rw v ither 

than with x^'P* ' Whether it is applied to the project.: of a 



Chap. 4.] NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 463 

body of soldiers, to the erect hairs of the head, to the standing corn, to 
the first ripple on the sea, or to the appearance of the skin when one is 
shivering from cold (which we call " goose's skin"), the primary mean- 
ing of (pp'iKri, (ppi£, (ppio-o-io, is always projection or unevenness in a 
physical sense ; the mental emotion sometimes implied being of course 
secondary and metaphorical. We have the same idea in the Latin 
horrere (=horseref), hirsutus, &c. Although these words are so nearly 
connected in meaning, it is difficult to pronounce a decided opinion as 
to their etymological relation to one another. It is clear that hrish-, 
Mrs-, and <pp'<-<-, must be secondary formations, and it is obvious that the 
first two are the same root. We are inclined to connect <pp~iK-> like pore-, 
with the Sanscrit root vrth " to grow," so that this root, the meanings 
of which bear a great resemblance to those of x a ~P~> again approximates, 
in its secondary lengthened form (pp'ix-, to a secondary and lengthened 
form of the other root hri. It is singular that not only does this root 
hri agree with x a P" m * ts military use (for pra-hri signifies "to fight," 
and pra-hdra " a combatant"), but we have the Homeric x^pM even 
in the modern languages of Europe, as a remnant of the warlike Goths* 
Thus we have the German Schirm, Italian Schermo, with one of the 
primitive meanings of the element x a ~P-> namely, defence, protection, 
reliance, &c. ; and German Scharmutzel, Italian Scherma, English 
Skirmish, with the common Homeric signification of x^PWi *° which 
these words are related, as the German Schaum to xyfio^ Schelm 
to xaAtjuo?, ^a/X^aSe?, an d Schief to x a P° q ( see Doderlein, Vocabulorum 
Homericorum Etyma, p. 14). 

289 (3) Before we consider the remaining significations of x^P 1 * 
it will be proper to discuss Viky]v, the third of those nouns which are 
used as prepositions, for it bears a remarkable analogy, in some of its 
applications, to X"P*' As a preposition with the genitive case, lUtiv is 
equivalent to the Latin instar, and signifies " like," " after the likeness 
of." Thus in Pindar (Pyth.H. 84): Xvkoio c'ikuv is "just like (i.e. 
justly) a wolf;" in ^schylus (Agam. 3) : kwos Zikiju means "just like a 
watch-dog." The use of SiKrjv as a preposition seems to be for the most 
part confined to the older poets ; for, although it occurs even in Plato 
and Aristotle, it is generally used when an air of quaintness or a 
poetical colouring is designed. For instance, Plato, Legg. VI. p. 773 : 
ov yap paliov evvoeiv, on ttoXiv elvai Be? c'iKr]v Kpa-rvpos KeKpap.evr]v, 
seems to be quoting some line from a play, such as 7ro'A(9 hi^v Kpa^po^ 
%v KCKpafxivn; just as, in Legg. X. p. 886 E: Ao' 7 o«ti Zi -ravra eZ tto,* 
eh to wiBavov wepi-wenve^va (" well-incrusted, covered, or concealed 
with words, so as to appear probable"), he seems to have had in his 



464 NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. [Book III. 

head some line of an old comedian — perhaps Xoyoicri o' eZ -h-ok n-avia 
irepnreireixfxeva; comp. Aristoph. Plut. 157: ovofxaTi TrepnreTTOva-i Ttjp 
fxo-^drfplav. Vesp. 668 : prjfj.aTiot'i Trepnre(f>dek. 

290 The sense of tm% which has given rise to this use of its accu- 
sative or old locative case as a preposition, is found in Homer, Odt/ss. 

XVIII. 274: fxvrjaTrjpwv ovy_ rjce cinq to irdpoiOe tc'ti/kto, and in 
Pindar, Pyth. I. 50: tuv <t>iXoKTtJTao cUav eQe-rruv, which the Scholiast 
rightly explains : tov ^iXokt^tov Tpdirov /jere^o'/mevoc, for Tpoirov is 
also used in the same way as leafy, as in JEschyl. A<iam. 48 : rrpo-nov 
uiyvTTt<au " like vultures." So also cepa*; " the outward build or body 
of an object," as in Horn. //. XI. 595 : uk ol ptv papvavroy tefxa^ trvpo\ 
aldoixevoio, which Ilesychius explains as Tpoirov irvpo\ KOMptwa, and 
with this reference he renders lifian by popipt}, Iced, Tpoiros. Ilesychius 
also recognises the meaning of Ukeneai or -imilitude here implied, as 
will appear from the following glosses: ciktj. 6 Tpo-nos — fxvrjffTtipmw 
(lie refers to the | of the >\o quoted); c<k>/Ao» 

(l) €kt vTTtofxa. ofxo'tuifxa, elcooXov, dvhpias, fyciov. irapd Aukoxtm'. (2) 
<pdcr}ka, t>\//j<r, tt6mkOP t f^ifUffta, S$€9 kcu 6 pipoXoyos irapd Aanaxn, 
ciKtj\l<TTa<:. (3) dyaXfjiO. avcptavTos ; eint]v. (l) Kaddrrep, warirep^ 
6fxutta<:. (2) Tpo-^ov (read Tponov); C <*»/<:. rpdirov. CtKtj (this f 
should be inserted). Ofiolmm, ij itpSmw* But this is only a secondary 
peose of ciKti. The following oonsidentiona will no min ee us that its 
})rimary ineaning was -;ui equivalent," ti | only a similitude, 

but an identity. This appears most clearly irmn the uses of ciKaios in 
the best writers. ThllBj we have in Herodotus, II. llj) : ml S*«kotw» 
dpyvuu Ouuuai ela-i rrdhto* €pdwk€$pow, U C "one hundred fathom - 
exactly or ju*t equivalent to a stadium." Referring to which, . 
seems, the Antiatt'icistcs says (Bekk. Anecd. p. 90, 1. 20): cUaiov 
fxeTpov: Totaov. xifMMOTOf cevTtpto. Similarlv, Xenophe: 
II. 2, § 26: ovtc ydp up/jia Ct'jwov Ta^i) yevoiT ay ppuCetaw 7-niraiv t 
toji', ovt€ Zitcatov dciKoov (TvveQvynevwi,, " when the horses are 11 
pair;" ef. Soph. A)tthi. £98 : ovc' wwo {Vyy Xuipov c uaiwc ^X ov y ^ 
6(>2 : ixtveiv %'inaiov ndyaOdv irapa(TTaTt]v y where we have endeavoured 
to express this idea in our version. In the MM way Wto h.tvc lUm*m 
aw/jia "a body equal on both ft)d 

equilibrium," KctTaTaa-iv dfxaXtjv ^ "an equal, level exten-: 

(quoted from Hippocrates by Schneider). It is to this primary sent* 
that the moral, legal, and political usi .' as from the 

similar application of the Latin ir/uus md MMfwm spring the MM 
counterpoise or equivalence. Tin.- *X tm > *"* 

v\e. "to give, obtain, have, or endeavour to get. satisfaction, or an equi- 



Chap. 4.] NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 465 

valent for some injury," on the principle of the lex talionis, which the 
old Greek legislators considered to be perfect justice. Aristotle, who 
does not admit of the universal applicability of retaliation (Eth. V. 5), 
and would rather consider Vikv) as something proportional (dvaXoydv 
ti), than as an equivalent (Eth. V. 3, § 8), was nevertheless perfectly 
aware, that, according to the ordinary acceptation of the term in Greece, 
SiKri conveyed the idea of a quid pro quo : for he says that inequality 
and injustice are synonymous terms, and that to have more than one's 
share (7rAeoi/eKTe?i/) is to commit an injury ; the same appears from his 
ingenious but false derivation of Siki; from S^a (Eth. V. 4, § 9) : to I* 
'tcrov peo~ov €(tt\ Trjs /jLeijjovos KCti eXaTTOvos Kara Trjv dpiOprjTtKijv dvaXo- 
yiav ota tovto k<x\ ovopa^eTat BtKatoi/, ort oi^a e<TTtv' tacnrep dv e't tis 
e'tirot Zt-^atov. tca\ 6 StKa<rT»/? Bi^acrTff?. 

291 We now return to x^P 1 ^ which, besides the meanings we 
have already discussed (namely, good, protection, benefit conferred, aDd 
the feeling of joy which such things create), also expresses "gratitude/ 
" a desire to return a favour," and, in its widest sense, every thing that 
is graceful, amiable, and charming. *H Xdpts, or more generally in the 
plural al XdptTcs are the goddesses who preside over all that imparts a 
charm to the social relations of man (Pindar, Olymp. I. 30: Xdpt^ 
airep airavra Tevyei *ra jueiAt^a dvaro?<;. Olymp. XIV. 5 : XajOtre?— 
<tvv v}Xfxiv—"rd re Tepirvd na\ rd yXvuea ytyvcTat ivavra f3poToT<s); who 
love that interchange of good offices which is the foundation of Hky], or 
" give and take." Thus Aristotle says (Ethic. V. 5, § 6) : tm dvTfrroteTv 
yap dvaXoyov avppevet tj noXi^ • rj yap to kokws ty]TOv<riv (el he pt}, cov- 
Keia Sok6? elvat, el p.rj avTitrottja-et) ■ »/ to ev (el he prj^ /j.eTaho<rts ov y'tve- 
Tai f Trj p€Tahdo~ei he o-vpptvovat). hto ko\ XaptTiov lepov epLirocwv irotovv- 
Tat, 'tva avrairohoat*! »;• tovto yap x < ^P lToq "htov dvdvTrrjpeTrjo-at yap 
hei tw ^ajO«m/jiei/u), na\ iraXtv avTou dp^at xapto-dfxevov. And hence the 
Eumenides, praying that there may be no factions at Athens, . say 
(iEschyl. Eumen. 970): 

XappaTa 8' dvTihthoiev Kotvo<peXe? otavoia, 

kcu crTvyelv pta (ppevt. 

iroXXtav yap to'S' ev /3poTo?<s oko?. 
And similarly, the Theban orator in Thucydides (III. 67): *a\ tJpTv 
avopa iraBovo-tv dvTairohoTe \dptv liaatav u>v nrpoQvpoi yeyevrjpeda. At 
Athens, according to Josephus (Antiquit. XIV. c 8, § 5, p. 6$9)> a 
common temple was erected to them and the Demus : o-t^o-cu avToO 
elKova xa\Kt}v ev tw Tepevet tov Atjpov Ka\ twi/ Xap'tT<av; and their sta- 
tues stood at the entrance to the Acropolis, where they were worshipped 

Hh 



466 NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. [Book III. 

with mysterious rites : Pausan. IX. 35, § 3 : 'Adtjvya-i irpo Trjs e<? tt\v 
AxpoTToXiv evodov XaoiT6? elcri na\ avTui Tpeis ' irapd ce aureus TeXeTrjv 
dyovcriv e<? tov? 7ro\\ov<; aTropp^Tov. There was a colossal statue of the 
patroness Juno by Polycletus in the Heraeum at Argos, on whose crown 
the Hours and Graces were sculptured, and their statues were in the 
Pronaus (Pausan. II. 17, § 3, 4, and V. 11, § 7). The chief attribute 
of the Graces was sociability : they are represented as inseparable from 
one another, and as promoting all kinds of unions among mankind ; — 
that of matrimony, of the family (-rrurpa), of the civic phratria at the 
eo-Tjao-i?, of the whole state or race at the public festivals (M tiller, Or- 
chomen. p. 180). It is with this feeling of the political significance of 
their worship that Pindar says (Pyth. VIII. 21) : 

eireae c' ou yiap'iTuiv ends 

a cikcuottoXis dpera?*; 

nXeiva'icriv AlciKicav 

dlyoiaa vacros. 
for he would hardly have used the epithet cikcuu'ttoXk; had there not 
been some connexion in signification between -^dpis and ciktj; his mean- 
ing is "the fair-deiling and _ !._'ina ■ B04 disregarded 
by the (i races, — for they pnoidi over the interconr-e of men., and are 
also the givers of glory." 'J'he cj>itlict c<Kaio7ro.\<c. — which is properly 
applicable to a man (it if tlic name of the hero of the Achnrnuins of 
Aristophanes, and is analogous to uttoAjc, J\,'/<Vo\k, &c), but is here 
applied by ponojufiofttioi to figis*, — r the fairness which 
characterized the commercial (haling- of that island, and for which 
Pindar elsewhere extols its inhabitants In the same sense, we have 
explained (not. ad I.) Oh/mj>. VIII. £0 00%% : 

€vda ^.WTeipa A»tK £tvlov 

irdpehpos da-neTrai Oe'fti? 

t£(>x dv$pwTT(i)v i on ydp tto\v k«i 7ro\\a peirei 

opdd diaKp'tfctu <ppev\ fj.tj irapd Kaipov, 

cuo-7rrt\e?, TeOjj.os Ce ti<t atVu'UTun', ku\ rare*' aXiepKea yttpav 

7rai>To£cnroT<Tiv u7re<TTacr€ £ei-oi<; 

kioixx daipiovuii', 

where Oe/ja<s is only another name for <:<*»/: see Bopho oL 
1384: 

UTcK 

A<\f/ £i>iecpo<; 7.t]vd<; dpyaiots couoi?. 
In the Pythian hymn quoted above eveve does not refer to the HM 
position of .Kgina, as Dissen supposes, but is used in fthfl use OS 

in Sophoel. Aj. 620 : 



Chap. 4.] NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 467 

tcc irp\v B' 607a yepdiv 

fieyia-Tas apei-as 

a(piXa irap acpiXois 

eirecr\ eVecre fxeXeois 'Ar^etSc**?, 

as the Scholiast perceived : tj Be BtaKato7ro/\is vijcros A'lyiva ovk e^eireae 

TWI/ X.aplT(OV. 

292 The etymological connexion of Si/07 and x^P^ * s even more 
remarkable than their analogy in signification. As x^P^ 1S connected 
with x ei P-> ^ ne general name for a hand, and with a number of words 
signifying "to take or hold" (above p. 269, note), liar] is obviously con- 
nected with SeK-o-ios, the name for the right hand, with SciktuAo?, " the 
finger," and with a number of words denoting "to receive" (BeKojuat, 
&c), or "to point out" (BetKi/i/jut, &c), (above, p. 271, note). The 
element of the word is, as we have seen (above p. 266 foil.), a com- 
pound of the numeral " two" with a root signifying " to take," and 
probably connected with the root hri, which appears in x ei P' The 
form St- of the first syllable is on the analogy of S10, St-Bi^o?, &c, and 
is more regular and original than the Be of Sexa or the Sa of SccktuAo?. 
We have this t in Be<Ki/u/ut, where it is affected by guna, in the Sanscrit 
dif, and in the Latin dicis causa, dicere, digitus, dignus, &c. Hero- 
dian remarks {nep) fxovtjpovs Ae'^eoK, p. 14) that the accentuation of 
liKt] is very singular, because a barytone noun of this kind ought either 
to have a consonant before the k, like KipKtj, llpKrj, Tp'iKKti, or the t 
should be long, as in vixt], (f>pUti — tj toivvv hiKt] o-fz/ietcoBee. AetVet yap rj 
XP° vl ? V vv^cpuivip. Nouns in */, formed from adjectives in -Ykos, are 
naturally oxytone : but there is no reason whatever why S/k»7, — which 
has no connexion with the pronominal termination -ko<?, but is formed 
directly from the verb-root Stic- (B<k>7 for StKya), — should not follow the 
analogy of eXiKt], eKarrj, ^eXert], &c. 



Hh2 



CHAPTER V. 
THE ADJECTIVE. 

203 Etymological distinction of adjective and substantive. 294 Tinder what cir- 
cumstances an adjective or participle may become a substantive or definitive 
name. 295 This transference is particularly common in Latin. 296 It is also 
found in Greek. Connexion of the participle with nouns denoting agency and 
agents. 297 Digression respecting the substantive use of yepapov. 298 The 
adjective often represents the genitive case of a substantive, and is sometimes of 
adverbial origin. 299 Hence the adjective in its distinctive use is merely a syn- 
tactical contrivance. 300 Predicable nature of the adjective and participle. 

301 The three different kinds of predicates may be expressed by adjectives. 

302 Secondary predicates may also be expressed by oblique cases of nouns or 
adverbs, and to these the tertiary predicate is often attached. 303 Certain adjec- 
tives especially used in this way. 304 Syntactical classification of adjectives. 
305 Epithets and predicates have been confused even by great scholars. 306 Fa- 
miliar illustrations of the general principle. 

293 T71 TYMOLOGERS have found or created for themselves 
i A very great difficulties in the nouns adjective. We 
do not intend to set forth all the explanations which have been 
offered with regard to their nature and functions. It will bo 
better to state at once that the adjective differs ctymologically 
from the substantive only in being capable of flexion thr< 
the different genders of the substantive to which it is joined. 
Otherwise it is as much the designation of a quality or attril 
and therefore as truly a noun, or the name of a thing, as the 
substantive itself. As for the compound adjectives, they are in 
many languages merely substantives subjoined to adjectives. In 
general, the explanation of the adjective belongs to syntax rather 
than to etymology. 

294 To the student of Greek the adjective is particularly interest- 
ing, and especially in its connexion with the participle, a kind of W 
of which more use is made in Greek than in any other bag* | 
much that the Greeks have been emphatically called o<\ou€to^oi, or 
lovers of participles. While in this language — more pwlttf l than in any 
other — adjectives and participles are employed I - all the adver- 

bial or accessary relations of the sentence, a great number of adjet : 
have taken their station amongst the most common of the substan: 
and there is no single Greek adjective or even participle which may 
not become a substautive if it only has the definite article prefixed, if. 
in a word, it has that accompaniment which is necessary for the con- 



Chap. 5.] THE ADJECTIVE. 469 

version of a substantive, as the name of a quality or attribute, into the 
name of a particular thing*. Indeed, to such an extent has this been 
carried, that many adjectives, especially those ending in -kt], which 
have obtained a substantive-use by prefixing the article and omitting 
the substantive Te-yyt], have at last become so completely substantives, 
that the article is always omitted, except in those cases where a sub- 
stantive would require this auxiliary (see Middleton on the Greek Article, 
pp. xxi. 50 note, edit. Rose). This restricted employment of a 
general attribute may be compared with the use of ftaaiXevs without 
the article, when a particular king, the king of Persia is meant, so that 
the general term becomes a proper name or appropriated word. 

295 The use of participles as mere adjectives is undoubtedly much 
more common in Latin than in Greek, and the reason is this, that as 
the Latin language has no definite article, the distinction between 6 
(piXtav "the lover," and (piXwv "if he loves/' cannot be expressed by 
this part of speech. It becomes therefore a matter of indifference whe- 
ther we use the Latin participle as a definitive or as a hypothetical 
word ; but in all cases where a distinct protasis was intended, the 
participle would give way to the conditional sentence. Conversely, all 
the functions of an adjective would be assumed by a participle whether 
active or passive. The passage from this to the substantive use of the 
participle is immediate. Thus the active participles adolescens, parens, 
and sapiens, are constantly used as substantives ; secundus is always 
an adjective, and is generally used in a metaphorical or applied sense. 
The passive participles acutus, argutus, &c. are almost always em- 
ployed as epithets, and the neuters prceceptum, dictum, scriptum, con- 
sultum, placitum, furtum, &c. are to all intents and purposes substan- 
tives. Some of the participles in -ns have their comparative and super- 
lative degrees like the ordinary adjectives. Thus we find parentior, 
utentior, appetentior, and appetentissimus (Liibker, de participiis Gratcis 
Latinisque, p. 12). In some cases, we have actually to reproduce the 
participial meaning by a close examination of some common noun. 
There is an interesting exemplification of this in the words pons and 
fons. From the root pos, strengthened by n in the present of po[f\-no, 
pos-ui, we have the participial noun pons =pos-nts, which had a primi- 
tive form pos (Varro, L. L. V. I. p. 3, Muller), and this conveyed the 
idea of laying down heavily, whether this signified that a mass of 

* "When the Anglo-Saxon present participle is used as a noun, it is distinguished 
by a weaker form of inflection (Latham, Eng. Lang. p. 71. ed. 2). This appears to us 
to indicate the absence of a definite article : comp. the H. G. der gute Mensch with 
guter Mensch. 



470 THE ADJECTIVE. [Book III. 

stones was thrown into the water (ye-(pvpa), or generally that there 
was a weight which caused an inclination of the scale. This, no doubt, 
is the origin of s-ponte, which refers to the momentum of moral incli- 
nation, and thus we get the explanation of the ponti-fex, who settled 
the atonement by the imposition of a fine, i. e. a certain weight of 
copper, as opposed to the cartii-fex, who took satisfaction on the body 
of the delinquent. Hence we have the secondary forms j»i<<h, pm 
&c. Similarly, from the root/o = svo or hvo = ^eF- for ^Fe-, u to pour 
out," we have the participial noun fons, "that which pours forth 
water," i.e. "a fountain," and from this the secondary forms /undo, and 
fundus. That these roots fo = sro or 7<ro, and po or gpo y " to pour forth" 
or "cause to fall," have an identity of signification as they probably 
have a community of origin, may appear from the connexion of mean- 
ing between x 1 *}* 01 an d pons, between (nrevcu) and /undo. 

296 The Greek participle is not used as a substantive except in 
cases analogous to those which we have just discussed, namely, when 
the hypothetic*] on "f the word has become quite indistinct. Thus 
the nouns ayvia, apirvia, opyvia, &c, though obviously participles from 
the roots cry-, a^7r-, opey-, cxc never occur cxe 

tives. The same remark applies to the pr<>] u$m* and 

Ku'x^a?, though the former - the paint <>f childbirth as will m 

fchegoddOM: n Sesych. : <.''<. (Y<a<j eviore fsev ra\ cWc, evtore Ce Ta\ 

it; ne Horn. 11 XIX. no, where the Bebekeet explains my 
V uXtiQvlas by iccTvac F e e rvet . The fenn JX mt $ m ibowi us tlie con- 
nexion bot w OO B the feminine- in -via and -u> ; Si (For tlie 

participial origin of Ko'a^i- see oqi note on khe Antifmm, p. \S6). Tlie 
nouns in -np and -tJc ({ 867) are strictly of participial origin; they 
are ill fact connected with the verbals in -tjo?. ! 
nearly correspond in meaning to the Latin gerundiva in -ndus, which 
are merely lengthened forms of the participle in -nts (§ 265). The 
idea of action is explicitly conveyed by the nouns in -t»;«j, -ti<t, which 
denote a doer and a doing respectively. It has not been sufficiently 
remarked that from the longer form ie#j ~-uu\ into WOMB the ending 
-t»/9 is occasionally expanded, the lvomans formed not only an a 
future participle, but also an abstract noun equivalent in meani: 
those ending in -tv\. Thus, if scrip-tus meant u a writing" (cf. the 
supine fortp-tMM ''to write"). scrip-t<>r meant *' a writer,"' Mry<tar« 
"a person about to write,*' and srri/>-'i<r<i again, ** a writing.'' We 
can scarcely imagine a more interesting subject of speculation to the 
linguistic philosopher than that which is presented by this cla- 
words. It enables us to see how from the idea of proximity com 



Chap. 5.] THE ADJECTIVE. 471 

by the second pronominal element (tJ?-, -*m, -<ns), that of emanation 
is at once derived (-3»7<?, -deu), and how we pass from this to an expres- 
sion of agency and an agent (-t*;?, -Trip, -Tap). Then again we observe, 
how the notion of continuity, which is involved in that of agency, 
connects itself with that of futurity; whence the continuous tense in 
Hebrew is so often a future (Maskil le-Sopker, p. 23 sqq.) ; and from 
this we get the idea of obligation, or the feeling that the performance of 
an act is continuously incumbent upon us (-Teos). It is only by con- 
sidering the matter thus that we can understand the coincidence in 
meaning between the first and last term of the series -tus, -tus, -Teo<?, 
-t»7<?, -Tt]p, -rcop, -tor, -tura. The Latin and Greek verbals in -tus, 
-tu'« strictly correspond in meaning to one another and to the infinitive. 
In Greek, the adjective in -tco^ derived from tJs, corresponds in mean- 
ing to the adjective in -ndus derived from the participle in -nts (above, 
§ 265). But the latter is strictly equivalent in meaning to the infi- 
nitive active, of which the so-called gerunds are only inflected cases 
(see Varronianus, p. 260 sqq.). Every thing therefore tends to con- 
firm the opinion that these expressions all spring from a common meta- 
physical origin. 

297 There are instances in Greek where scholars are still uncer- 
tain, whether a particular substantive-use or a general adjective-use 
is intended. We will select one which will give us an opportunity of cor- 
recting a general misinterpretation of some passages in the Greek poets. 

The word yepapo? is in Homer an adjective, and an epithet of 
honor. Thus Priam, describing Agamemnon (i7. III. 170), says: 

KaXov 5' ovtoo eyuiv ouVfo 'ihov o(^0a\/xo?<rzi/, 
ovV ovtu) yepapov' j3a<ri\r)'i yap avhp\ koine. 

and Antenor, contrasting Ulysses with Menelaus (77. III. 211), says: 
(ttolvtusv fjLcv MeveAaos vireipe^eu evpects oofxovs, 
afjL<pta V e^ofxevu), y epapojTepos rjeu 'OSi/cr<reu<?. 
The Scholiast's interpretation of the former is cptiliov, of the latter ev- 
Ti/jLOT€po<; Trpds o\j/iv, and we have no doubt he is right ; yepai, yeptav, 
and yeprivios or yeprju are explained in the same way by Hesychius : 
yepwv. eVi fxev tov 6vtijxov — n'tKXrjo-Kev he yepovTas dpto-Trjas {Iliad. II. 
404), yepas yap tj Tifxrj ' yeptjvios evrtpos, yepwv' yeprjv, 'evTifXos. 
Tepapos is formed by the common suffix -po<s from the word yepas, 
"the privilege or peculiar gift of a person in authority," — e.g. the 
first share of the booty and so forth— especially " the hereditary pri- 
vileges and prerogatives of a king :" in which sense it was equivalent 
to epavo? (see Welcker, Trilog. p. 381, note). Hence Thucydides says 



472 THE ADJECTIVE. [Book III. 

of the old kings of Greece (I. 13) : trpoTepov ce rjaav eW ^to?? yep no- 1 
iraTpiKoi ficuTikeicu : accordingly yepovT-$ (ye'^wi/) was a person holding 
such privileges or authority, and yepovTia or yepovaia was the name 
given to the ruling Senate at Sparta. The root of the word is gri- " to 
take" or "receive," one of common occurrence in all the languages of 
the Indo-Germanic family, and probably the same with iri, of which 
we have said so much in the last chapter (see also p. 269). We do 
not believe that it is connected with yi}pa<;, "old age," which seems 
to be related to the Sanscrit root jri, (jara) "to wear away;" and the 
use of yepwv, yepaio*;, as an apparent synonym for ytipaio*;, is to be 
explained from the connexion of the ideas of age and dignity in the 
Greek mind. So that Homer says, very appositely for our purpose 
(IV. 323) : 

K(\ev<r<s) 
ftovXij kcli nv6ot<Ti' to yap yepas e<n\ yepovTtcv. 

In Euripides (Suppl. 42) : 

ik€t€vw o-f, yepaia, yepapuv (k 

(TTO/JUlTttiV 7T0CK yOW TTlTTTOVaa TO <TOV^ 

we believe that the idea intended to be conveyed by the words yepata 
and yepapuiv is not that of age. though both .Kthra the person ad- 
dressed, and the chorus who are -peaking, are represented as old 
women, but that of mention Ot lespeot: ** I beseech, you, O hon- 
oured dame, with a mouth paying you due respect, and falling down 
at your knee." As yepapo\ ■ need as an epithet of the person who 
receives the yepas, so yepalpeiv is employed to denote the act of be- 
stowing the 7<7> n s as when a greater share of any tiling is given to a 
distinguished man (Homer, Jii<i>t VII. 881) : 

cwTOKTi ?' AlavTa cit]v€K€€<r<rt y cp a 1 p € V 

ijpax: 'ATpeict]<:. 

Or when the worship of a divinity is spoken of (Plato, Lojg. VI I. 

799 A ) : yoptiaK 7roj'aio-( yepalpeiv Ttjv Tore Qvalav. There is no 

doubt, then, as to the meaning of the adjective or epithet yepapos. 

But there are two pass... -clivlus in which this word is clearly 

used as a substantive, and in both we have a dative plural. They 

Suppllccs, 572 : 

ko( yepapoTai *pe<r- 

(3vToioKoi yepov- 

twi ipXeyovTtov & 

UK 7TO.\K ev ftfJ-OlTO. 

And Agamemnon, 7 

e&pexf/ev cV Xeovra 
a-'ii'iv ho/jiois ti - 



Chap. 5.] THE ADJECTIVE. 473 

»i » \ j » * 

outw? avrjp (piXopaa'TOV i 

ev (3i6tov TrpoTeXeiois 

ajxepov, exxpiXoTraiha, 

Kcti yepapoTs enl-^apTou. 
In consequence of the word TrpevfivTolonoi, which precedes in the first 
passage, and evcpiXorraila in the second, every one has been led, not 
unnaturally it must be confessed, to translate yepapo?$ in both passages 
" the aged men." A little examination will show that the word is in 
both passages a synonym for yepaa-i. That yepapoh does not mean 
"old men" in the first passage is clear: for how can altars, or rather 
the terraces round the altar {QvfxeXai : see Miiller, Anhang zu den 
Eumeniden, p. 35) be said to be loaded like a ship with freight 
(yepeiv), and to blaze (cpXeyeiv) with old men ? That old men crowded 
round the altars is sufficiently stated by the epithet irpeo-fivroloKo^ 
and the addition of a synonym for 7r^e<r/3uTa?? would be very unlike 
JEschylus. That yepapou does not signify persons in the second pas- 
sage is clear from this, that when eirlyapro^ governs a dative case of 
the person it always has the meaning " rejoiced over as by an enemy :" 
thus iEschyl. Prometh. 164: cyBpois iiri^apra ireirovQa (see the pas- 
sages quoted in Blomfield's note) ; Thucydides, III. 67 : o'Iktov Be 
d^iwrepoi Tvyyaveiv ol d-Kpeire^ ti irda-yovre^ rwv dvdpooTrooW ol Be 
BiKcuaK, ta<nrep o'&e, rd evdvria eiri-^apTot elvai ; and SO eiri^aipta, 
when it governs the dative, as in Soph. Aj. 94>0 : ol B' ovv yeXwvruiv 
Kd-m-^atpovTcov kceko?? ; but when the verb governs the accusative, it 
expresses merely a simple act of joy, like x ai P w -> Vi^t & c » w ^ n * ne 
same government (see Sophocl. Aj. 136, and Lobeck), and so eVr^ap- 
To?, without a dative of the person, signifies "joy-causing, agreeable," 
as in Sophocl. Trachin. 1262 : w? eVr^aproi/ reXeova deKotxriov epyov y 
where the Scholiast rightly compares the Homeric «cm> dUovrt ye 
6vn$. If, therefore, in the passage of the Agamemnon we take yepa- 
po?? in the sense " by means of gifts," we shall have the natural sig- 
nification, " the young lion was tame, it gambolled with children, and 
was agreeable or pleasing, it caressed any one — when it was fed," just 
as he says afterwards (725) : (padpairds itot\ x^P a <raivuv -re ycto-vpS? 
dvdyKah. That yepapox, in the other passage, means "with sacri- 
ficial offerings;' is shown by the use of the word (pXeyeiv (so in the 
Agamemnon, 91: (3wfxo\ ccopot<ri QXeyovrai), and by the imitation 
of the whole passage in the Electro, of Euripides (712 and following) : 
Xopo\ B' 'A-rjoeiBai/ eyepaipov o'Uovi' 
dvfxeXai o' eiriTvavTO %pv- 
(rrjXaroi, (reXayelro V dv ckttV 
irvp eTrifiioiJLiov 'Apyeiwv. 



474 THE ADJECTIVE. [Book III. 

"We conclude, therefore, that in these passages yepapoh represents the 
dative plural of yepapou, which has become permanent as a neuter 
substantive equivalent to yepas, just as the still longer, but analogous, 
adjective Aut^jck is used by Pindar {Pyth. V. 99) in the neuter, as a 
synonym for Xvrpov (see below, § 305). 

298 We have stated that the etymological distinction between the 
adjective and substantive La, that the former i- _• nerally capable 1 
inflexions of being attached to sub-tanti\ -es of every gender. It will be 
easy to show that this sole etymological differs*] lit of the 

syntactical use of adjectives. A great numl>er <»f potMMTe adje. 
arc nothing more than genitive earn attracted by juxtaposition into a 
variety of inflexion.-. Foi in-tance, if, M i- mosJ probable, an older 
form of the genitive of ctj/xo^ ctjn >;udcno, wliat is this in 

tion to o/uooio?, but the erude-fonn of a ne > of inhVx: 

Tlie same may be -aid of the 0000] n -iuv = -lor-c, which R I 

the -till older genitive in -utv = -<rtov ( ,:id tlie weakened _ 

tive may -till I ited in Mich adjectives as xpvato* from \ t 

The verb-adjei'ti\' i-t also be considi nned 

from fixed inftBlioHBj Cbf what external difference is than 1 tlie 

indicative tvittovti = tuVtoi^t, and the imperative Tvirrovruv, oi. 
one hand, and the dati\ plural of the parti 

on the Othefft The participle is nothing but the crude-form of the verb 
with a pronominal suthx, which may or may not become the expression 
of certain I the lini: hut which is I the basis 

of a set of inflexions which, from their capability :i >-r liar; 

with the anal [ -tanti\i-. , ■ adjective -. Ml 

who has referred to this principle in hi- in-trncti\e paper "On the 
Formation of Words, by the further Modification of Inflected Cases" 
[Pt Vol. HI. p. 9 >qq.\ seem- I verlooked 

the distinction between shots DOOM which are formed from oblique 

S, by the mere appendage of a new -y-tem of inflexions, and a dif- 
ferent elafiS liieli affix to the new crude-form 
the pronominal terminations enumerated in a pr ,apur. 1 
it is plain to see on the one hand, that o/uu-o-io-s is merely the _ 
tive e>/iu>'-,Tj,> made the vehicle o( a new set of case-endings, and that 
. fa. are similarly derived from weaker forms of the 
genitive. But it is equally clear, on the other hand, that a form like 
tlftta* contains something more than an oblique ease and a new sysfe 
case-endings; and a comparison of Ic I 1 lead us 
to doubt whether the first pari is to be regarded 
•«, The same remark applies to the forms • hieh 



Chap. 5.] THE ADJECTIVE. 475 

Mr Garnett would derive from the datives ^jxepriai and rjpciTi, but 
which appear to us to be formed from the nominatives ripepri and jjjuaT- 
= vfxapr, by the addition of the affixes -a-ios and -ios (above, § 254). 
Nor does there seem to be any necessity for deriving olKeTos from o'Uoi or 
oUei^ when the appendage of *o<? to the regular crude-form o\k^ of o7ko? 
suggests itself at once. With regard to forms like /3<'cuo9, we should com- 
pare them with lo-a-Tos, TpiTCt-Tos, &c. from 'i<rri[iJLoTpa\, Tpirt] \j]/JLepa~\, 
&c. ; and though, according to the principle laid down above (§ l65\ 
the comparatives fxeo-ai-Tepos, Ihai-Tepos, to-at-Tepo?, &c. presume a 
derivation from the locative adverbs jueo-r/, Ilia, 'ta-rj, &c. we must not 
apply this to the very different case of formations in -to? from the 
nominative in ri=ya (above, §254). This is still farther indicated by the 
accent of 7ra\a<o9, compared with that of lacuos^ &c, for this shows that 
the affix, by which the adjective was formed from ird\ai^ contained at 
least an additional i, so that iraXai-os = iraXai-tos = TraAat-Ko?. There 
seems to us to be the same objection to Mr Garnett's theory respecting 
the derivation of the participle from an ablative of the verbal root. It 
has been shown above that the ablative-sign was something more than 
a" mere -t, that it was in fact the affix -a-iov, which appears as -Qev, 
-drjv, -0a, -Sa. Now it is clear that this, like other forms of the geni- 
tive, may become the vehicle of a new set of case-endings, as we see in 
patronymics in -Bf/9, and in the forms in -Sio*;, &c. But we have no 
such forms in the participles, which merely interpose -Fot- or -vt- 
between the root of the verb and the case-endings. The adverbs in 
-Soi/, -Itiv, -la are in fact cases of the participles in -i/t = -i/B, or of the 
verbal nouns in 2- ; and it is not consistent with sound philology to 
suppose that a mere crude-form is equivalent to a case formed upon 
it. The ablative forms of currendo and cursu do not prove the 
ablative nature of currens, which is really equivalent to currendus 
(§ 265). 

There are many adjectives which are immoveable or not capable 
of a variety of flexion (Lobeck, Paralipom. p. 1 89), and these, when 
placed by the side of the noun-substantive, constitute it to all intents 
and purposes one of those compound words in which the genius of the 
Greek and Sanscrit languages is most strikingly developed, the only 
difference being, that in the former instance the inflexions of case are 
preserved, while those of gender are neglected ; whereas in the latter 
the crude-form only is prefixed. Most adjectives, however, vary in 
gender, number, and case with the noun to which they belong, and are 
either the predicate of the sentence of which the noun is the subject, or 
stand as the representative of some case (mostly the genitive) of another 
noun dependent upon the substantive in question, just as, conversely, the 



476 THE ADJECTIVE. [Book III. 

genitive case of a substantive may stand as a substitute for an epithet, 
see Soph. Antxg. 114: -yiovo^ TTTepvyi for yj-oveit ; Electra, 19 '• aa-rpuv 
ev(ppovti for d<TT€p6e<T<ra, &c. In much the same way we have, Soph. 
Antig. 795: evapyti? f3\€(pcipu)v T/xepo^. 

299 From this it will be seen that the use of adjectives at all is 
entirely logical or syntactical, for an adjective when distinct from the 
substantive, that is, when not a DM epithet, i- a predicate as con- 
trasted with the subject (ah 14). Although we do not profess 
to discuss the syntax of the ( I reek IwglMfln in thin? pages, yet M 
very essence of the adjective is syntactical (its . t\ mological distinction 
being merely an accident), and as its different value, according as it is. 
used with or without the article, is a point which teachers of Greek 
find it most difficult to impress upon their pupils, we shall indulge in 
some remarks on the subject. 

300 Every noun in the Gimk bagl - ver vague and gene- 
ral its signification ma\ 

position, if it only ha- pnftjD <1 to it th.n HBplflri fom of the demon- 
strative, which we call the article j and if t\ r in conn< l 
one of which has, an<l the <»tlur want-, the article, the former 
to the latter a- Mihjcct i- t<» pptdioia. ThU is a fact which MM 
alway- kept in mind by i\.ry OM i Id tran-' 
authors correctly. An adjective, in M tion of tie name, is an 
epithet of the Mih-tantive with which it is joined, and the difficulty 
which we experience in practically tcachin. age is, to 
comimv the learner, tliat no BOOB, though with variable gender, can be 
considered as an adjective when it stand> alone, while the j*ub>tant: ■ 
which it refers has the article prefixed, hut that it is always a | 
or a-serts eomething of the noun, even though they ^iould both of 
them be in oblique cases. Anoth of the same princij 
that no participle or verbal adjective in -it. or -jmpk, can be considered 
M an adjective, unkaa it be subjoined to an article, in which cas* 
equivalent to the relative pronoun with a finite verb and a detinite 
antecedent. Etyinologically considered, the article, the relative, and 
the atlix of the genitive ease, are equally derived from the pronoun 
denoting proximity (§ 118), and the detiniteness which is implied 
by all three is due to the exp The ditbr 
bet ween the relative and the detinite artich as we have already 
seen ($ k'0, in this, that the former preser\ M I - .bjeetive form 
throughout all cases and genders, and has the ease-ending in the nomi- 
native, whereas the case-ending I of the nominative is wanting in the 



Chap. 5.] THE ADJECTIVE. 477 

article, because that suffix is appended to the noun with which it is 
connected, and the element -ta is used for the neuter and for the 
oblique cases of the masculine and feminine. Thus we see that the 
relative is especially subjective, or that its function, when it has a defi- 
nite antecedent, is to express by periphrasis a definition or epithet as 
distinguished from a predication or assertion. And this view is not 
to be qualified by the fact that with an indefinite antecedent the rela- 
tive sentence becomes hypothetical or virtually adverbial. Considered 
with reference to its origin, the relative sentence is necessarily definitive 
or descriptive, and its own true nature is not affected by the occasional 
circumstance that the antecedent, by which it stands in an adjectival 
relation, is an adverbial or general term : so that the definition is, like 
all hypotheses, in that case, of a frequentative nature. Thus, if we say : 
^(OKpaTrjs o? ravra idtla<TK€, dyado? y\v, we make a single predication of 
an individual specially defined ; but if we say : o? dv Tavra SiSdo-Krj, 
dyaddv vopityt, we repeat the predication of all who may answer to the 
definition, which is, in itself, as much a definition as before. Now the 
Greek participle active exhibits the pronominal form, which, in the in- 
strumental case, furnishes the third person plural of the verb, inflected 
through all its cases and genders, and the participle passive is another 
pronominal form, which, in the locative, constitutes the infinitive 
active, similarly inflected. Thus, tvtttovti = tvtttovo-i means "striking 
performed by an indefinite number of persons" = "they strike," which 
is merely conditional, for no particular persons are mentioned : whence 
the idea of striking in general is naturally deduced, and tWtovt-^ 
= tvtttu)v means "a person who strikes, if there is one" = "if he 
strikes ;" therefore the participle alone implies a condition only. Ac- 
cordingly, the verb, without a nominative, and the participle, stand on 
the same footing as mere hypotheses, which are not, though they are 
capable of becoming, assertions : in other words, they are merely pre- 
dicates without a subject. In the logical or syntactical condition of the 
Greek language, they become the predicates of a sentence, when a 
nominative case (which should properly consist of a noun with the 
article) is prefixed to the verb, and when some case of a noun (also 
preceded by an article) is placed in connexion with the participle ; the 
former becomes an affirmative sentence, the latter a dependent one, 
expressed in our language by the finite verb with some particle of con- 
nexion. But both the verb and the participle constitute not the sen- 
tence itself, but the subject of it, when we prefix to the former, not the 
nominative with the article, but the relative pronoun with a definite 
antecedent : and to the latter, not the noun and article, but the definite 
article alone. Thus, eWi/o? os Z&w-ti, "he who gives" = 6 2/Boi/t-<? 



478 THE ADJECTIVE. [Book III. 

{Itiovt) "the giver;" and hence it is that the epithet or adjective in 
the proper sense of the term is equivalent either to the verb with the 
relative, or to the participle with the article ; for 6 dyadd-* Mp*™-* 
is identical in signification with both 6 &v0 P *iro-* 3* dyaO^ eV™, 
and 6 aVflpcoTro-?, 6 eZ woyo-r-i (ttoiw). So that, in fact, the adjec- 
tive, which, from its variety of flexion, requires the guidance of an 
article, before it can be regarded either as an epithet i 'ive, 

that is to say, before it can be used as a subject, is to be considered in 
the same light with the participle, which differs from the verb only in 
having variable inflexions. Where**, conversely, when the adjective 
and participle stand after an article, and unconnected with any 
stimtive, they are substantias to all intend and purposes, for I 
variation of gender is excluded by the nature of the case ; and adjec- 
tives or participle., which have 1, H beg 0*ed in tl, 
regular HOfHM appellative, like the adjectives in -*»;• Of the word 7 cpopor, 

mentioned abore, otvrui prop* buns, Kkc \apm • *** lhe 

patamymki iito e d to in the tart chapter (ahore, § 2G:). 

:U)\ An application of these principle will enable us to elffll 
and explain all tl. Ml *f the Creek participle tad 

W, have seen that the etymological difl 

and sub-tantivr ■ limit- •! fee th.- ] arall. li-in of \t£ : > the 

former, and the participle, are generally liabl hown 

pjenerally that this is a torn utrivance* 

Of syntax. The main buMMM I I ■■ *■ handn, 

to distinguish accurately I wi W— I tiie nbj ><-' prvdic..- 

W6 haveVndeavourcd to -how in another | Arts - 

11)1, -11 !), that there are three different kind, or olMBH e*tee, 

which we have termed (A) J'rim.uy, when t thing b*4 

the subject and the prcdic. pressed or 

implied'; thus, in the BOSM worda "• 

filse" the adjective v I primary predicate ; (B) 8*3** 

when the predicate is connected with the subject Ik ■ hich 

alreadv contains I primary predicate ; thus, in the pttW 

; -\ t \iV"»-. "the W 
words which were >poken nn kWO CW 

of JUrym, fat, the utterance, an 

/<irv f i** Vo *»; I / "*«■ i» the second 

6180 there » On a ep r anticipation of a di-t 

of something additional ; in other words, when the whole oi the secon- 
dary predication is subordinated to a primary predication, which Itjfart 
to a different subject ; thus, in the pi 



Chap. 5.] THE ADJECTIVE. 479 

Se?5 Xeyei (Soph. (Ed. T. 526), "the prophet speaks words, and they 
are false" = " the words, which the prophet speaks, are false," we have 
the secondary predication ol Xoyoi xj/evSe?? Xeyovrai attached, by 7rpo- 
\r}\j/i<;, to the primary predication 6 pawns Xeyei, i. e. i<rn Xeywv, " the 
prophet is speaking." Now the vehicle of this irpoXriyjsis is the accu- 
sative case \6yovs; and cases of nouns, as predicating specially some 
secondary relation, are themselves secondary predicates. Therefore, the 
Trp6\r]\\si<; is rightly termed a tertiary predicate, and this irp6\r}^/^ is 
contained in the adjective v/^euSe??, here used in the accusative case. 

302 From this we see, that all three classes of predicates may be 
expressed by the adjective, according to different syntactical usages; 
but a primary predicate might be expressed not only by an unappro- 
priated adjective or participle, but also by an attributive or general 
substantive, as : pdvns ^v 6 KaA^a?, and by a finite verb considered 
as including a participle, as : 6 fidvris Xeyei = ia-n Xeycov. Again, the 
secondary predicate might be expressed not only by an adjective in the 
nominative case, as in the instance given above, but by a similar use 
of the substantive, as in the line of Homer (II. II. 673) : Ni^eus, os 
KctAXio-Tos dvtjp vtto "l\iov $\dev, where it is predicated of Nireus, not 
only that he went to Troy, but also, which is the main point, though 
the secondary predication, that he was the handsomest man among 
those who went thither. And not only have we the nominative with 
verbs which admit of this apposition. The oblique cases of nouns are 
used with all classes of verbs to convey the idea of a secondary pre- 
dicate; and we have seen that the tertiary predicate is a wpoXt]^^ 
springing out of this usage. If we say for example: 6 IZioKpaTris 
e^ei, we have a primary predication; for we speak of Socrates as 
having ; but the sentence is incomplete; because the transitive verb 
conveys no definite meaning without an expression of the object. When 
therefore we add the accusative case ^v^tju, we state what it is that 
Socrates possesses, and, however little we may be in the habit of 
regarding the fact from this point of view, we add a fresh predication ; 
for the sentence : 6 ^coKpaT^ e^ei -v/^x^V, is really equivalent to the 
two sentences : " Socrates is possessed of something, and the thing 
which he possesses is a soul." The accusative, then, is like the other 
oblique cases, an adverbium or eirippn^-cL properly so called; i. e. it 
derives its significance from and through the verb, by which it stands, 
or by which it is governed, as the phrase is. The particles, which we 
term adverbs, are merely oblique cases of nouns, pronouns, or adjec- 
tives, which express generally the time, place, cause, form, or manner 
of an action. It is this generality of reference which constitutes the 



480 THE ADJECTIVE. [Book IH. 

distinction between the adverb and the oblique case of a noun. The 
latter implies a special object ; the former is applicable to all objects. 
Thus we may say with reference to different objects, 6 ira?sr irardatrei tov 
ovou, or tov Kvva ; but we may add the expression of manner or degree 

to any such special Statement; as irarda-a-ei \<ryyp^y or d<ppovTi<TT<a<;. 

So also, a dative case expressing the instrument may occasionally be- 
come attached to the verb in such a way as to complete its signification, 
or to take the place of a in< -rely adverbial adjunct ; thus i wimm C l< P €t i 3 
virtually one word, quite as much as fjupotcTovu. T idiomatic 

will enable us to explain this >ati-fact"rily with reference to the 

predication quoted above. The i etantly need in a neuter 

. or the reflexive pronoun is dispensed with, whenever this verb is 
eonttnied with cv or any i d i mb in -u?. Tin:- complete sen- 

tence if * ^.wKpaTtjf: t^u wrnXm, " Socrates is (= has himself) 

well. To thil phrase we may add t: 

cation of a particular object, whkh will be expressed by the genitive nr 
accusative, according to the reference i If we-. inVrni 

mAim £X €t T *l v y i /v \ Vc ' fc*l immediate object oft B - 

- DM 1 j I — SOnl well." Hut if we SSJ • — uKpctTrj^ icaAwc e\(t ti/s 

yj/vxW' wc ,ncan that " I lure the 

i> donblj adverbial. The former of kheSS phnws may be 

equally weU by the eeasmonesl form of the wp& u plm * i 

dicate. Thus it" WO a tunned the jocular hypothesis, which the philo- 
sopher is represented as Baking hi his argumei • dlicles (Plato, 

l^Kpdrrj^ XP v<r 
which would imply, not only that M Socrates had a soul,'' but also I 
"the soul, which he had, was golden." This tertiary predication is 
particularly common in those cases in which the secondary predication 

Mimed in the very tonib o( the expression. For instance, > 
assume that rt Socrates had a soul," or that M a prophet, if he speaks at 
all, speaks BoreV But the same assumption in regard to the objec- 
tive . [ually obvious in those passages in which the unwary 
student is most liable to convert the ulterior predication intoanepi: 
Thus, in the description of the lines around Plata?a, Tim oaks 
o( the eircumvallation itself as aomethii | and assumed, but 
he finds it necessary to state that the E one wall 
being intended SO check the sallies of the bannged, the other to resist 
the attacks of a relieving army. lie BSJ1 [ill 81): 

. which most readers would be con* 
tented to translate "the wall had two circles," but which must mean 
that " the circles, which — as a matter had, wt r 

number." 



Chap. 5.] THE ADJECTIVE. 481 

303 As all additional references in a proposition are connected 
with the subject through the root, it is clear that they are all adverbs 
or secondary predicates, if they are in the same case with the subject, 
but tertiary predicates, if they are connected with some object of the 
verb, which is itself a secondary predicate. It is also clear that a verb 
may be the vehicle of any number of such additional and accessary 
statements. Thus we might ask not only " how Socrates does," but 
"how he does as to body," or "how he does in regard to health," (Plato 
Gorg. p. 514 d), and we might combine the answer to these two ques- 
tions in one proposition : KaAw? ex €l °* ^coKpaTf/e to a-wfxa 71-00? vyietav, 
where it is clear that the verb e^e* is assisted by three adverbs or 
adverbial phrases expressing the manner, the object, and the relations 
of the existing state of Socrates. To return then to our immediate 
object — the adjective: — as on the one hand, there are adjectives and 
participles, which have fixed themselves in use as substantives, so on the 
other hand there are many words with moveable inflexions, which have 
a confirmed tendency towards an adverbial usage ; and some of them 
are then used specially and in a different sense from that which they 
bear as epithets. Such are the pronouns and adjectives which denote 
separation, locality, quantity, &c. ; e.g. auTo's, /*oVo?, jueo-o?, 77-as, aAAo?, 
6Kao-ro?, &c. Not to trouble ourselves with a discussion of the usages 
of all these words, which would be necessary in a more elementary 
treatise, it will be sufficient if we take avros as an example of the prin- 
ciple to which we refer. It is well known that if avro<; has the article 
it is merely definitive — in fact, it merely strengthens the article. By 
a little emphasis we can make " the man" d dvrjp, equivalent to " the 
same man," 6 avros avtjp. When avros stands by itself and in an 
oblique case without the article, it is the pronoun of unemphatic refer- 
ence, like the Latin is or the Hebrew affix i or PT-. Thus tf yvvrj 
avTov is perfectly equivalent to uxor ejus or in^N* But if ai/ro* 
stands by the side of a noun already defined, and is not itself, by 
means of the article, included in the definition, it becomes adverbial, or 
serves as a secondary predicate ; thus 6 dvtjp <xvt6<s means " the man 
considered by himself," or " alone." The full force of this adverbial 
usage is perhaps nowhere so clearly seen as in the idiomatic employ- 
ment of the dative plural to signify a collective accompaniment. In 
Such phrases as irevre vav<5 eXafiov, kcu /Jiiav tovtodv avroTs avdpaa-tu 
(Thucyd. IV. 14), " they took five ships, and one of these together 
with its whole crew/' or "men and all," we see that the adjunct airo?* 
dvlpdviv is as much a secondary statement as if we had said, in a dis- 
tinct proposition, kcu 01 auhpes e\rj(p6r]<Tav wo-auTW?, 

Il 



482 THE ADJECTIVE. [Book III. 

There are many adjective?, which are used not only as epithets, but 
also as secondary predicates of place, cause, or manner. We have 
the first and third of these by the side of an epithet in Soph. - 1 
594 sqq. : 

to nXeiva JLaXafxis, <tv fiev irov 

vuleis ciXnrXayKTOi evcai/jitoif 

Truaiv ire p'«pavTO<: aUl, 
-where nXeiua is the epithet, and aXnrXajKTos the local predicate, 
whereas cvcai/iwu and irepl(pavTo<; are predicates of manner: " thou, O 
glorioofl FhhlWMj dwillc-t in the midst of tlie breaker- ever happy and 
glorious." Than predicates of manner are often best rendered by a 

primary predicate, as : M thoi art happy and glorious, where thou 

dwellest:" Thueyd. 111. .")<>: t-nep^aOi o. . ... M v 1 an formidable, 
when you attack." SomajimfW, this predicate expresses the cause of 
the main predication ; U in Soph. A ogvxo\o* ira?c 

o ApuavTus, # he was bound, taflMSj bs was so keen in his wrath." Id. 
Track. 936: 

ToUff 6 ircm cv<TTt]voK nvr ocvpuarttv 
I < ¥, 

v - tlie hoy, like B IBSBSftJ re as he was," or u for he was a mise- 
rable ereatnre." When tlie Greeks wish to express very strongly 
mixture of the manner and cause, they add the mere adverb to the 
adjective ; tin 

»/ KOKIK MMNM T(l<Ptj<TCt KVKTCK OVK < | Fllrip. Tf<>ul. 448), 

"once yon are s base . in a base man: 

ay* da duyarcp oirw* TO R --53), 

yon are a pretty lass, bear the basket prettily." [n the \ issage 

from .V.>eh. Agam, 1 1 i. explained ah i 

MWSS, and ra^viroeof the tnmn.r. The Latin writers imitate 

idiom ; thus Virgil. -A." 

gravis, grariterqne ad terrain ponder* Tasto 
Concidit. 
These adverbial adject i ress the effect of the main 

verb. Thus we have. Soph. Ai. 9 

rucpoc TtOnjKiv t) vi'icvc, 

avTta £« TCp~ 

i. e. M the etVeet of his death was grief to ine and joy to his enemies, 
but to himself it brought plsj 

So Kurip. J/ipj\il. 796 I 

Xwrtipos t/uiV toi >i*. 

Thncyd. III. 8 ra&Aot tVewifyci m 



Chap. 5.] THE ADJECTIVE. 483 

304 Cases sometimes occur in the Greek poets, in which there is an 
accumulation of adjectives about a single substantive, and their accu- 
rate or syntactical classification depends entirely on the proper applica- 
tion of the principles which we have been endeavouring to explain. 
Thus, to take the well-known passage in Sophocles, (Ed. Col. 718 : 

a B' evtjpeTjjios eKirayX* aXia 
X € P <T * 1 TrapaTrTOfxeva vr Accra 

6p(a<TK€l TWI/ €KaTO/Jl7roB(Ol/ 

Nf/or/Bcoi/ a.Ko\ovdos 9 
we have the following collection of adjectives, &c. all referring to the 
substantive TrXaTrj, either immediately or through the verb OpwarKei : 
(1) evtjpeT/jLos, epithet; (2) eKirayXa, adverb of manner; (3) dxia, 
local predicate = adverb of place; (4) x e P a ' l -> predication of instrumental- 
ity; (5) TrapairTonevrj, predicate of time; (6) <xk6\ovQos, noun in appo- 
sition, which virtually involves the main category of the whole sen- 
tence ; so that the simple proposition : tj TrXdrr] dpwo-Ket, " the oar is 
bounding," is expanded thus : "the well-poised (1) oar, when graspt 
(5) by the hands (4), bounds wonderfully (2) in the sea (3), keeping 
pace with (6) the hundred feet of the Nereids." This classification is 
of the utmost importance to those who would really understand the 
Greek poets. Perhaps the first scholar, who treated this subject 
accurately, was K. O. Miiller, in his review of Lobeck's edition of 
the Ajax (Gott. Gel. Anz. 1838, p. 1110. Kleine Schriften, I. 
p. 310), where he has applied this doctrine to the passages which we 
have quoted from Soph. Aj. 594, (Ed. Col. 718. He justly remarks 
that " we should separate from one another more accurately than has 
hitherto been done, not only in the interpretation, but in the punctu- 
ation also, the adjectiva attribute which are already in thought con- 
nected with the subject ; the prcedicata, which are connected with it 
only through the verb, and to which we must refer the so-called 
adverbial and proleptic structures of adjectives ; and the apposita, which 
do not come in until after the inner developement of the sentence ; and 
in each of these cases we should farther distinguish the subdivisions." 

305 Although all this is obvious enough when stated plainly and 
directly, and though the fact must be known to every one who has any 
pretension to the name of a Greek scholar, it is, as we have before said, 
very difiicult to impress these distinctions upon the young student ; we 
shall, therefore, make no apology for showing by a few examples the 
application of the principle to the commonest constructions in Greek. 
We feel the more justified in doing so as even the most eminent scholars 
have occasionally fallen into the mistake of confusing the epithet with 

Il2 



484 THE ADJECTIVE. [Book HI. 

the tertiary predicate. These errors may be divided into three cla - 
(a) When the commentator has mistranslated the existing text, (b) 
When a true reading is altered from a misapprehension of the construc- 
tion, (c) When, for the same reason, a corruption is left in the text. 
(a) The most singular blunder of this sort is that which Brunck, 
Blomfield, and Wellauer have committed in construing tf;<? tvirpagiu* 
awrripos in iEschyl. Sept. c. Theh. 209 ! 

Ileidap^ta yap (Vti t»7? EuV^a^/ac 

fxt]Tt]p^ yvut] 2toT»7po<r. aic' fyei Xoyo?) 

the meaning of which clearly is, " Obedience is the mother of good 
fortune, and the wife of Jove the Saviour ; such is the - The 

last part of the A0709 we find in another form in Soph. An- '■•/. 676: 

Tiov c' opdovfxevtov 
(rtaljEi ret TToWoi critifxad' tj riciSap^ta. 

Hermann in his edition of Aiutotkffl Poetic* c IV. § 16, when 

have KCM tov \6yov TrpoiTaytovKTTtjv irap€<TKeva<T€ y "writes as foil 

(p. 109): S dJrt a m uUUo 

actor e, unde prim* i, r twstitit, I ristotcles \6yov 

TrptaTaytcvKTTtjv cocat, male a Tiri/iut'/io <t Buhlio intellectum. So that 
he makes TrpwTayuivi<TTt]v an epithet, when iicate, as it H 

correctly rendered by Twining ('" lie made the du principal 

part of Tragedy"), whose interpretation is adopted by Buhle. On 
Pindar, Pi/t/i. V. ()}) : to xaXXhrnun tamjjpMM BawoMui nc\os -^apt€¥ y 
Btickh writes as follows : "junge pcXof KoXXwueo* -^apkv Xvrtjpiov cawa- 
vaw: MiWiviKov est adjeetivum ad p«J \ m. IV. 1(>, ftftque etiam 

XvTt'ipiov Za-navui' adjeetivum est ; " and his construction is adopt' 
Dissen. But, as we have shown in our note on the pssssg -tjpiov 

is put for \vTpov t SO that TO XvTtjpiov Ccnravdv is analogous to Xv-rpow 

Ka/jLciTtau (Isthm. VII. 1), and pcAoc -^aplev is an explanatory appo- 
sition: "the triumphal guerdon of hi- _." We might 
expect to find examples of the same inadvertence in l>r Arnold'.- I 
on Thucydides, for perfectly accurate scholarship was not one of the 
many excellences of that great teacher. Thus in IV. 8(>\ he Inns] 
ode d(ra<pt} raw eXevfltplav i'<>u<£a> €tr«f>epetv, u nor am I minded t" 
you a dim and doubtful liberty/' just as he had rendered the parallel 
passage in the preceding chapter: oot«ov ->;« ik&Btpia* iwiS ^ p t u r , M I 
shall be charged with offering you a false liberty." although the pr 
ing passage : rq* atria* ei'\ i^"u« -.--,' ;] bvoScucmmu is correctly _ 
in his version : "the reason of your not joining me I shall never be able 
to make out to men's satisfaction ;" for it is elear that in all three case3 
there is a prolepsis or tertiary predication — " no one will believe the 



Chap. 5.] THE ADJECTIVE. 485 

alleged reason;" "the freedom which I offer will be thought a cloke 
for meditated injustice;" "I do not think that the freedom which I 
offer need be the cause of any misapprehension." But we are more 
surprised to find an instance of similar carelessness in Dr C. Words- 
worth, who might have been expected to inherit a special regard for the 
position of the Greek article. In his Athens and Attica, p. 180, we 
find an extract from Philostratus (Vita Herodis Soph. 11): Ka/ceu/a 
irepi Ttav Tlaua6r]vai(i)v tovtcov rjKovov^ ireirXov fxev dvrj<p6ai Trjs veto? 
tjhiu} ypcKprj? <rvv ovplcp tw koXttio, which is thus translated : " I have 
heard this description of the Panathenaic festival : they tell me that a 
Peplus, more lovely than a picture, was hung from the ship wafted by 
its swelling bosom." Now it is clear from the passage that the ship 
was not wafted by the sail, but moved by machinery on the ground 
(enriyeiois /u^ai/a??) ; consequently, it was necessary to predicate of the 
Peplus that it was artificially distended, as if filled by a favourable 
wind ; and Dr Wordsworth's translation, which substitutes an epithet 
for the predicate, conveys no such idea, (b) In Longinus de sublimi- 
tate, § vni. we find that the first and most important of the five 
sources of sublimity is described as : to irepi tm vot]<rei<; dSpeinjfioXov, 
where the correction dlpeirt^oXov is fully justified by the parallel cases of 
evenifioXo'; and ixeyaXeTrifioXos (see Dindorf ad Steph. Thes. III. 1502). 
Instead of this Ruhnken has not hesitated to propose an unintelligible 
solcecism. He says: "Longinus, ni fallor, scripserat: to irep\ t<x<s 
votjo-eu dhpds eirriftoXov." Those who have objected to this emenda- 
tion have not remarked that it is opposed to the vital principles of 
Greek syntax. Conversely, Elmsley and purges, from not perceiving 
the construction, have extruded the article from the following passage 
of Euripides {Troad. 398): 

Ildpis S' eyt]fxe Tr\v AtoV, yt]fxa<; c"e p\t] 

aiywfxevov to Krjhos el-^ev ^ v °°M° £9 « 
Here Elmsley, following in the steps of Mr Burges, proposes to read 
the second line thus : 

ortyiafxevov ti Krjhos el^ev dv So/nois*. 



* Elmsley's note (ad Med. 416), is as follows: " Troad. 398: Ildpis 5' e W e tjjV 
Aios, yvnas 6k fin tnycSfievov rd k%So<: (recte Burgesius aiyupevov ti kt)&o*) elx' 
dv ev tofxois. Ita Burgesius, Scharferus, et Matthias. Vulgatam el X ev kv tefxois 
retinuit Seidlerus. Certissime reponendum eix ev dv M/ioi*. Noster Helen. 765 : tovs 
0eois ? X »" T»« «" <t>i*ov*, dpivTnv fiavTiKtiv k X ot W/iocs." Mr Burges has favoured us 
with a communication on the subject of his conjecture. He says, very truly, that the 
kv is indispensable, "as is shewn by Burney, or rather Porson, in the Monthly Rev. 
1789, p. 245," and that to obviate all difficulties, he would now read : HiydfievSv y av 
kZ6os el X *» kv Mvlols, for that dv is absolutely requisite. We have stated above our 
reason for dispensing with dv. 



486 THE ADJECTIVE. [Book III. 

Mr Burges says : " nihil hie habet articulus." It seems to us com- 
pletely at variance with the spirit of the Greek language to omit the 
article here. For a participle like a-tyu/xevov could not be a mere epi- 
thet, when used without the article, though it naturally follows the 
verb e^ei/, as the expression of a continuous result. With regard to 
the ai/, which is substituted for eV, we think, in the first place, that the 
preposition is required here ; and that the di/, go far from being neces- 
sary, would actually weaken the meaning. the matter was all 
past and gone, the only apodosis allowable here would be the ■ 
with av. No one would .say of Paris after his death, ^\ €v "*» " ne 
would have," but ea^ey uv, u he would baffle had." As it is, Euripides, 
referring no doubt to the humble conn- ween Paris and CEnone, 
makes Cassandra say that : " Paris married (aor. i. ■ . M one act) Jove's 
daughter; but by not having married her (i.e. if this act had been 
omitted), he thereby continued to keep Ins marriage affinity in the 
obscurity which originally \ (c) "We have removed 
a gross sola'cism from Pindar, /st/un. 1 1 1. 28, bj reading: Qvarov 
Xovrai fiiorov tc.Xoc, instead of to fSlov Tt'.Voc, in which the editors 
Bnqninwm, although the article is omitted in several M8& A.,1 we 
have similarly expunged the ai ieh Bockh had inserted in 
Jsf/nn. VII. 8ft Wh ioiiopov 6"wd<r- 
crat to yepat. In JSo ohylm, 489, all the odltOCB, So far as we 
know, silently accept tin 

dp' op$ov a'pets <P'i\tcitov to <tov M 
which is an indefensible BoloBolflD clear that the tertiary predi- 

cate ia mpitiMMwl by opBov, and t! row has no place here unless 

as an epithet to KOpa, which, from th of the article, it cannot 

be. We believe that the tfM reading is ^iATaVoic, just as we find 
in the reply of nicli follows: qrm Outjv \a\\c wlppaxpm 

(plXois. We remark in ptfflfalfl that we should infer from the word 
erctva'nfv in v. 503, that tl mid be equally divided 

between the two interlocut< re, 1" :ra and Orestes, namely, that we 
should assign to Electra. v\. id to Ores". 

so that he will begin his little speech with aSrm yap, just as in 
Again, in Bopt ~-) : 

tcai Trtiui Tt dy&vdpxai tWc 

ftfeo w Ayatbrt, A»r;V 6 \vp€ti* (iio< — 
all the editors (except Schafer. who proposes to omit the article) have 
passed over the solercism in the last words : and it is even defended by 
Schneider in his edition of Plato's Rmpubli . V 1. II. p. S1& and 
by W, DindoiC We read o Xv/icmtf clioi. The 1 -tands 

on the same footing with dwarum^ $<c. It i< the weakened form of a 



Chap. 5.] THE ADJECTIVE. 487 

participle used as a noun; for as we have air art], aVaTaw, dircrreuv, for 
aVaTaa)!/, we might have Xvfxrj, Aujuu'to, \i//*e«H/, for Xvjxduiv. The verb 
Xvfjictw does not exist, nor is the lengthened form Xv^awta used in the 
active by the best Attic writers; they employ only the deponent XvfxaU 
vouch, which is properly followed by the dative, as we are told by the 
Scholiast on Aristophanes {Nub. 931, Xvfxaivd/jievov rok neipaKioi?) : 
Xv/jLaivo fxevov, avri tov evvppi^ovTa, oi/tco<? Be aureus aiivr]Be^, ouy't, 
*rd fxeipaKia Xvfxaivdfxevov, irpos o Kai to %. (though Xenophon 
and others make it govern the accusative also) ; and even in the later 
writers, when the active Xvfxaiv<* occurs, it is construed with the dative, 
as in Libanius, IV. p. 350 : t« Xv^jvavra toT<? Trpdy/xaa-t. It is, there- 
fore, by no means unlikely that Xvfxeuv should be construed with the 
dative (for such nouns govern the same case as the verbs from which 
they are derived), and that the ignorant transcriber should not perceive 
it and write eVo?. A similar solcecism has been remedied by a similar 
correction in Eurip. Hippol. 683, where the Copenhagen MS. supports 
the reading ipol, and in Theocritus, XXVII. 58 : TotpLire^ovov iroirj<ra<i 
ifxo\ patios, where the common editions have ifxdv ; the final v, <r, i are 
very like one another in the MSS. If any one objects that au/xcojY is 
usually found with the genitive (as in Eurip. Hippolyt. 1068), there 
would be no objection to the emphatic ifxov at the end of the line. 
But the rule is, to prefer the facilior lectio, especially when it involves 
the difficilior interpretation and the transition from ep.6? to ip.ol, is 
easier than that to efxov. 

We might bring forward a great many other instances of the igno- 
rance or inadvertence of scholars with regard to this fundamental prin- 
ciple of Greek construction; indeed, the remark which Yalckenaer 
made, when he stated the rule, is still applicable — credi via potest 
quant frequenter in minutis hisce fuerit ah hominibus etiam Groece 
perdoctis peccatum (ad Herod. I. 180). That English scholars should 
not have observed this, after the publication of Middleton's elabo- 
rate treatise, is still more wonderful ; for, although that book is based 
upon a theory opposed to all sound views of the philosophy of lan- 
guage, it at least stated distinctly enough the rule that the subject 
is generally found with the article and the predicate without it (p. 53. 
foil. ed. Rose). 

306 The following examples will explain to the young student 
the influence of the article in determining whether a given adjective or 
participle is to be considered as an ovofxa, or as a pfjfxa. 'O fiao-iXevwu 
is a synonym for 6 /WiAeik, but /3a<riXe6oou means " during his reign/' 
" when or if he is reigning :" for example, Kvpos 6 /WtAeiW, is " Cy- 



488 THE ADJECTIVE. [Book III. 

rus the king," but ftao-iXevwv 6 Kvpos, " Cyrus, when he was king." 
'O AeuKo? 'i'tttto^ means " the white horse," but Xevno? 6 7Tnro<;, u the 
horse is white." 'O (ppovuiv is "the wise or prudent man," but So- 
phocl. (Ed. Tyr. SI 6 : 

^>eu, <pev' (ppove7v ok ceivov cv6a fxtj Te\tj 
Xvei <Ppovovuriy 

means " what a sad thing it is to be wise, in cases where it is unpro- 
fitable (does not pay) to be wise," so that the participle is equivalent 
to the infinitive ; comp. (Ed. Tyr. 863 : et lioi ^welrj <f>cpovTi fxoipa 
tclv €v<t€7ttou dyvt'iav \6yiav, epyov re 7raVro<r, ami Lvsias (de eterta 
republica, p. 1 74-, 1. 14.): ovk d£iov iru\\aKi<i -^ptjadai <rvuifio)j\oii o*c 
ovce anra£ e\vcrtTe\t]<T€ ireidoLkevois. II ficfiaitn X°P l * wou ^ mean "the 
lasting obligation," but the Corcyrc; it is their business to 

show that their gratitude will be la-ting," — ih ko3 rtjv x^P iV ftefi aiov 
e£ovaiv (Thucvd. I. 3t2), and thnfl tin y tell the Athenians (in the fol- 
lowing chapter): "thai by receiving m allies people whose dearest 
interests were at >take. they would confer the favour with as indelible 
a record as possible," ok dv Ltd\«TTa /jl€t deifjunjarov paprvpiov Ttjv \°P IV 
KdTaOcTaOe. The following passage contains a good exemplification of 
the uses of the participle, both as ovouia and prjLia ; Thucydidcs I. 36 : 
KOI brio Tclce ^VLHpfpovra fU \ty€<r6ai ^o/iclrai 04 ,c»'/ Ci' 

W€t0OfU9O% TCI? CTTTi . ut)TU TO f*(V C(CtOS O.VTOV y 1<T^VW €^0*, 

touc evairr'iov<: ficiWov (pa f Sf)<Tot>, to cc Qapaovv fitj cc^acuVou d<r&ct>(<: 
ov Trpos I rove wjtQpcm >>* €<to\kvov. Here it is ob- 

vious, that £vmP*po\>Ta, 7rt<t^v«e»'<K, «X°*S <po3rj<rov, te^aiievov, of, *o"^u- 
orrat, and eadjievov, are all predicates, the two futures being equivalent 
to infinitive mood- of the HUM tense, while to cecto\ and to Bapaovw 
are subjects, or equivalent to nouns substantive: the mealing is: "and 
if any one thinks that what ha- been said is for his interest, but is afraid, 
feet, if he Listens to our arguments, he may be induced to break the 
treaty, let him know that his fear, if it brings him Strength, will rather 
be alarming to his enemies, whereas his confidence, after having refused 
our aid, will be less formidable, because it will be weak as compared 
with his enemies, who will he - I d<p€<rTrjKOT€*: 

iia-^oi would mean M the revolted allies ;" aJ u rm t£v £i 

^o)i', "those of the allies who had revolted ;" but Thucydidcs. II 

~\ov Tt»v fi'/ijua'^wi' €ti tok ir\e'io<rtv ><ti means 4k in ad- 

dition to all their other enemies they kept their ground against 
majority of their allies, they haying revolted, r they had re- 

volted," or "after they had revolted:" not "who ha i .," as 

some people would translate it. Aristop! BO: 



Chap. 5] THE ADJECTIVE. 489 

va\ jua A/a Kctywye toutoi/, oti icevr} Tt\ KoiXla 
€<rhpafxuiu es to TrouTai/eTbi/, eira irdkiv €K0e? irXea. 
" I'll inform against this fellow, for going into the town-hall with 
his belly empty, and coming out again with it full ;" i. e. his belly was 
empty when he went in, but full when he came out again. In So- 
phocl. Antig. 360 : 

a7TOjOO<? e7r' ovhev ep^erai 
to jueAAoi>, 
the Scholiast and Hermann suppose that en ovlev to /xiWov ought 
to be taken together, with the sense eir ovlev tu>v neWovriav ; but it 
appears to us that to /xeWov is in apposition to the whole of the pre- 
ceding line, " in regard to the future, he comes to nothing unprovided 
with resources." At the beginning of the following strophe, the article 
is properly explained by Wex. In another part of the same play, the 
chorus, after stating that, when misfortunes once begin in a family, 
they go on till the race is extinct, exclaim (v. 594) : 
dp-^cua to. Aaf3$aKihdv o'ikcou dptofxai 
irtj/jLCtTa (pdifxevoov €tt\ irr}ixa<ri ttitttovt^ 

ovh % d7ra\\d<r<T€i 
yeveav yti/os. 
which signifies, " the calamities of the house of Labdacus, which I see 
in the act of being added to the calamities of those members of the 
family who are dead and gone, are only the old misfortunes resusci- 
tated and revived." 

These instances will be sufficient to show the natural connexion of 
the article with the subject of the proposition. From these cases, the 
student will be careful to distinguish those in which the proposition is 
convertible or reciprocating, such, namely, " that of either term taken 
as the subject, the other may be affirmed as a predicate" (Middleton, 
p. 54). In these last cases, which are, of course, not very numerous, 
the article either appears before both subject and predicate, as in Plato, 
Theastet. p. 145 E: dp ov to /j.av6dveiv c<tt\ to <ro(p(OT€pov yiyveo-dai 
ircp\ S fxavddveis ; (cf. Heindorf. ad Gorg. § 102, p. 491 e*) or is omitted 
in both, as in the aphorism of Protagoras : irdvTwv xpruxaTtov peTpov 
dvdpiairos. With the latter, we must compare such cases of tertiary 
predication, as Xcy6^evov epe<o (Pind. Pyth. Y. 101, which may be ren- 
dered indifferently "every body will say what I say ;" and, "I will say 
what every body says." Matthiee (Gr. Gr. § 264, obs.) quotes some 



• The instance given by Middleton from Aristot. JEth. II. 9 : kar\v tj dpeTrj v 
ydiKii /ieo-oTfjs is erroneous ; r\ nQiKi) is the epithet to »j dpeTt'i, and ^eaoVjjs alone 



is the predicate 



490 THE ADJECTIVE. [Book III. 

instances, in which he says the predicate has the article, but the 
subject wants it. In all these the predicate, as he calls it, is the 
subject, nor can we conceive the possibility of such a conversion as 
he supposes. 

There are examples, though not very numerous, in which the same 
word appears by brachylogy both as ovo/xa and as ptjua, in other 
words, it is written once, but must be repeated twice in the mind: 
thus, we have in Herodotus, VIII. 80: 7<r0< yap cf e^eo (icoievpeva) 
Toi iroievfxeva viro hltjctav, " be assured that every thing done by the 
Medes, is done by my advice." Thucydides, VII. 71 : W to dvti- 

fxaXov, (aviofxaXov) nut Trjv tTro\^/iv Tiff vavfxa^ia^ tjvayKa'(jotrro t^€i¥^ 

" on account of the inequality of the ground, the view which they had 
of the sea-fight from the shore was necessarily unequal al 



CHAPTER VI. 
COMPOUND WORDS. 

307 Analogy between the Greek and Sanscrit compounds. 308 Orthographic affec- 
tions of contiguous words in these languages approximate to compounds. 
309 The six classes of Sanscrit compounds compared with the Greek. 310 Pa- 
rathetic and synthetic compounds in Greek. 311 Parathetic compounds occa- 
sionally overlooked. Case of x/°o'j/w-k\utos, and \6yoi~ira\ai6<s. 312 Synthetic 
compounds. Their euphonical affections. 313 Accentuation of those which 
terminate with a verbal. 314 Compounds commencing with a verbal. 315 The 
signification and construction of compound words has sometimes very little refer- 
ence to their constituent parts. 316 The compounds 8iQvpap.(3o$, KaXo/caya0os, 
and evTeXe'xeia, important terms in literature, politics, and philosophy. 317 
(1) Ai66pap.(3o9. The termination connected with 7a/x/3os. 318 The middle 
syllable contains the root of Ou/i-cros. Explanation of this symbol. 319 The 
first syllable is the dative of Zeus. 320 More recent opinions respecting the 
0y/o<ros. 321 (2) KaXoKctyaOos. General meaning of the compound. 322 'Ay a - 
0os refers to nobility of birth. 323 Derivation of aya0o's. 324 KaXos expresses 
educational accomplishment. 325 Qualities attributed to the aristrocracy ; 

326 Connected with their social position, as opposed to that of the populace. 

327 Moral excellence denoted by KaXoKayados. 328 Also by the Latin gentilis. 
329 The word fj/>a>s as a title of rank. 330 Connexion of this term with Kvpios, 
Kopos, KovpiSios, &c. 331 Digression respecting Kvprjfios and Kvptj(3ta. 332 
*A/ot}s and vir. 333 'Avyjp = fa-w'ip and Nero. 334 "Ava% = \dva% connected 
with dvd. 335 "T/3/ois similarly connected with virep. Contacts between this 
word and Kopot. 336 Further analogies between nopos, dSpos, xXt5»/, opyij, &c. 
337 Konig and "king" not immediately connected with \dva%. 338 "Lord" 
refers to elevation. 339 (3) 'EvxeXex«a. Difficulties occasioned by a confusion 
between this Aristotelian term and the older word ev6e\ex €ia ' 340 Opposition 
between duvap.is and ei/TeXex eta « 341 Avva/xi? also opposed to evipyeia. 
342 Distinction between evreXix^ia and evipyeia. 343 Aristotle uses evTe- 
Xe'xeia to signify the absolute definition of a thing. 344 Signification and 
etymology of evdeXex^. 

307 /~\NE of the most striking peculiarities, and indeed one 
\J of the greatest beauties, of classical Greek, is the fre- 
quent and varied use of compound words by the best authors. 
Our own language cannot make the most distant approximation 
to the Greek in this, the German falls far short of it, the Latin 
still more so. There is, however, one language of our family, 
the Sanscrit, which bears a strong analogy to, and even excels, 
the Greek in this respect ; it will be proper, therefore, before we 
engage in an inquiry about the principles which regulate the 
formation of compound words in Greek, to consider the laws 
according to which this process is carried on in the old language 
of India. 



492 COMPOUND WORDS. [Book IU. 

308 A person not well skilled in Sanscrit always experiences great 
difficulty in distinguishing the words in a line of poetry from one 
another: the whole line will appear to him to be formed into one man, 
the end of every word being altered, on euphonical principles, to suit 
the commencement of the word which follows; in fact, as Colebrooke 
has remarked (Asiatic Researches, VIII. p. 201), it is au euphonical 
orthography, which consists in extending to syntax the rules for the 
permutation of letters in etymology. The same is ol a certain 

extent in old Greek inscriptions (Bockli. 1. p. 126). 

The feeling which gave rise feo this orthographical anomaly, and cer- 
tainly to the formation of the long compounds also (ess the instances in 
Matth. Gr. Gr. § 44-6, 10. obs. 3, c), may be kneed in the peculiari- 
ties of Greek syntax; for instance, that construction which we call 
attraction is the simpl- I ■ Strivi] _ \\ of Hm 

attempt to oo m p x cai the ni< laiag ol I sentence into a closely-connected 
group of word-. Hm Dnl J distinction, between a real compound and 
syntactical phenomena like this, it thai in the compound the sepaxste 
word- have BO entirely coalesced that the mfleotion ol the last word 
alone is regarded. 

900 The B aaa of i l grammarians have discriminated six kinds of 
oomponnd WOldl OX SSSMdEoa. Tlwv give the following names to the 
different Bpedei (pM Wilkin-' GfaMMRW, y. 556, folL): (l)«*J 

(2) UOjmrwka, (3) dcandra, (4) drvju, (5) bahurrihi, (6) larmmad- 

hiirat/ii. We shall consider tl after the other. 

Ill olaea, A OOmponnd of this kind i- indeclinable. Th 

membex is some preposition ox paxtiolaj and the last ii ■ noun termi- 
nating in the sign vi' the neuter L r < nder ; for in-tance. } l irnniL<hil'ah, 
"without ilies," from nii\ M without," and Wtaktkihl f , "a tly." A 
aimilai compound in Greek would be Ipenr. Someti: 
substantive appears in the instrumental or locative case, like tmtm; 
thus we may write either uj i-kumbha'n, or upa-kumbhrna kr 
"done by the jar," and either ujxi-kumbhan, or upa-kumbhe n'uU 
^ place it in the jar." This 1 like the government of a case by 

a preposition, which the San-crit grammarians repudiate, but of which 
we have found other similar instances : thus in the RamSyana ( 
we find nanu tc ah riyti, " am I not dear al 

liU >.'* prii/d api (M) prantbht/iis, fol jriy atari flWMy<i 
ritd aujhr car<i for 9%t4 cir - ictimes we have a bahurri:. 

declinable adjective, where we should expect the aryayibMara or ad 
bial compound : thus close by the passage just quoted we have, in I 
following pfti&ee, sabhdrya*\ ** with my wife," in the nominative case, 



Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 493 

and tarn aham spar^aydmdsa sa-bhdryam (accus. agreeing with tarn) 
patitam (jrecrovTa) sutam, " I made him, together with his wife, touch 
his fallen son." 

2nd class, or tatpurusha. These compounds are formed of two or 
more nouns, the first set being in some oblique case, governed by the 
last, which may be a substantive, an adjective, or a participle in -ta: 
the following are instances, rdja-purusha, " a king's man," hasty-a$va- 
ratha-ghesha, "the noise of elephants, horses, and chariots," svarga- 
patita, "fallen from heaven." These correspond, of course, to the 
Greek compounds iy^ea-i-jjiwpo^, Qeoa-e-^Opia^ irapQevo-iriirrj^i <rilr]po- 
fxt]T(op, &c. The construct state of the Hebrew noun represents the 
tatpurusha compound in the inverse order of arrangement : cf. TY7 ^?tf 
with raja-purusha. 

3rd class, or dvandva. This class forms substitutes for collections of 
nouns in the same case and joined together by a copulative conjunction. 
The last noun alone is declined, and is (1) in the dual or plural number 
according as two or more nouns are joined together; or (2) it is a 
neuter singular, showing that the aggregate is considered as one : thus 
(1) guru-gishyduj "master and scholar" (dual); brdkmana-kshatriya- 
mtf-fudrds, the names of the four Indian castes (plur.) : (2) chhatrd- 
pdnaham (chhatra, wpdnahd), " parasol and shoe" (neut. sing.). The 
Greeks do not distinguish the dual, but dvandva compounds are not 
uncommon in Aristophanes ; see, for instance, the long word with a 
collective ending in the Ecclesiazusoe (II69 foil.), and proper names 
like T«ra/jiet/o-Oati/t7r7rot (Acharn. 603). 

4th class, or dvigu. Collectives, of which the first part is a numeral, 
belong to this class ; the noun is either feminine in *, or neuter in a : 
thus, tri-rdtra, " three nights," tri-loki, " three worlds." The Greeks 
have no dvigu compounds, unless we can consider adjectives like hiSpax- 
fxov, ^tAtoi/a^Tr;?, &c, as belonging to the class. 

5th class, or bahuvrihi. In this class are contained compound ad- 
jectives ; the last part is a substantive, the first is any other part of 
speech. The following are instances, mahu-dhanas, -a, -an, "rich," 
from mahu, "much," and dhana, "wealth;" bahu-padas, "having 
many feet ;" mahu-mdhtangah vanah, " a forest with many elephants." 
These compounds are very common in Greek, as ttoAuttous, <pt\6na- 
Ao?, &c. 

6th class, or karmmadhdrya. This class forms compounds, of which 
the last part is a substantive or adjective, modified in meaning by some 
preceding adjective in an uninflected state. Thus, mahdrdjas, " a great 
king;" para-mdha, "a fine day;" su-mahat (ev f.Uya<s), " very great." 



494 COMPOUND WORDS. [Book III. 

The interrogative kin is also used in this sort of compound as an ex- 
pression of contempt : as kihvira, " what a hero !" The karmmadharya 
compounds in Greek are mostly proper names, as 'lepoaoXv^a, Meya- 
XottoXi':: in the poets, however, we often find them as common epi- 
thets; but the adjective does not always precede; thus we have 
6p66/JiavTi<; for 6f)66<: /jta'j/Ti?, Ti/^/3o^a><rT<K for ry/i/3os ^(dcto?, apt- 
o-dapfxaro*; for api<nov cipfxa^ dvcpocpQopo*; for dvtjp (pdapeity &c. 

310 Greek grammarians distinguish between two sorts of combi- 
nations : the one synthetic or organic — Kara avvdeatv ; the other para- 
biotic or unorganic — Kara TrupuOc<rii> (Apulloll. \)\ 310, 
Bekk.). The former is wh< K) combined that the fil 
them loses all inflexion, and the last word M the pivot o; ning: 
the latter is when both words retain their inflexion, but are joined 
together so intimately and habitually that they may be written as one 
word. The parathetie eoinpoimd i- a natural prelude to >yntli< tie com- 
bination, and we sometimes find wi 

sorts of composition. B trathetic compounds are often found in 

proper names, ai K wo**% u«, 'II taMrota ; in particles, as ovK€rt, to- 

TTptoTov; or in epithets, as vavai-KXvrus, ret^ca-i-yrXtjrrjK : or we find 

that, although the two word- are not abaohitelj lawn into one, 

the former hai SnJbnd - D9 its vowels on account of 

the weight of the word, so thai neither part could standalone: - 

WOraS :ire raa i<ri-irr(po<;, rcXe<r-<f>dpos y ocot-iropo* y and 

a number of word- : i 0*0*- for ('to?? (] 

Fortch. I. p. \\wiii. RinHSI, IX. p. 334), | 

;is Oio<T-€^0pia, Qto<r-CoTO<i, ( --wic, 

(W-irt'cno?, Qetr-iri-cirtta (in which the root For- oo . so that 

the word means u sajing again what was said to her by the god 

0t"<r-7rou)TO5 (r^fo?? irerrpu-fUvo^^ 6(6<r-<rvro': (t\ Otr. 

ad ~l'l$cht/l. Prom* ll(i), eVcr-^>aTiK, cW-ir<aj', 6l<r- In oe*a, 

0^oy3o9, Ara the breathing only of the first pad h aanufted : m 

TTopoc, fo-wopotf we have abhr 'ins of the old g 

tive. A verb combined with a preposition is not only a parathetie, but 
also a separable compound: at least in the older state of Hellenism they 

could always be parted by tmesis ; whan, however, a verb combined 

with the preposition assumes a secondary derivati\e form. I 
pound beoomCS synthetic, and such words a- - c, <rvt£ov- 

\o<\ ike. are one and indivisible, as indeed appears from the 
which the accent is thrown back (Apotteu, i). 

311 We must take this opportunity of pointing out two 



Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 495 

which have been erroneously interpreted, in consequence of a misunder- 
standing of a parathetic compound, which occurs in both. The passages 
are, Pindar, Pyth. XI. 32 : 

Bdveu fxev auro? rjpcos 'ArjOei'Sa? 
ncwi/ ^jooi/w-kAutous iv 'AjuukAcus. 

and jEschylus, Choeph. 641 : 

t6kvov £' €Trei<r(pepet %6fAOi(ri } 
SwfxciTUJv 7ra\aiTepcou 
Ttveiv jUi/Vo?, 

%p OVCp-K XvTtJ pv<T<TO<pp(av 'Eflll/u'?, 

In both of these passages the commentators take XP° V( ? by itself, as 
signifying " after a long absence," " at last." Pindar, however, would 
hardly have used XP° VI ? m * ms sens e> as he says immediately after- 
wards xpoviio <rvv "Apei (v. 36), and this meaning in the line of 
iEschylus would leave no tolerable sense for KXvrtj. But kAvto? is 
constantly used in parathetic compounds, as vavaiKXvTos, ZovpinXvTos, 
&c. implying merely eminence in that which is expressed in the dative 
case preceding. Now the particular always considered as most remark- 
able in Amyclae is its extreme antiquity, and the Erinyes are especially 
in this very trilogy of iEschylus distinguished from the other deities by 
their greater age (see Eumen. 701, 748, 810 and comp. TraXaiotypwv, 
Eumen. 833, with fivaaocppiov in this passage: also Muller, p. 181). 
Therefore, xP ovokXvt ^> as ^ might be written, signifies only ie time- 
honoured" or " ancient" in both places. The same is the case with 
the collocation Xoyw-TraXaids in the two following passages ; iEschyl. 

Agam. 1198: 

€Kfxaprvpr]aov irpovixoa , a<: to /j. eloevai 

Xoyia-TraXaid*; raVS' d/jLCtpTia<; h6jj.wu. 
Soph. (Ed. Tyr. 1395: 

W Yl6\v(3e Kd\ K6piV0€, KCU TCt TTOLTpia 

Xoyoo-TraXaia Zu>}xaTa*. 

312 In treating of the synthetic compounds we will first take 
those which have the verb element in the last place, and then those 
which begin with the verb. When two nouns are joined together 
we find them connected by the short vowel o, which is elided when 
the second word begins with a vowel: where the first word ends 



• This second passage, which was first adduced in our Greek Grammar, Art. 378, 
shows that Mr Paley was rather hasty in questioning the interpretation of X6y<a- 
iraXcuds in the Agamemnon, 



496 COMPOUND WORDS. [Book III. 

in i or v these vowels generally keep their place before consonants : 
the same remark applies to av and ou, and, in certain cases, to the 
liquids v and p. When the first noun has two pronominal elements 
affixed to the root the latter is frequently dropt. This is particularly 
the case with nouns ending in \xa-~- \ thus we have al-no-vTayrj*;, for 
u't-na-TO-<TTayt]<;, <rro-^~a\yla^ for o TOfAa-T-aXyla, &c. After the com- 
pound word had become so well established in nee, that its individu- 
ality was alone considered, and its separate parts forgotten, the fineness 
of the Greek car induced certain euphonical changes made with a 
to blending the elements into one mass. This generally took place 
at the point of junction, but, according to the principle before laid 
down with regard to the eli. :\ce in the aspirate, this eupho- 

nical change was shifted to diffi tbles according to the length 

and general weight of the word Om of the common changes wis that 
repetition of a liquid, of which we ha\ 

the ease with the p, as in wtptf fmm t Imofflomm, &c ; it also occurred 
vi rv fr e q ue nt ly vvith UM Oihet liquid-, M in uiroA.\i/7fir, '\w-ro^icmp y 
WapOtwo- In a compound like 'Iinrdcauoc euphony 

might require a lengthening i last short syllables, and 

M thi- could not take place at the junction, >\ here there wit no liquid, 
it is patted OB to the liquid n in the : ible, and thus we find 

'l-mrvca^mo<: (s .< >). This euphonic lengthening, how 

frequently happen- at the first syllabi -econd part of the 

word, when we often tind an a or < changed to rj y and o to •», as in 

the following instances, «Jif'rej*«K (ok/«k), cv<rt'jp(r^oK (fp^r/io*), ovvm- 
ptpoi (ovona), \c In some compounds it is a matter of indifference 

whether we lengthen tl. we may 

say indifferently m ^.u'iuk i . .<*. A case of the same kind 

is the lengthening of th I a compound or derivative word, 

as tjvopet} (dvtjp), a . and to this case also the last-men. 

tioned variation applies ; thus we have both r/\t<nc and Umil (Butt- 
lnann, Ausfuhrl. >//-.'. § 1 CO. Anm. 1). These vowel-changes fall 
under the head of juna; before fS and w however we often find anut- 
. as in Ti/'-fi-'raKo*', sfcis \ When the 

1 part of the compound does not l>ogin with either a liqu 
a vowel, we hud the final \ | an, which should pro- 

perlv be a short o, the medium weight of d, converted into rj I - 
and that too, not only in the case of nouns of th Vnsiou as 

X ot l<? nouns of the second and third declen- 

sions. -oXmrouoc, ai . o are distin- 

guished from ci by difference of weight only. Perhaps we have the 
dative, under the form i in aVpot^omr, ototwdpo*. 



Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 497 

313 When we say that some synthetic compounds begin or end 
with a verb, we must be understood as meaning, that they contain the 
root of a verb, or rather the crude-form of a verbal substantive. It 
cannot be too strongly impressed upon the student's mind, that verbs 
are never directly compounded with any thing but prepositions, in 
which case they are separable compounds. All apparently compound 
verbs are derivatives from compound substantives, of which the last 
part is a verbal root. Thus, from fiaX-Xeiv is formed the verbal /3o\ij, 
from \Wovs (3aXXetv the compound verbal At0o/3oAo-?, and from this 
again the derivative verb Xt6o/3oXe-ia. According to the accentuation, 
such a word as XidofldXo? might mean either " a person who pelts " or 
" a person who is pelted " with stones ; that is, according as the accent 
is on the verbal element or not. Thus, /jLtjTpoKTovo<s would apply to 
Orestes who killed his mother, but utiTpdnTovot to the children of 
Medea who were slain by their mother. There are exceptions to this: 
for instance, we find o/jtoo-n-o/jo? proparoxytone when applied to Jocasta 
as the wife both of CEdipus and Laius {(Ed. Tyr. 260), and to CEdipus 
himself, as the husband of the same wife with his father (460) : in 
both cases as a synonym of dfxdyaixos (Eurip. Here. f. 339), and of 
o/jLoyevti? {(Ed. Tyr. 136l); though it is obvious that this accentuation 
is applicable only when the word signifies " a brother " or " sister," 
as in Trachin. 212 : ftoare t<xv dfxdcnropov "Aprefxiv 'OpTvylav. A simi- 
lar want of accentual distinction is found in the word eVwi/iyxo?, which 
means not only "receiving a name from" (as in Herod. IV. 184: eVi 

TOVTOV TOU OVpeOS \_TOV "AfXaVTO^ Ot dvdpWTTOl OVTOl €7TCpVVfXOl €J€- 

vovto' KaXeovTcu yap Ct) "ArXavre?) ; but also " giving a name to :" 
compare Soph. (Ed. Tyr. 210: rao-b' eiriavvixov <ya? ohtaTva Bock^oi/ eiuoi/, 
with Trachin. 510: 6 6e BaK^'a? and fjXde — 0/;/3a9. Instances are 
numerous in which compounds terminating with verbals, and having 
only one, and that an active signification, are nevertheless consistently 
proparoxytone: such words are <7r7ro3a/uo?, tlvioyo^ &c. It is to be 
remarked that words compounded with epyo- are oxytone when they 
signify a bodily action, thus, we have Xidovpyds, yewpyds, &c. : but 
proparoxytone, or by contraction properispome, when they denote 
merely an operation or habit of the mind, and thus we have Travovpyos, 
•jravTovpyos, &c. Exceptions to this rule are found in paliovpyos, 
XiTovpyds, Xewpyds, which last is a synonym of Xirovpyds, and derived 
from Aew'?, not from Xcare, as Hermann suggests {ad Soph. Antig. 1261). 

314 When the first part of the compound is a verb-root, it gene- 
rally appears under the form of a verbal in -<n-, as in eyepaix ? ** 
AucnVoi/o? 5 or the vowel is elided, as in ptyao-iriSy vrXtignnros. Very 

Kk 



498 COMPOUND WORb [Book III. 

frequently, however, the shorter verbal form in « is preferred, the crt.de- 
form of which ends in 6 : as in «> X e-«a«<.,, tw*****, &c. ; M WIW 
elision, as in 0<>«<r™, where we have the lighter vowel . ...stead of 
the o, which we find in the lighter form Qopa. Somet.mcs the con- 
necting vowel is o or ., as in ^o-^x^ «VX'-*«P«- « 1S d,mcult 
to explain forms like X^o-^fic, «>».«h»V*. in which 
encd fom. of the pr.--.-nt ten- i- f- 

posing that, in thM w„rd.. I particular stress was intended to be 
on the verbal put of the WOfd. l-rms like Ta,««i-XP*<, 4"f- 
arc purely poetical. 

Slfi Bom times a compound >' * 

simple notion, and I ' "* ■ 

se (| „e„tlv di-re,arde,l. Tin- 

Si;- but n'tant "■ -..'...ty a..;. 

henoe, »,■ hm "• --» 

.A,-/,.. ' l 

compound h,-l,,„- in pa, «£"£ 

, w,r,U m 

:•.„,,•„•■( 

..and. I. The same rcdund- 

M ' ta I- 1 '"- - V ppe t£LI!\L. ~ 

,..„„, a- in th. tW 'T? 

and ...lor- ha WAo*. P- 1*7, .«>*> 

We have in-,an,-.-> ef t hb in - -«™« ■"? 

the.nea.e * S ^ ^J** 

for fa compound verb,- . ..T 

Mini, civ .emeani.e 

e„n-.rue,io„'aheredaceordin,lv. H " to • »U.. 

sl,„nld oov.rn th. ,'cnuivc e*»; hu, when 

I - h ia fdlowe d by the see — ti r e, as ... Sopbodes, sjm 

n.pound v ■ and 

without anv ease after 
0*00 Of the • /X " 

,Ho".na„ endued with wwUn : " * 

^.;- .;,«-,:-•■ i >■"«•«»■■• IS 

kuo.ledae him-clt." The eo.n.uon read "^Tof 

WWg. Similarlv. the con.pound verb i ■ ee*. Of 



Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 499 

"prevent, hinder, put a stop to," without any immediate reference 
to the literal signification of its component parts ; generally with the 
infinitive ; Pindar, Isthm. I. 62 : irdvra V e^enreiv — d(paipeirai (3pa^y 
fxeTpov ex MV v^vos' Sometimes with fxtj also : Eurip. Troad. 1145 : to 
SecriroTOv rectos d<f>ei\€T avTrjv 7ratda p.^ hovvai TOKpio (see Heindorf, 
Plat. Protag. p. 260 a). Hence it is used absolutely, without any 
accusative or infinitive, to signify mere hinderance or prevention, as in 
iEschyl. Pers. 428 : euxs KeXaivrj? i/i/kto? o/jl/jl" d(p€i\€To f " until the dark- 
ness of night interposed a hinderance," and this is imitated by Arrian 
with an explanatory addition (Anab. II. 11, § 5) : i; i/uf ov lid paKpov 
€7reyeuofxevtj d(p£i\ero avrov to irpos ^AXe^dvlpov d\wvai. 

316 On the terminations of compound words, we must refer the 
reader to Lobeck's Parerga {ad Phrynich. p. 487, foil.), as we do not 
mean to add any thing to what we have said on terminations in 
general. It will be better in this place to discuss, with some minute- 
ness, three compound words, which have given much trouble to philo- 
logers, and which are respectively of great interest in the literary, 
political, and philosophical history of Greece : these three words are 
lidvpanfios, KctXonayados (along with which we shall consider the other 
Greek words of a cognate meaning), and ei/TeXe^eta. 

317 (0 Ai0vpaim(3os. We have before expressed our opinion 
with regard to this much-disputed word, but as we were then obliged 
to confine our remarks to the limits of a note, we may be permitted to 
repeat them here, in a more expanded and systematic form. 

In analyzing a word which we do not understand, but which be- 
longs to a language, the etymological principles whereof are reducible 
to order and system, the first step naturally is to discover what is the 
termination of its crude-form, if it has any constant pronominal afiix 
between the root and the case-ending ; if not, whether there is any 
compound word, the last part of which corresponds to the word in ques- 
tion. Now, although the ending of hdvp-apfios does not coincide with 
any of the pronominal suffixes which we have mentioned above, there 
are two words which are strikingly analogous to it in termination, 
namely, V/3os and dpi-a^os. It is incumbent on us, then, in the first 
place, to inquire what is the force of the termination -a/*/3os. Nothing 
is more common in Greek than the appearance of fx before labial-endings. 
It seems to be a sort of anusvdra insertion, which is peculiarly agree- 
able to the Hellenic ear. The following instances will make the fact 
sufficiently evident. We have 0a- M -/?o<? as well as dad-pa (Oafpa), t£ 
dtnra; e P 6-u,-Bo<; as well as rpe^-u; k6 P v-p-(3o9 as well as Kopv-<pn; 

Kk2 



500 COMPOUND WORDS. [Book III. 

koV-™« (** oc6vru>v) as well as koV-tco ; «^H&** Sanscrit iMiir, 
as well as kmt-t« and ki/0-o« ; <tt P 6- } x-(1o<; as well as rr^ ; and ra 
Homer (0<fyM. IV. 84), a certain people are called 'Ef^fio^ probl 
the Indians, as the Scholiast writes : of ce to«\ 1»3om -n-apa to Iptfios, 
pc'Xaiwi 7 a>, o0« k«, KpaV,,* 'EpqwoM 7 pa>e«. If so we may compare 
the word with e-f>e>— » o>0-wk, o-ptf>a-v<K, cfqpuwt. By a similar in- 
sertion of/*, io-H^H « f,,rnu(l from the root of ;aV - Tal - bllt not wl 
the secondary HMMODg, wlo, | «-ople ha-- to it, namely, 

that of Bfttiriring lad abu-h j hocles N j • 496): \oyo« 

lairretu rtwa\ M to make a pVMJ the hutt of 01 £ "" 

oWfci, JEiobyL S »•)• I* ™ s ■■* P""* 8 * ' cck ' 

that the wetblawrm ifl merely another fan of far**, ' ■ whlch 

sense it is used of joining hand, in the dance, or of the dance generally, 
as in Sophocles (Aja.r, TOO) : 

(frdvtjff, to deuv xopoiroi' u 

oVuk /-»ot Nuffia KmMV <'<\\' ,; " 

avTocatj £vvtcv iav//»/c. 

The authorities which Lobeok hi I ■ Ml "'»t ( ' on this !***«• 

IMTI no doubt whatrver U U) the fact, that ttrrw : » the 

game MOM in which Wl haw X opov cwt, s0 ")> 

X( : /)(; | *nrr«« (AlktoplL Thtsmoph. 995), and Mlftr 

(Ovid, AK. VI 89). That larrm was used as a - ; *- T *» 

appears from the v llesychiu-. .v.VcmKi*. 

-«,-, Nshcre the ed ' *•! compar 

dty«. wpoMyy*™. **>•• 

" touching" v * thlOWmg 

ciently clear from the U * " wilh " aiul " foUow - 

bg after:" and that the * may 1 

the word wants the aspirate. ■ established hy the instai. 

Lobeck quotes : nannK \a. = aVoW^ir- 

compared with .\i'\\a>, and t>«Anft-0 cVnrijcwr; Itq *7>°- 

tij^i ; 6»m, Mm. Compare also the Peisian 

fiftm with the Sanscrit I 'W ■ t.» kind'. 

on tire." we may compare *Vr« with Urn "to bind." and 

bum," with &f/uuK and fapoc, and with Ul • phrase. M 

tire." From all this, we conclude t": i'b' a 

word designating a proce»ion or dance of people in otofl K by 

implication, a SOOg or hymn performed hy snch a body. 

318 Haying now ai I the value of the terminal roceed 

to investigate tiie ml of the word. 1 -t Ai^pai, 

only i name of Bacchus, the cod in whose honour the song Of hymn was 



Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 501 

chanted (Eurip. Bacch. 526), but also a very common proper name (comp. 
Herodot. VII. 227, with iElian, Var. Hist. VI. 2). We believe that 
in this use it was only an epithet derived from the song, the subject of 
which was originally the birth of Bacchus (Ajoiwou yeve<ris...%idvpafx- 
/3os \e7oVei/o?, Plato, Legg. III. p. 700 b), and we think the following 
considerations will show that the name itself properly refers to this 
mythological incident. The old legend states, that Bacchus, as soon as 
he was born, was surrounded with ivy-boughs, and so prevented from 
sharing in the fate of his mother. Thus Euripides says (Phoeniss. 650) : 
B^o/juoi/ evQa tskcto 
fxdrrip, Aio<? ydfxois, 
KKT0-O9 uv Trepi(TT€(pij<; 
€\ikt6s evdvs en j3pe(f)o<: 
X\ot](popoi<riv epveviv 
Ka.Ta<rKioi(Ttv oX(3i<ra<; €I'wti<T€, 
BaK^toi/ ^dpcv/na 
irapdevoKTi Ot]/3aiaicri 
k<x\ yvvat£\v Eu'um. 
"We look upon this passage as an approximate explanation of the word 
&idvpa/jif3os. The Scholiast says : ovtivo. Aioi/uo-oi/ /ao-o-o? e^udev wepi- 
7rAaK6t9 en fip€(po<z ovra Kara rod voorov eKCiXvyj/ev. lo-Topeiydp Mi/a<rea5, 
otj, K.alfxei(Di' (3atri\€tu)v KepavvaiQevTutv, Ktcrcro?, irep\ tovs Kiovas <£i/et<?, 
ii<dXv\{/ev civtov oVw? fxrj avdtjfxepov icai ev fxrjSevi to {3pe(po<i cia(pdaprj 
K<x\v(pOei/ Ki<T<j(jp. hid Ka\ TrepiKiovios 6 0eo9 inXtjdti irapd Qrjfia'iois. The 
following are further illustrations of the tradition, that the young 
Bacchus was enveloped in ivy. Homer, Hymn XXV. 9 : 
avTap iirei^tj ro'i/Be 6ea\ ttoXvv/xvov edpeyj/av, 
Zq tote (poirifco-Ke /<a0' v\t]6VTw; evavXovs, 
Kicraw kcu }>d(pvrj 7re7ri/KaoyAei/o?. 
Nonnus, Dionysiaca, IX. 1 1 : 

tov fxev vtrepKii^/avra derjyeveos tokctoTo 
<TT€Mxa.Ti Kio-crtjevTi Ae^wiSe? evreipov 'Qpai, 
io-crofxevoov KrjpvKe^. 
Philostratus, Imag. I. c. 14: 6 le AtoVixro? rij? Lieu fxrjrpo\ enQpuvtiei, 
payei<rr}<; Ttjv yaaTepa, to 3e irvp a^AuwSe? epyajjerat, {paiSpos civtos 
oJov da-Ttjp Tr? da-TpdirTaJv. Ziaa-^ovaa Be tj (pXog dvTpov tc tw Ato- 
vvtrto o-Kiaypa(p€? y ttclvtos rjSiov *A<r<rvpiov t€ /car Avh'iov. eAtfce? T€ yap 
w€p\ avTco TedtjXaa-t, ko.\ kittov KOpvpfioi, teat rjhri afXweXot koi dvpo-ov 
leulpa, ovtu) tj eKOvarj^ dvda-^ovTai t^<? yfjs, ws /cat tw irvp) elvat hvia. 
As it is stated that the Dithyramb was a song relating to the birth of 
Bacchus, and as it appears that, according to the tradition, the infant 



502 COMPOUND WOR]> [Book III. 

god was surrounded with ivy, it would not be unnatural to seek for 

some connexion between the 0„>o,, or ivy-staff of the Bacchanal- 

and the Dithvramb, which Simonidcs of CeOi calls K^o^opo, (fr 

205. ed. Schneidewin). The word 06p-<ro< evidently I the root 

0v P = 0pv, or P i, and the termination -<r*w, on the analogy of ™ P -<r<x. 

This termination, we have seen, implies a collection, as 

ao^ &c Now the 6vp-<ro<: < irroundcd with ivy and 

vine-branch.,., and terminating in I pine-con "P<" 

nyo&po* „ aptly de~cri 

cessary, in order to explain fully the ^niticance of tin- ■ymbol, 

honld ini Ihewhoi • }lus - 

As this would m toon* ; 

tion, that Bacchus oi Wmiyena, M ™ lh thc 

old Henna of the Pho ,u wlt1 ' 

Hermes and Priapae, wnei 
worship, [ike Beimel, liealeopw^W Hendlyinl 

ithone another, as DW 

*a\ ***** «rrV~ 

o-T«\r««, ical TOP *oXt>» • 

•an,! ■■ ■ lri ^ H ' % 

attendant! bearing stages of 

r m ^mral one pereon 
.i llv ,-and both these claseea 
were designated In mer. -it WM 

ternary for the suppiiani m fen hand an oft 

ed with woollen bands. And thus the Daaaldei an inttodnoed by 

i"'») M ■■&?■* « ** arnVal " <jrCe0e: 
/ ( cop cwi'coi -wpo<ppo*m* 

trn *p° l — 

ttippova puWov 

(XTTtTTOicri K\a60«*t*j 

Nothing conld be more natural than that ■ ■ *«»«• 

H, when ev.rv tWei.Mnr WM I - ba I pirate. Of, ^nerally 

an enemy amdwi l andti*.- ***JI 

Seek for some svnibol Of peace, -me token whieli would DJ 
inhabitants o( the eountrv that bit intentions were friendly. The me* 

obvious symbol would be the bonga of aome em ■««• 

being of course aome one of sacred use, the olive for instance ; and as 



Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 503 

fillets of wool were generally employed in the religious rites of the 
Greeks, it would not be unnatural that they should add these to the 
bough. In the course of time, when the conventional sign was better 
understood, they would carry with them a white or gilded staff, which 
they would surround with wool or foliage, as the occasion served. 
"This," says Bottiger {Amalthea, I. p. Ill), "is the proper and ori- 
ginal Ktipvueiov, the staff of Hermes and the herald, and the only one 
which occurs in the oldest writings and statues. By degrees, several 
slight alterations were introduced. In common use the green bough 
was confined to the suppliants for purification. Wound round the staff 
it becomes the Bacchic thyrsus. The bands, however, remained ; only 
they did not flutter round at random ; they were tied up into two bows 
or loops, and these bows gave rise to the idea of two serpents tied into 
a knot and looking towards one another." Hence, the Romans called 
the symbols of the suppliant supplicia ; Sallust. Jugurth. c. 46 : legatos 
ad consulem cum suppliciis mittit. These supplicia were boughs of 
some sacred tree {verbena) bound {supplicata) round a staff, so that 
supplicare does not mean " to bend the knee," but is derived from these 
bandages on the suppliant's staff (see Virg. JEhi, VII. 237, Hor. III. 
Carm. xiv. 8). This connexion with the caduceus, or symbol of 
peaceful intercourse between strangers, is, however, only a part of 
the significance of the thyrsus. Bacchus was not only a travelling 
god and the god of travellers, but also the god of generation ; and it 
is natural to suppose that his peculiar symbol would have reference 
to the singular legend about his birth. The thyrsus was of two 
kinds : it was either a staff surmounted by a cone and surrounded with 
ivy, in which case we might suppose that it was a rude imitation of 
Bacchus Pericionius, the staff representing the body, and the cone the 
head of the infant god ; or it was a bare staff surmounted by a cone 
which is wrapped up in leaves, in which case we must adopt the ex- 
planation of Eustathius (p. 84), that it was the heart of the embryo 
God which was carried to Jupiter by Pallas — rjv tou a>/?Aw>aTo? 
Kapblau i"ivejK€ (IlaAAa?) tw Au— and must, therefore, suppose that 
this heart was represented by the cone of the thyrsus. According to 
this latter view, which we regard as the true one, the staff and cone 
constituted the thyrsus, or emblem of the birth of Bacchus : the ivy 
round the staff or i/a>0»/£ was perhaps an adjunct borrowed from the 
ire P \ Ktova* <pve\s of the legend, and also imitative of the olive-bough 
round the wand of peace. We consider the root of 0u>-<ros, namely, 
6vp = e P v- or Opi-, to be the same as that which we find in dpiov.^ The 
word P i6/3o\o<; is used as a synonym to 6v P <r6<popo<i or vapdtiKotpopo^ 
(see the passages quoted by Lobeck, Aglaophamus, p. 813 sqq.), and 



504 COMPOITNT) WORDS. [Book III. 

Op'tarf™ appears in the same sense as c.flu/ja^cK ; so that it is at least 
probable that the elements 6>- and 6v P - found in these word* respect- 
ively, are in fact, as thev may be according to the b ymology, 
one and the same. Now the word 6 pi a\ d SOOthanj 
Which, like the dice, were probably need in triplet*, and perhaps con- 
(Hesyeb, Bp*%e* <pv\\6xo y( :,) ; Spta* me af of 
the vine or fig," and « an ofio wrapped np in roch learosj Beaychras: 

«,,'«. tf>u~.\A« *»««> ,1 0>reW ku\ re. & 

Both worda therefore an con th the numeral rpitt,— road 

»»**£ stands ai ■ synonym for rpSmm^ and 9fim may print, m this 

application, to the 8ha] 

perhaps, the C dM th, fine $p* K»* »f««* 

InTxo,. <V K>'re. In the plural, «the t 

going from the topmast toeacheideof the ship and toi 

The third prononn appean still ■*> m the rednph. 

Bjnonyni 

rothemystiealnnmber"*] 

i, a! . i to in the epithet tl ** 1 

wand which Apollo gu '• mMimtmr.UOi 

. rpurrni '£"» 

in the rpi'mrpn of whi De0r ' 

111 28), end perfume alaoii 
(Harpoeration,s.e.p.J Ifewn. s. n. p. < 

disconnected with 6 illaigniry "agaibei -aie% 

and that which they contain, at the end of a re as **?-*<" 

denotes«s torch," L« M i lathering of fire at the end of i 

L" Hartnng P** 0881 

. Iftheoneweroreallyabj 

we ehonld have 0o> --• • 

La, however, the dithvramhie daOO Jull. I oil. 

IV. 104), and as the i - :it l * 

connected with thai of swafe tavift, from which - 

a qneatioo might arise, wheihei the name of the . 

from the tnmnltnona clamonn 

ofBaoehnaj or whether it wna « mholical mean 

the Bacchic staff with its accompaniment- and this wonld 

inquiry, whether signified primarily the distinctm staff (cf. 

*•,) or the partv who horc it (c£ frW«K \ « 
siiion in the Latin ~~S* 111.117). In our opinion. 



Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 505 

we must refer to three distinct origins, the dvp-<ros or three-leaved, em- 
blem (dpt-), the 0<a-a-oQ, or sacred band (0ed<?), and the Tvp-fta-cria or 
noisy crowd (fy>o-, 6 'op-). 

319 The quantity shows that the first syllable of Ai-dvpa/jLpos is a 
contraction of A», like that of Ai-7r6\ia, A<-<£tAo<?, and Ai-awTtipiov 
(Bekker. Anecd. I. p. 91), and thus the whole word will signify "a 
chorus or song celebrating the birth of Bacchus," i. e. " the bringing to 
Jupiter of the dplov or leaf-enveloped heart or body of the god." The 
termination, as we have explained it above, is particularly applicable 
to the dithyramb, which was performed by a chorus of fifty persons 
dancing hand in hand (dWtjXcov eVt Keeping %€?pa9 e^oi/re?, Homer, 
Iliad XVIII. 594) round a blazing altar in honour of the sun-god. 

320 It is right to mention an explanation of the thyrsus adopted 
by some of the more recent Greek writers and by the Roman poets. 
They supposed that the thyrsus was a spear concealed in ivy, or having 
the point covered by the cone : thus Justin Martyr (quoted by Schnei- 
der): uienrep at (ia.K-^a.i did o-^^aro? e\pt]vtKod ret? Xoyj^a^ ev to?? 
dvpaois TrepKpepovat. Catullus, LXIV. 257 : 

Horum pars tecta quatiebant cuspide thyrsos. 
Seneca, Here. fur. (quoted by Schneider) : 

Tectam virenti cuspidem thyrso gerens. 
but Ovid (Metamorph. XI. 9) distinctly implies that the thyrsus had 

no point : 

Hastam 
Qua: fuliis prasuta notam sine vulnere fecit. 

and the learned Virgil says (JEneid VII. 396) : 

Pampineasque gerunt, incincttf pellibus, hastas, 
which he calls (v. 390) molles thyrsos ; Lucian, too (Bacchus, c. I. p. 
292, Lehm.), describes the Bacchanalians as: kittw eVre/x/xeVa/, vefipi- 
Sas evrjfjifxevai, Copard -riva p.iKpd e^ovcrai^ dcrilrjpa, KirroTroirjra /cat 
TaJJra, where, although he calls the thyrsus a spear, he does not give it 
a point ; and Diodorus (III. c. 64) distinctly says that they sometimes 
had spears covered with ivy "instead of thyrsi:" dvaSildvai ydp rale 
/3aK^ai? ovt) tux dvpvtav XoyX™ T< ? KtTT( ? K«a\u/i/wei/a« Trjv aKp.r}v 
toZ ailtjpov. So that it appears probable that this notion of the thyr- 
sus was a misconception resulting from a legend, that the covered spear 
was sometimes substituted for the peaceful emblem of the Bacchanalians. 
The vapdrig itself would be much too light for a spear-shaft. 

321 (2) Ka\oicdya96s. The general meaning of Ka\os Kayadd* 
has long been well-known, and Englishmen are in the habit of con- 



506 COMPOUND WORI) [Book III. 

gratulating themselves that their word, "gentleman," is the only modern 
term which precisely expresses the meaning of the Greek compound ; 
an opinion in which foreign writers seem, on the whole, to concur. 
But it does not appear to have been ^ati-factorily shown how a com- 
bination of these two simple adjectives came to denote such a complex 
idea, nor have tin- moderns sufficiently dial n the poli- 

tical and moral use of the word. Foi in-* gteatoet and 

most learned of our theologi -cs that the use of KaXoKuyaQla, 

to signify moral perfection, is derived from the literal ml lean- 

ing of its two co m ponent part-. "Thai which is good in the a< 
of men," -ay- Hooker (Ecclsiiatt. P 'I 

not only delight as profitable, but a- amiahle also. In whieh con- 
sideration the Grecian- moat divinely ha to the a 
feetion of men, a name J and goodness; because 
goodness, inordinary speech, i-, fof t irt. applied only lo that 

which is beneficial.'' Writers <>f our own tin. 

vague and genera] inter] I will 

not he uuuh ieable to ■*— ""^ a ith mora minntenaai than has gene a 

been done, what i- the primary mcanii 

and a irhat is tl 1 as a pel. 

term, and what its application as a moral epithet. 

528 With -econd idjeeth . little remains to 

be done: Welcker, in his admin 

foil.), has collected nearly afl the passages beari-j <>n tl 
has clearly shown that the Gh 

the Latin /<</■ /natts y and tl. I 

auU Mii/i nti<\ and Horn won Rtchtt, are 

name- of the noMes. the men of rank, and of good family, in a - 
To which, in (. .. as epithets of the common pi 

are regularly opposed ; an opposition which ha- taken such deep root, 

that it i- ereo preserred in oo m po nn d MiKoVar^o \ 

<)), and Kouwyetrmv (SophocL Pkiloct, the bat « 

AVeleker write- a- U lion - Ii/win. Mti.< .rum 

is a low-l>orn, common > . </ poor mitirc dwelling by a man of 

the noblest extraction, whieh is also mentioned v. ISO: 

oTku 



• Thus Fassow says {Mrlttmu I in .E*r*y/i* Prrtas, p. 31. ed. Back): 

"Interior civilis bcllictrjue prudenti* eonecntus, qui tub nomimt Ka\o*ay*6imt umo 
voaibulo compU\: k still looter ^S«« Pkilol* Mus.l. 

I 



Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 507 

In the verses below, the low-born native finds his opposite, when the 
chorus says : vvu h dv^ptav dyadwv 7ratc)o<? v7ravTtj<ra<;" In the same 
political sense as ol dyaQol, the Greeks used ol eo-OXoi, ol fieXrlovs, rd 
fieXTio-rov, ol /SeAno-TOi, as opposed to the B^/xo? (Xenophon, passim). 
An older word of the same import was d^aTa (ActKwye?, dyadd. Hesych.), 
% ao? ) X a '°' ? > X°"°S whence, according to some, the names of the 
Achaeans ( = dya6ol, dpiaTrjes. Muller, Prolegom. zur Mythol. p. 291. 
Comp. Journ. of Educat. III. p. 87. Philol. Mus. II. 88; see however 
Phil. Mus. II. 367 : above, p. 143), and Chaonians (Welcker, ad Theogn. 
p. xxviii. note) were derived, just as the name of the Goths was derived 
from got/is, goda, "good," (Savigny, Gesch. Bom. Rechts. I. p. 194). 

32.3 The derivation of dyadd? is a great stumbling-block to 
etymologers. Bopp would connect it with the Sanscrit agddha-s 
"deep" (Vergl. Gramm. p. 411); this we consider undoubtedly erro- 
neous. Pott's suggestions* {Etymol. Forsch. II. p. 299) do not merit 
the slightest attention, nor can we say much in favour of Passow's 
derivation from dyav. We consider the first letter to be one of those 
moveable initials, of which we have already spoken more than once, 
and we class all the following words together; d-ya-66i, v-yd-deo?, 
7r/-0e'o>, d-yavds, d-ya-pat, d-yaio-nai, d-yav-pos, yav-pos, yav-pidw^ 
Latin gaudeo, yd-vos, yct'-i/u/ju, yaleiv, yadtddas (ripiaos ovofxa o? net) 
toJv KarcKpevyovTcts eU avrov pverai en davdrov, Hesychius), yaSeu/, 
ydceadai, yacew (x a /> a > Hesych.). The meaning which runs through 
most of these words, is that of "pleasure," "joy," "delight:" d'-ya- 
fxa h into which the idea of "wonder," &c, frequently enters, derives 
this meaning from a primary one of pleasure, for the wonder im- 
plied is always considered as a pleasurable sensation ; and the word 
really signifies in an infinity of passages, as well in the most ancient as 
in the more recent authors, "to be pleased with," "to delight in," "to 
think highly of." We have before shown how the synonymous root 
X°--p~ derives all its meanings from the primary one of " containing ;" 
thence, "support," "firmness," &c. W r e find this root with a set of for- 
mations corresponding in the main to those of the root ya-. The primary 
meaning of the root x a ~ or X a ^ * s "containing" (x«- w > X a * mmq > &c 0» 
thence, "firmness," "hardness," the earth (xe-/o-<ro<?, x°-p^9 X w '-/ ,a > &c 0> 
thence, help or assistance in battle, and pleasure in such assistance 
(^a'-pi?, &c), then it becomes the epithet of a person who can so help 
us (^»/o-*/jioc), and finally of an order in the state, composed of the best 
warriors or chief men (xpno-rot, &c). To this last meaning belongs 



Surely he is joking when he proposes to consider it as a compound of dyav 

ar\f\ ifrtfirr /i/icf 



and KaQaposl 



508 COMPOUND WORI-- [Book III. 

the old word x a °* ( or X ai6 *> Lobeck, Phr>m. p. 401), where the ter- 
mination -po* is omitted. Similarly from -/«-, w e have the primary 
idea of finnnttfl or support, I fo«**> 7»7); assistance in battle 

(as in the patronymic ya-Btaoat), joy, pleasure in general (in m< 
the words quoted above) ; and tb pithet of a warrior, a person 

able to help in battle, and the upper class was com- 

posed of such warri lhat 

the roots 7a- an<l \ i-ntical. tln-u-li tbil ■ BOl imp 

b, however, bnportont ko obeem tin- hea - 
tions. Theoleoi of nob* stoned ; 

( , lln , only tb, brnverr, winch m op jualifice- 

tions, bat a!-, thcil . I dm ent, which WM another, | ^o< 

beota i: ■•■■•- Heeyehiej I , i. ■J"**) 

rightly definei the epithet m bj j ownliii 

-l, r:1 og," "fPOBt" (in SophooL 

plain J"* 1 lik ' 

in Latin. AjMthei ofcrioOl «l'ial ' 

thai we find u r/Bonyme fce tb - eeelnAei 

nd (because it we- 

p a hot* P '■■'■ I V - 5)* 

Jtutoi (I. 5), end Wfnlfth ■ called 

In oppoeitioe to them tormo, the bwei orders are celled 

n ,l toes, in tl Aristodemus, es reported by Alcorne, 

__»j t mu hat 1na.l1> the man. th.ro wes no goodness 11 

in the pe 

t/ , ■■„... II. t, in tin* matter of wealth, that • 

man might be n ally a gentl BBml have inl OB, eo 

that (he oibet qnmKtiei of the eoblee are peeeen 

implying opulence. Fee inetea \^amtmn. 1010) we 

read; Mwrwr^j 

A.iietotk [R I H 

TO* 

■ n the titln i, 8u . whieb they received, the nobles m U*m 

torn the lands whieh kl P*j from their ooev 

epienonfl posttioa i .tabke. 

39 [ The onjeotft XN bieh bee the peimltima long in Homer 

and the old epic ports, ■tend* I 

ic«r-Mat, Nvhom th,S 



Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 509 

etymology is due, justly remarks (Lat. Syn. und Etym. III. p. 38) 
that it may be compared to iavos for eacWs, and the more so as Ba does 
not belong to the Greek ecphoneses : and in another place (III. p. 97) 
he shows that ica-Aos and kow-i/os (KaUw-fxai is the ordinary form of the 
present for KeKao-fxai) are connected, as canns, candidus with re-cens, 
and as Bet-i/o? with het-\6s from 3ei3w. It is possible that Ka\o$ may 
have been written originally with a doubled A like kccAAo?: compare 
hellus for benulus. The primary meaning of the word is in strict ac- 
cordance with this derivation ; it signifies, " furnished with outward 
adornments," in general, " that of which the outward form is pleasing," 
and thus it is regularly opposed to al<r%p6<;, especially in Plato (Hipp. 
Maj. 289 a. Protagor. 332 c. Sympos. 183 d. &c. &c), and cucr^oo? 
K<z\ kciko<; is opposed to k<zAo? kcu dyados (Plato, Sympos. 201 e). But 
to the Greek notion of kciAAoc something beyond mere outward garnish- 
ing of the person was required ; it was not a languishing beauty, a 
listless though correct set of features, an enervated voluptuousness of 
figure, to which the homage of their admiration was paid. It was the 
grace and activity of motion which the practice of gymnastic exercises 
was calculated to promote — the free step, the erect mien, the healthy 
glow, combined with the elegances of conversation and the possession 
of musical accomplishments ; it was in fact the result of an union of the 
ixovaiKtj and yv/xvcHTTiKt], of which their education was made up. It 
was this that constituted beauty in the Greek sense of the word — the 
educated man alone was considered kceAck; thus iEschines says (in 
Ctesiph. ad Jin.): iraicela, y Ciayivuta-KOfxev ra Ka\d kcu ra ala^pa^ and 
in the Attic writers in general this adjective is used as an epithet of 
persons distinguished by their accomplishments (see the passages quoted 
by Heindorf ad Plat. Hipp. Maj. § 1). Now the people of rank and 
wealth were always then, as they are now, most able to obtain the 
advantages of education ; they had more leisure than the common people 
to devote themselves to those exercises which were calculated to pro- 
duce grace and ease of motion and the other accomplishments necessary 
to the gentleman ; and as the aristocracy, like the knights of the middle- 
ages and the duinhe-wassals in a Highland Clan, owed much of their 
reputation for superior valour to their being better furnished with arms, 
and, from leisure and practice, more skilled in the use of them, so they 
derived their superior accomplishments in music, dancing, &c, from the 
same source ; the best dancer and the best fighter were synonymous, the 
first in the chorus and the foremost in the battle array were the same 
persons, they were the nobles, the pre-eminently Ka\o\ ku\ dyadoi It 
was from this that they are called ^a/neWes, and the same idea is 
clearly seen in the use of udo-po? as an old political term. 



510 COMPOUND WORI' [Book HI. 

325 If there were any doubt with regard to what we have just 
stated, it would be removed by the following passages. In fact the 
Ka\ol Kaya0o\ are actually described according to this definition by 
Euripides (/on, 598): 

ucroi ci -^ptja-Toi, cvvdfxtvo'i T tlvai <ro<pot y 

where xf"i <Tr< r name for the dyaBot, and 

Ivudfxevoi elvai ao(poi exj it facility of acquiring knowledge and 

accomplish menta by the attainment of which the nobles became xa\oL 
Again, in thfl MOM author (Ahmti^ 6 

TO yap tvytvft tK<pep€Tai *pd* ulcus, 

irdvT IvfcfTiv <ro<p'ia.K. 

Here the cdim i- that sense of honour which is the natural accompa- 
niment of gentle blood, end lo which the nobles owed their innate 

valour; tlm- Aja\ says (Hi >\): 

*fl cpl\oi dvfpCK €<tt€ xa\ a'. 

ci\\> Kara *pu- ^vxxk, 

I ! pmv k XeoVec adoi rje we<pmrrat t 

opwrai ovt* tk a 

and Archid.imn-, in Thucj I. 84), dil attributes the 

i the possea o i i quality: 

"OUl akes US ■ iltm* vmfpo- 

o-uvf/f ,yj is used 

M I q B n\ m f.a B&K, fcfl i: 

I .' a ^ v ¥ rj * Opdvop 
■ ovvff wtptppoyas \oyiwv— 

W« Uke thil opportune lining a passage in Pindar (Olymp. 

VI 1. 14), wb HOD, mi-led by ti S ast, hava 

mietaken the bobm i Pindar i- oayng that valour (apcrir) and 

usefulness in battle y that sense of honour 

) which springs from provident foresight, from carefully look- 
ing |o the OOMOqnBBOSJ Of inattention to the raleo which regulate 

the conduct of honourable men (vyxuu/rVi*): he expresses the s 

ment tin 

cr C 

flprnvuiai Ilpi 

We have written the la- :als, because the quali- 

tie- .ire per-onined. 11 here is not |Im Titan, but the more 

general word equivalent to wporota or </>/)orff<TK (see Wolckcr, 7W/<y. 



Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 511 

p. 70, note), and Ai3a»s is called the daughter of Upo^dev^ by an alle- 
gorical genealogy similar to that in iEsch. Sept, e. Theb, 208 (above, 
§305): 

YletOapx'ia yap ecrrt Trjs "Emit pa£'ia<s 

fXtJTrjp, 71/1/77 SaJT^OS* 0)3' €%€l A0709. 

" Obedience produces good fortune, and helps men as much as the pre- 
serving Jupiter." The passage in Pindar is introduced as an old saw- 
like this (co3' e-^ei Xoyos), and should perhaps be printed between in- 
verted commas like many other aphorisms in that author. The stress 
is to be laid upon the word Tlpofxadeos, the fact spoken of being only 
the want of care on the part of the Rhodians, in not offering burnt 
sacrifices to Zeus and Athena. 

326 As the wealth of the nobles enabled them to provide them- 
selves with a more expensive panoply, to appear, in fact, as heavy- 
armed men with the copv kcu £'«pos kcu to naXov Xaiaijiov 7rpo/3Xt]aa 
XpwTo's (Hybrias ap. Athen. p. 695 f), arms which the poorer classes 
were unable to buy, and which they were not generally even permitted 
to possess (see Thucydides, III. 27), and as their leisure allowed them to 
acquire skill in using their arms, and to spend most of their time in the 
open air, which was essential, in their opinion, to the full developement 
of the bodily powers, all these attributes would become mixed up with 
the definition of a man of rank, and by taking a part for the whole 
might be considered as constituting his definition. On the contrary 
the poorer people were taunted with epithets derived from their seden- 
tary employments, which took away from the grace of the person; thus 
Aristot. Polit. VIII. 1 : S10 tci<? re rotai/Vct? re^i/a? ocrai to o-co/xa mapa- 
(TKevd^ovcri x e ^P ov ^ lUK ^ cr ^ at fiavavo-ov? KaAoi/juei/, — and with their in- 
ferior armour; thus Sophocles makes Menelaus say to Teucer (Aj. 
IO96): 6 TofoT»/? eoiKev ov a-fxiKpov <}>poveTv, to which he answers, ov 
yap fidvavaov tt]v t€^^«/ e kt n <t d fxt]v ; for although the light-armed 
troops were necessarily composed of the lower order of people, yet all 
these were not /3dvavaoi ; at least Aristotle says (Polit. IV. 3) : kcu 

twi/ eviroptov 6e kcu twv d-rropuv to fxev ottXitikov to 6e cu/ottAoi/, Ktt\ TOV 
fxeu yeiapyiKov ci]fxov opwfxeu cVra, tov V dyopaTov, tov le fidvav- 
<rov (see the defence of the bow in Eurip. Here, Fur. 188 sqq.). 

As a political term, then, kc*\o? K«yaQ6<t implied no particular 
moral excellence : it is merely the name of the upper class, " the accom- 
plished and well-born," as opposed to the S^aos (Thucyd. VIII. 48. 
IV. 40). Hence, the Scholiast on Aristides (III. p. 446. Dind.) says : 
ol fxeu ydp riaav kcl\o\ kcu dyado\ oi KaXovfxevot 6Xtyap X ^oi, 01 cV 
ZrifxoTtKoi. Sometimes, indeed, it would seem to imply nothing more 



512 COMPOUND WORD [Book III. 

than good descent, as when Herodotus uses it as a synonym for Piro- 
mis (II. 143). 

327 The application of this compound to denote moral excellence is 
thus explained by Aristotle (Polit. I V. 8.3): ow'tWi ce naXeTv — t« irpo* 
Trjv oKiyapx'iau fxaWov (a7ro«c\i»>oi/crac) a.pi<TTOKpa.Tia<; Cia to p.a\Xov 
aKoXovOcTv TTuicelav KOI evyevttav tok euiropuTepois. cti ce co»coi/<ni» 
€X CIU °* cvirop 01 ** v tvtKtv ol aciKovi/TCS aciKovariv' 66ev »cai uaVoiIc k a- 
yaOoit K(i\ yvtap'ifiovs toi/'tow? irpovayoptvovatv. The ph 
however, bM r<\ <r~< <1 tin' natural order, for the rich were not 1 
%dko\ KayaOo) on account of kheu icspootsbfli . the 

Dame of the u ]>]»«■ r classes, from their gei 
be used M ■ synonym fur " respectable." A m 

have been the nse ofsVieucq , as ■ synonym fat • it was 

because the hitter cia— <•-, baling DO temptation! like their J 

brethren, abstained fr<»m those rioss which ntirnnttrn opini 

I, that tie ir regular name becan I good 

! oondnct : thns Aristophanes says (A* i rmv woktrm* - 

KOAovi t< K'lynl'oi/c- <rm<Ppowat artyM? 

o»/Trtc *■«'. . and r.M-hines oppo> ' siph. 

(TOT %¥ 

Pot this sense of 0ovA<k, see 
Thucyd, ^TL 18 1 

Klirip. llirc/i. YTi TO <?Htv\oTtpov «eoiu<T* -^ 

PlatOj R a* IV. sW» «V roU »« 

ri k The oWet I il good descent 

really proved the | of moral excellence, though ieved 

in the transmisStOO of link, and so forth; they looked only t 

advantages whicfa the I -see possessed; they would have had 

little sympathy foi the Christian chivalry which adorns the enthusias- 
tic pages oi' Mr 1>:_ . full.); and though Theognis 

and the advocates of the as in-til into their readers 

or hearers that goodness was innate in the nobility, their 

rejected by the domo crat ioa l >pirit oft! reece, 

and overthrown by the philosophy of Socrates; so that after all 
only succeeded in U D the philosophical VOCnlmlni I the 

old titles ol rank, of which the original political meaning was, as we 
see from Aristotle, soon merged in the 1 

326 Ifnoh the same has been the fate of the Laftttl JWSifiVll This 

word originally signified "one wfa 1 patrician geti 1 

in fact, l patrician, and from this it has gone through the Italian ^mi* 



Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 513 

tiluomo, the French gentilhomme, to our " gentleman," a word which 
combines the old political meaning of rank with an expression of those 
moral and social qualities, which we consider, though generally found 
along with rank, to be attainable by every one. The adjective has 
diverged in our language into two, namely, " gentle," expressing the 
moral meaning ; and " genteel," conveying the idea of rank. 

329 The word ijpuv;, in its old Homeric use, did not iniply any 
deification or super-human qualities ; it was merely a title expressing 
military pre-eminence applied to all the heavy-armed fighters men- 
tioned in the old poems; it meant, in fact, nothing more than a good 
soldier : it was originally a title of rank, and had become indiscrimi- 
nately assigned to all distinguished soldiers, just as the word knight 
was extended in the middle ages to all fighters, and translated miles by 
the monks. We shall not quote from Homer to prove this ; all the 
passages have been collected and the general fact established by a writer 
in a work which we hope is accessible to most of our readers (Philolog. 
Mas. II. p. 72 foil.). That rjpw was originally a title of rank we 
think appears from the following considerations. The termination 
points to a derivation from rjpa. That the genuine form of the word 
was »/pF«oT-9, i.e. u the noble warrior," may be inferred from the form 
'H^FaoTb?, which is so written in the Olympic tablet : Bockh, C. I. I. 
p. 26 sqq. ; and thus 'HpaK\t}<;, whose connexion with the goddess 
"Hpa does not appear to be a sufficient cause for his name, may have 
been so called as the representative of the race of Heroes (see Pott, 
Etymol. Forsch. II. p. 224). Hesychius says "Hpaios was another 
name for 'HpaKAj/?, and rjpaio? bears the same relation to rjpw^ that 
ytipaios does to dytjphx;. However, it is obvious, as we have just shown, 
that ijpws and ijpa are themselves connected ; how they are related will 
appear from an investigation of the latter name. The goddess Hera is 
always spoken of as presiding over or connected with marriage-rites ; 
the chief feature in her mythology is her sacred marriage (fyo? yapos) 
with Zeus (Diodor. Sic. V. c. 72) ; her three names, irapdevia (Pindar, 
Olymp. VI. 88), reXeia (Nem.. X. 18), x*iP a (Pausan. VIII. 22, 2), 
show that she represented marriage and its two periods of negation, 
according to the principle of contrast which we have pointed out on a 
former occasion {Theatre of the Greeks, 6th Edition, p. [22]). The 
name re'teia, as applied to Juno, refers to the ya>o<o tc'Ao? spoken of 
by Homer (Odijss. XX. 74) : 

€vt 'A<ppoVnti 3?a ir pocket lye \xaKpov "OXvfXirov 

Kovprj^ aiTtjo-ovaa reAo? da\epo?o yafxoio y 

Ll 



514 OMPOTTND WORD [Book III. 

Which is culled ;a^Uov riXo, by -l-ohylu- ■*- 

to the marriage-rites as an initiation into a new life (Ruhnkcn, T>m<BU*, 
p. 224). *H/fc| a).) • wife of 'U P d^„<:, and the dau^l.t 

"tipa (Find. N, 

330 The common epithet g bwfal I r ■ 

j v „ xo5 , M ,;, .o^ic.o, 4>."*«, &c. (Uutt- 

and «* Ailuni,,, name for the 

boobud . *• «'' : 

male-la* ') : 

allndin"t„theeu-t,m ..rinclodinothehu-hand in 

Wifi olu-tnl- '"°" 

.„-,.,:,, .11 ... . U. 

dU were hm of ehiHien boa i" Uwful mumge, ee] •* 

the upper cUeeos- Tim- in< ''• 

t 

Hen c+y, v*"' n"""''" "■""■ awayttr. 

and in Huta,. * ' » 

(Welokef i / .gwt. .-^ 

were ebo 

•n„,,i- therefore, on thkrf* i 

(•taring ... morriep ""» *"• ' ' 

al-„ the ea-,„, ,1,- . i. no., 
]i„,„„a„n rightl; 
vof^.d.rm. 
&;.' we might fairlv pi 
,-„M. more aneientlv written B~r±, an 

to ;/,,-,• cannot be denied. 

.and a- the,. Id Creek 

,,„, Hew Djotatty ">' r - v, l'l' 

dtoeCDiodonii may well -„,, ' t * n - 

o.her wav of 

done it i's proheble the! '»>>• >'- 

1, j, ,o he eh-erved that OW ill 
a-. R. MX 

T are the 



Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 515 

connexion between Kvpfias, Kopvpas^ and the helmets of these person- 
ages, see Lobeck ad Soph. Ajac. 817. Aglaopham. 1144. 

331 There is a word in Aristophanes which it seems impossible 
not to connect with Kvp/Sa? (" crested"), Kvpftei? (" pyramids"), Kvprj- 
Petty (" to butt with the horn"), Kvp(3ao-ia, Kvpr\fia<j'ia 3 &c, and which 
still remains unexplained. We refer to the genitive plural Kvprjfiloov, 
which we find in the w T ell-known passage about Eucrates; Eqq. 253 : 
evXapov ce prj K(pvyr} <re ' k<x\ yap olhe ras ohovs 
aairep TLvKpaTrjs ecpevyev evdu twv kv pt] (3iiav. 
And the same allusion is contained in the fragment quoted by the 
Scholiast on V. 254 : ko.\ <rv Kvpt]f3ioirw\a Euk^utc? cTvirira^. All 
the grammarians explain Kvprjfllwv with reference to a neuter plural 
Kvprjftia, by which they understand " bran," or ' ' the husks of barley." 
Thus the Scholiast, on v. 253, says: Kvpt]/3ia he elai ra irlrvpa kcu 
ayypa twv Trvpuiv $ Kpidwu. Similarly, Bekkeri Anecd. p. 272. 1. 24. 
Hesych. : kv pr]jiia' twu Kpidcov to. dTro/Jpeypara koli Kvdpcov Xeirvpa 
koi to. xwi/ tceyxpwv aA^iiTu. The Scholiast, on v. 253, understands 
by Kvpt'iftia " the kiln," evdu au Kay-^pv; <ppvyouTai y and this is so far 
right ; since evdu, with the genitive, always expresses motion to or 
towards a place. We do not, however, see very well by what ety- 
mology Kuptjftia can lead to this result ; for if we suppose that it refers 
to the beards, as crests of the barley, we do not obtain a very perspi- 
cuous definition of the place of refuge which Eucrates found so con- 
venient. An entirely different interpretation lias suggested itself to 
us. We infer from Xenophon (Memorab. II. 7- § 6) that Cyrebus 
was the chief baker at Athens; in an enumeration of the most suc- 
cessful tradesmen in the city, Socrates is made to say : diro he dpTo- 
7rou'a<? K.upt]/3o<: ty\v t€ olxiav iraaav hictTpecpei nai fcrj 6a\//j\co9. Such 
being the case, nothing is more natural than that the favourite loaves 
at Athens should be called Kvptjftioi dpToi, and the place where they 
were made tcupiffiia. Nay, even the waste of the flour may have got 
its name from the chief dealer. Now Eucrates was properly a hemp- 
seller (Eqq. 129); and it is to be supposed that he is called Kvprjpi- 
ottojA*;?, because he bought up a quantity of bread and distributed it 
to the poor, according to the method adopted by the dx\avroiro}Xr]<s in 
regard to the Kopiawa (Eqq. 676). And if this was his usual way of 
getting out of a difficulty, it might be said of him that he used to fly 
straight to the Cyrebia, i. e. to the establishment of the great bakers. 
As the name of a man, KvpriPo* is a complimentary title ; and Epi- 
crates was known by the patronymic Kvprjfiluu (Demosth. Fals. Leg. 
p. 434, 21). 

Ll2 



516 COMPOUND WORDS. [Book III. 

332 The Sanscrit Virds (Latin rir) signifies " a warrior, a cham- 
pion, a hero;" U 1 fonunma, tM, it denotes «• matron, a wife, and 
mothers and as an adjective it expresses the qualities "excellent, , 
ncnt, heroic, powerful," &c. From Ul» i< formed I 
-heroism" In the came mag nror, the 

WordfrffW, of which tin- fir-t let* rresponds 

to a Greek c; M that khii word may fairly 1, 1 with « 

Pott think. (Etym • Lp. IS1) «Mi H ■*■ 

other pho* (!• baenakei aaposmd « 

which, howerer, we think quite onneceM 

,;„,;,, hot modi! .hand l 

the Sanscrit root 

n (shore, ,, W9> • '^" r »odifieati i subst a 

"husband, or bridegroom,- sdj. 

,,■,,■„. :|I1 ; -.ill. the latter Of Which 

p F m F F 

, iki . V .. F Ocean .V '.nan-killer. U ith 

, ;, , ., near F«!>-« (I'mhard, Ao*!*^ Ory« 

(-/" tl 

333 A sunflai ■ * the mem " 

^nan,. frank. ' . e tind in the >an-v 

«* husband/ from 

f .£ This word finds ifta full- 1 - alm 

orSahmelan, f / 

(MaudiK il familiar to « J 

derivative., ■*■* "* *"* *° J" 

wife of I : l -' Aulu " C ' 

(XI 11. 88). riant u- (ZVwoni ' 11 

r» pcrw^rv ode***** *oi«i<rf Nvlmm uxorem suam. 

On QeD 

rioml >< r * ' Mi "**" ""' 

Lieinius [ml "') : 

\ :m te rocrnt. *d Si 

Quum quidem Ma: 



Ennins (4tt»ei 

\ r totem Mater lis et Hrrclem. 



I, i,woll known dun.: .-..Wi«l fr>">> **• » 



Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 517 

means "a brave man" or "a husband;" and to the latest period avlpes 
was a complimentary address (see Valckenaer ad Herod. VII. 210). 

Again we find the same combination in irdaic, -iroTvia, iroTva, lea-- 
7roTr7<?, £ea--7roii/a, Latin potes (as Dii potes), potentes, pot-sum (pos- 
sum), &c. Sanscrit pads, patni, &c. (above, § 228). 

334 The title dva£ does not seem to imply any thing beyond 
mere superiority, though it has a domestic as well as a political appli- 
cation : thus, we have in Homer oUoio dva£ of the pater familias 
(Odyss. I. 397). It is probably, like civ-Bos, connected with the pre- 
position dvd. The simpler form is cu/a-Ko? or ava-K-s, preserved in 
Hesychius as an epithet of the Dioscuri — ai/a/cas. tou? AiosKopovs. — 
dvd k€ iov. to Aioskovoiov — dvdnoiv. too/ Aiosnopoiv — and perhaps 
AeJa?. toi)? dvattovs (instead of aKcucoi/s) deovs. Ma'yot. The com- 
mon form ai/aKT-?, gen. dvaK-ros, has the double pronominal ending: 
dvdnToop is a still longer form. 

335 If dvag is simply a formation from the preposition dvd, it 
may be compared with v ft pis (v-nep), ft uppishness," v-rrep(pev, vTrepcpvias, 
virepipiaXos (=v-rr€p(pvaXos, Buttmann, Lexil. II. p. 213), v-rrepoirXos, &C. 
Comp. vtrepavTXos vfipu (Hemsterhuis ad Lucian. I. p. 341). In im- 
mediate connexion with vfipis, we constantly find adpos. Sometimes 
ndpo<: is the parent of v ft pis, as in Theognis, v. 153 (p. 7, Welcker): 

TUCTCI TOl KOpOS vfiplV OTCIV KCIKU) oXfjOS £7Tf/TCU 
dvdp(OTTCp KU( OTft) JJLtj VOOS dpTlOS »). 

v. 751 (p. 1 2, Welcker) : vfipity ttXovtco Kenopqixlvos. Diog. Laert. 
(I. 59), quoting Solon, says : tov fxev Kopov tov ttXovtov yewdo-dai, Tt\v 
V vfiptv viro Kopov. Proclus [in Cratyl. p. 59, Boissonade) : vftpiv yap 
(paaiv (ol TroitjTtu) t'iktci k6 P os (quoted by Welcker, p. 93). Pythago- 
ras (apud Stohamm Serm. XLI. p. 247) : -np^Tov Tpvcprjv, weira Kopov, 
elra vftpiv, perd Se Tavra oXedpov. Conversely, v/3pis is the mother of 
Kopos. Pindar (Olymp. XIII. 10) : 
edeXovTi 8' aXe£eiv 
"Yfipiv, Kopov fxarepa dpaovfivOov. 
(with which may be compared Solon, p. 88, Bach : 

Ztjfjiov 6' tjyefJLOvaiv dltxos 1/00?, olaiv eroTfiov 

v(3pios ck fxeyaXfjs aXyea noXXd iradeTv, 
ov ydp eTTto-TavTai Karex eiv ^dpov.) 
Bacis (apud Herodot. VIII. 77) : 

lla A'ikt] <Tj3e<r<rei xparepov Kopov, "Yfipios vlov, 
Seivdv fxaifxiaovra, Zokcvvt dvd irdvra riOeadat. 



51S COMPOUND V70RI- [Book III. 

And in accordance with this genealogy we would emend a passage 
of ^schylus (Ar/amemn. 74-1, foil.), which the editors have regarded 
as hopelessly corrupt. 

We read and arrange the strophe and the antistrophe as follows : 

<TTp. c. 1 if>iXei ce t'iktciv "Y(3pi<: fxev iraXaia vca- 

2 'Cpvaav Iv KdKO?? /Jporuiv 

3 "YfipiV, TUT tj TuO\ OT€ TO KVptOV p6\iy 

4 vea ce (putt Kdpov, 

cat/iovu tc tuv afiayov, airo\C}tov y 
G av'upov Opcia-os, ji< 

7 \ -a, 

8 ' ~OKCV<TlV. 

avr. c. 1 c 

2 TUV 

v m'w* xeprnv 

4 : <TI 

5 ^ \iirov<r\ u<rta t , <~\, 

i ir\ou- 

7 tov •napuTi)uav aiVw 

8 ■ 

The meaning <.f (he first He forth 

in w Hi o\..., tlii— new *Y and OpaVo*, I 

to homes, like their >>or was 

adopted by Butler, who wtt guided by tapdw e> u »# a 

i- introdi Kl.msen. The sul 

i for rw in the fifth Km is due ts Hersnajsa. It appears to us 

that .i'<T(u i< in apposition with to» aV »ora. 

For the duals at the end of th 

In the antistrophe we hare ii , which was nfirhaps on. 

in OOnseqaenOQ o( the similarity o( the ; 

be a still easier oorruption, if the last syllable nf r.io^'.^^x,], whi 

dae to Hermannj found its way into lbs space abo\ 

\< and c\, ; 

it such close connexion with 
i- in our opinion s word ifts bsssjsh i .we conceive, 

neoted with < •• the hot 

Ths ides of " satiety." which k.v.k often 
that of "fulness," u np SO the top.'" as a; DB the wcll-kr 

go of Soph 



Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 519 

vSpis (pvrevei Tvpavvov. 
vfipis, el 7to\\cov vTrepirXtjad^ fxdrav 
a fxrj 'iriKaipa, fxt]^e <rvfMpepovTa, 
CLKpoTaTav el<ravafidcr diroTOjXOv 
copovaeu eh avayttav 
€vd' ov 7roh\ yprja-ifxu) 
XprJTCti. 
The first line reminds us of Shakspere, Macbeth, IV. sc. 3: "Bound- 
less intemperance in nature is a tyranny." 

We observe that %AtB^/ in v. 888 is a synonym of Kopos. Thus 
Kopo<; comes to have the sense of having got as far as one can go, con- 
sequently it suggests that fixedness, to which vfipis never attains till 
it has produced Kopos. This view of the case is confirmed by the fol- 
lowing passage of Plato (Philchus, p. 26) : vfipiv yap irov kou £ vinvacrav 
iravTttiv irovripiav avrt] KctTie^ovcra »; Qeos, trepan ovdev ov6 rjcovwv ovtc 
7r\t]crfXovu}u evov ev avToTs, vo/jlov kcu tol^iv^ ire pas e^oi/r', eOero. It 
is from the sense of fixedness and limitation implied in Kopos that we 
derive the meaning " uncertain," " unsteady," " wayward," " always 
changing its place," with which aKopearos is found in the dramatists. 
Thus iEschylus (Agamemn. 1304) : 

to fxev ev -rrpdo-creiv aKopeo-rov e(pv 
Trdai fipoToTcri. 
1461 : (pev <pev kcikov alvov drr]~ 

pas ri/i^a? a\o pea-TOv. 
972: fxaXa yap toi ra? ttoXXcis vyie'ias aKopecrTOV Tep/xa, 

in imitation of Solon (p. 80, Bach) : 

itXovtov B' ovheu Tep/xa irecpaa/xevov dvcpacrt nelTai^ 

o? yap vvu tjfxiav irXelarov 'e^ovcri ftlov 
hnrXacriov <rirev}>ov<Ti' tw av ko peer eiev airavras \ 
(where we may remark by the way that in Solon's laws 7re0ao>ieW 
stands for cpavepws ; see Lysias in Theomnest. p. 117 [363] ), Sophocles, 
(Ed. Col. 120: 

7rov Kvpei eKTOirios avveis o iravT<av 
o TravTUiu aKopecrroraTO^j 
In this last passage it is applied to GEdipus whom the chorus cannot 
find; and they charge him with leaving the place where he was before 
from mere caprice—" where," they ask, " is the most unsatisfied, most 
place-changing of men ?" 

336 The outward resemblance of this n^pos to the similarly writ- 
ten members of the familv, which we have discussed above (Kvp-ios, 



520 COMPOUND WORD* [Book III. 

Kolp-avos, &c), is obvious. Let us examine if there be not also a con- 
nexion in meaning. That the idea of " a head" or "completion 
nearly connected with that of M king," u lord," or " master/' cannot 
be denied; therefore in thil MOM of ko>-cx it may fairly be enigned to 
the same family, But what i^ tin- I i and 

Ko'po? " a young man?" Tl eVuwn. The idea 

f "fiilm . inir op, - eoifln into- of a tall youth, 

and thi< thr ( On" ■*>•« ( 

with BnUmmnn, p. 806"] »*■•* alike 

Of a jroODg man, of a tr.r. of DJ L I V - 31), " f an . v " 

thing in fad in which tl.- idea of fulness, growth, i 

implii -tantly found u 

Homer, and oSporo* u need of the Uwv h ni fi— of rij.e eon hi H 

^gain, n.ii.K— coimected with aW, mm... anj r 

J. p. 21 1). and, if Um derivation proposed ab<> 

-it ileo and in connexion wi1 lN • 

£pn k« ■• The lent « 

metaphor only ■ little farther: a swelling like a wave, an excessive 
fulness even to overflowing, being aim attributed to the 
youth. Accordingly we hare in the i 18 ) : 

fed participle ■■. 01 rath r a m n preeent formed Iron lb 

according to :i ronton] uncommon i:. I 

bare a reduplicated preeenl *.i\v«i> M ;l *7 wm P n " f V v < ; <>- wl,ich 

meanfl li t0 iwefl, to be exuberant or full;" hem 

Bounding noun of overflowing water u nmetbn 1 in the ■ 

of the word. La ■ dithyramb ofPii 

where m\v.-> foUowi the .. -milarly in 

i\. init. we have: mAXJ '*■* »!*> 

ry when it pours forth its loud full tones," and fa 
Damage under oonaideration - x "in all In 

youth," "swelling with youthful strength/ We do not agree 
Buttmann {AutfiUkrl \ rl 11 

DO connexion between MX*afci1 and the use 

of a cup tilled with m -me, sparkling, bubbling, an 

over (Pindar, Oh/my. Vll. init 



Chap. 6.] COMPOUXD WORDS. 521 

IpoG-cp) shows that the words have precisely the same force, for Ke^Xa- 
cova-av or Ke^XalvTav might have been used here. There is no doubt, 
however, that it is also connected with ^A^So?, ^XiBif (a perfect 
synonym of Kopo^ (Ed. Tyr. 888, and above, § 835), and ^AiBa'to, 
and thus ■xX l ^ ( ^ <Ta poXwd is used, like KaAA<Wo<? K£^Aa§cos, in Pindar 
(Olymp. XI. 84 = 100). In precisely the same manner acppiyav and 
opyav are used as synonyms of aK/xciQiv (Ruhnken ae? Timceum, 
p. 244). It is remarkable that opydu, which thus conveys the sense of 
fulness implied in Kopos, also, under the forms regere (6-peyeiv), rex, 
Sanscrit rajas, corresponds to the political meaning of Kvpios, noipavos, 
&c. The same metaphor, with respect to the exuberance of youth, is 
found in the Latin language : thus Quintilian (Instit. Orator. XI. 3, 
§ 28) : Illud non sine causa est ah omnibus prceceptum ut parcatur 
maxlme voci in illo a pueritia in adolescentiam transitu, quia natura- 
liter impeditur, non, ut arbitror, propter calorem, quod quidam puta- 
verunt ; nam est major alias ; sed propter humorem potius ; nam hoc 
wtas ilia turgescit. 

337 We see thus how the ideas of fulness, height, and completeness, 
are connected in the Greek language with that of political superiority. 
We should be perfectly authorized, then, in connecting dva% with avdos 
and dvd, as far as the meaning is concerned, even though the words 
were not etymologically related to one another. We believe, however, 
as we stated above, that they spring from a common origin. It is clear, 
indeed, that ai/af was a digammated word (Dawes, Miscell. Crit. p. 
144 sqq.), whereas it does not appear that dvd was ever -digammated. 
But this does not create any real difficulty, for the element a, which 
forms the first part of d-vd, is only the second pronominal stem under 
the form va (§ 183) ; so that R*Wf is connected with Favd, an older 
and more genuine form of the preposition. There are traces of the 
digamma in the form '/oi/0o<? for dvdo<;. At any rate, we cannot agree 
with those who connect FdvaKTs with Konig, a word with regard to 
which we rather adopt the opinion of Thierry. It appears that Konig, 
more anciently Koning, was the name of any person under authority. 
Thus the converted centurion bears this name,— ein Koning gieiscot iz 
in war (Otfrid, Lib. n.). Alfred applies the term Cyning to Caesar as 
general, to Brutus as the head of a party, and to Antony as consul ; 
sometimes he designates the particular ofiice of consul by the compound 
Gear-Cyning, " King for a year." In the Danish language a chief of 
pirates was called Sie-Konong, the leader of an army Her-Konong, and 
so forth. In the Saxon language we find also Ober-Cyning, Under- 
Cyning, Half-Cyning. In fact the word is merely the participle of the 



522 COMPOUND WOPJ [Book III. 

verb Kdnnen or Kennen, for they were originally identical (Graff 
Sprsch. IV. 408), and denotes a person who MMj or m «, who has 
superior knowledge, or superior power*. 

338 The original meaning of our BWgKsh word "Lord" is j 
similar to that which we have endeavour. d to point out in several of 
HUMS ( ;,-■ , k d MmI sf rank. Home Tooke says (Dircrtiont 

of Purl. ;/. II. p. 155. bfl.) that it was originally written £m* 
Blafard, that it is compounded of the participh 

:i „d of the word o,-,/. ortw$, "so.; - dum." and that 

It consequently MgMMI ///;//>-/- M, or r,f an Mi 

right in oo nn eot fo fl this woid with ■ verh rigafyi 

suiheientlv elear. Similarly. I ' 1,ich 

ngnifiM "loftj il '* Avr R ■ 

iB old Kngli-h MS. in the (ainl>ri.l-r Library (^ I 

Deo. 1888, pp. 6lft iqq.) We en- 

supp«.Mti"U. that the termiiiati. i 

would rather conned it With A. 'and 

t | iu . | DflttM in kigfa place-." DSXMgM in ref. | 

to kin ' Mt t* 6 

last name is also a general design 
of height ; it i #• * shore, as in MI names 

lea when 

a little. 

The (iernian MUM T><hnl. MMM, -ijnit\iiej " \irte. 
in general, seem to have had originally -• like 

|he ( ; Tim- in /■ 

m U hr ,lu,i><\ |> ftttft, M M knew the manners ol 

&u0*fr> obrionaly oo na eo ie d with T",,,,,!, mm m r part of 

hlfl followers'' M tin" elder-." the - 

390 i :0 TrrtV n the questions which have Wen • 

with regard to the celebrated Aristotelian nd all the 

difficulty which it DM CMS ndclenburg, <iJ 

• h | lu nuW mot nYtonnera point qnand on nan que 

M M At ITinlhj. ■ basal qu. ^J 1 ** 1 ** 

MM> ovi r ouvoir, que par consequent il ne siirnine, lui-raeme, rien autre choe* qaun 
lumune hahile. M SSM, I qui Ml antra. obenaent par U conTktkm da aoo habileW 
wcowma" fTMan j , DU m* fBtmim Hisioriques. trts s*r riiutout 

/ •.■„„,.,-, pp. G "la neh \ -ell named King, 

:/„,/. C.xn-mnc. or Man that "as Able' wh.v. " **H*~ 

iiiticant with the destinies of th< Fm*A Htt\>lmtion. I. | 



Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 523 

Aristot. de Anima, p. 319 sqq.), have been occasioned by an inability 
to discriminate between this and the compound ei/BeAe'^eta, which so 
nearly resembles it in sound. It will be worth while, then, to explain 
these words once for all. 

340 The meaning of evreXexeia may be derived without much 
difficulty from Aristotle himself. The philosopher is in the constant 
habit of using a double antithesis to the word Swapus, which he opposes 
both to IvT-eXe^eia and to evepyeia. The hvva/j.^ in this opposition 
corresponds to vXtj, the material out of which any thing is immediately 
made : the evreXex eia to the eZSo? or form which constitutes the defini- 
tion of the thing. " Substance itself," says Aristotle, " is reckoned a 
sort of entity, and in this we discriminate, 1st, the material, which by 
itself does not constitute an individual ; 2nd, the shape and form, by 
which the individuality is determined ; 3rd, a compound of the two. 
Now the material is a ci/W/ju?, but the form an evreXexeia, and that in 
two ways, either as science (eVjo-rr/V^) or as contemplation (to OewpeTv)" 
{de Anima II. 1, § 2): and shortly afterwards (§ 4), he says "the 
soul is a substance, as the form of a natural body alive Iwd^ei ; but the 
substance is an evTcXe-^eia; therefore the soul is the evreXe-^eia of such 
a body. But evreXexeia is predicated in two ways, as science and as 
contemplation ; accordingly, it is clear that the soul is an evTeXe^eia in 
the same way as science, for sleeping and waking presuppose the soul, 
and waking is analogous to contemplation, but sleep to the having and 
not exerting" (ft. C. to science, to yap ^pefxija-ai kcu aTtjvai ttjv lidvoiav 
€7r<<TTuo-0ai na\ <ppov€?v Xeyopeda, Phys. VII. 3). "Wherefore the 
soul is the primary eWe Ae^eia of a natural body Iwdfxei alive." The 
body is a Ivvanis ; it contains the outward condition necessary to the 
life of the soul: the soul is the evreXex* 101 of the body ; it is that which 
makes the body perform its functions ; so sight is the evreXex 61 " of the 
eye, because it is its perfection and consummation. He calls the soul a 
primary evTeXex eia > because it corresponds to science, the first of the 
two kinds of eVeAe;^. We must not consider the opposition of 
luvctfXK; and €UT€Xex €ia as equivalent to that of matter and form ; it is 
merely analogous to it; the ivreXex €ia is not a form, as something 
distinct from matter and adscititious ; it is the acting and efficient 
principle which makes the thing what it is, which individualizes it— to 
yap Zvvd/jLei ov xat fxrj ei/TeXe^eta, dopiarov e<rriv {Metapliys. III. 4). 

341 We adopt in our every-day conversation the Aristotelian 
distinction between ZvvafMs and evepyeia. The schoolmen, from whose 
barbarous Latin we have borrowed many of our common words, used 



524 COMPOUND WORDS. [Book III. 

to translate cwci/iei by potentia, or virtute, or rirtualiter ; evcpyela by 
acta, or actualiter, which the French have adopted as PIT* 
actuellement, and we oppose that which exi-t- " virtually" or ''poten- 
tially" to that which "actually" is. Aristotle thus defines evepyem 
(Metaphys. VIII. 6, p. 104-8, Bekk.) : " • vepyaa suppose- tence 

of a thing, but not in that way in which we talk of its existing Imafuu 
We talk of a thing existing cui-mio, when, for in-tan f that the 

statue of Hermes i- in the wood, and the half in the whole, becai. 
can be deducted, and that the person who docs not speculate is I 
tific, provided he ha- the power of -p« filiation : but as fof that which 
is evepycia (now our meaning i- clear from an induction of parti< 
and it is not neee— ary to xrk a definition . but we must 

also take analogy into tlo- aCCOUUt), it stand- the other as 

that which builds to that which i- capable of building, as waking to 

sleeping, to having tl it, but being able to see, as 

that which i- Separated from matt- r t" th '. a- that which is 

worked out to that which i- not, Of HmH cntra-t- let us call the 

forin- ■ '. and th am from this that 

the opposition of Immpm boeMf] - much on the same footing 

with that of the -line WOfd I 

.'{ \2 W« air ii.. t. , pyaa 

lynonvms, khongfa it must Med that tan enstfanotion Utwean 

them i- not alwa\- marked. The word «'»«.>-- 

acting, exertion, or operation. Thns, in the eel : »n of the 

Mammon l-omou in the Bthioi I. ~ ,] 14 it i- said to be an opera- 
exertion, or acting of the soul, according lo \ir: .fywVo o* 

a '-; ut , c ia yivcTai kcit* dpertji). Now he says at the very 

beginning of the nuns work, that "this fttsnssaan homwm is an 
(WXoc) ; but then i- a difference tions 

. and oth. 
and in eases where there arc any end- OoUntOfaJ ions (irpa'£m), 

in these cases the w i)utC battel than thee] MapyMu); 

still it does not follow that an operation, which terminates in itxll 
produces I should be inferior to one that does, in otl. 

that a r/M aid rank lower than a toi»;t«»i (trip'. 

From this it appears that the i N a mere operation or 

whereas the ri n \< \ .- an act, but as a state a 

ing upon an aet : thus. Aristotle says {P''j s. III. S) that me: 
that which is moved, for it is the : that which U 

and is produced by the moving force, and the tWsyfW of the m< 
force is the same. Now the passage from the fc 



Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 525 

consists in motion, which is a sort of imperfect evepyeia (rj tc Kivrjixis 
evepyeia fxev tis eivai (We?, aVeAr/V he. Phys. III. 2), and again, motion 
is the eWeAe^eta of that which virtually exists, so far as such a thing 
can be fcalled an eWeAe'^eta {Phys. III. 2), and motion differs from 
evepyeia in this, that the former implies change, the latter continuance 
(Metaphys. VIII. 6) : therefore, evepyeia is not eWeAe'^eta, but only 
tends to it, as Aristotle distinctly explains it from the primary mean- 
ing of the two words : to yap epyov tc'Ao?, tj he evepyeia to epyov. hio 
ko.\ Tovvofxa evepyeia Xeyerat Kara to epyov ku\ o-vvrelvei 7rpo<; Ttjv eWe- 
Ae'^etai/ (Metaphys. VIII. 8, p. 1050 Bekk.), that is, the work (epyov) 
being the end (reAos), and being implied in the word eVeoy-eta, this 
last may be considered as tending to the ev-TeX- e%-eia, in which the 
tcAos is contained. Again, he says (Metaphys. VIII. 3, p. 1047) : 
e\t]\v6e d' tj evepyeia Tovvop.a, tj Trpos Ttjv evreXe-^eiav crvvredeifxevr] ko\ 
fc7ri to aAAa, e< twv xivtjcreiav fxaXicrTa' hoKcT yap tj evepyeia juaXia-Ta tj 
K/i'»7(7t<? elvat. hio kcci to?? fxt] ovaiv ovk dirohihoaa-t to KiveTaOat, aAAa? he 
Tivas KaTtjyopias^ olov hiavorjrd ko.\ eTridvfitjTa elvai to pit] bvra y kivov- 
jxeva V ov. tovto he oti ovk ovra evepyeia ecrovTat evepyeia. toov yap p.t] 
6vt(i)v evia cvvafxei €<ttiv' ovk €<ttl he, oti ovk evreXe^eia e&Tiv . 'The 
name evepyeia, i. e. operation or action, which is joined to evTeXex eiCt > 
and occurs also in other combinations, is derived principally from 
motions; for motion and action are generally identified. Wherefore 
motion is not attributed to nonentities, but something else is predicated 
of them, for instance, that they are conceivable or desirable, but not 
that they are moved. And the reason is that if we attributed motion 
to them, we should attribute action to things which do not actually 
exist. Some nonentities do indeed exist virtually or potentially, but 
not actually, for they do not exist evreXex^a." 

343 From all this it clearly appears that Aristotle derived ivre- 
Ae'^eia from ev, tcAo?, and ex €iv > on tne analogy of vowexfc, &c, and 
that he meant by it the acting and efficient principle of all those things 
which exist potentially (hwdfxei) and may be otherwise ; that is to say, 
it is their absolute definition — en tou hwdpei oWo? A0709 tj evreXe- 



* On this passage Bonitz writes as follows, in his new edition of the Metaphysica, 
p. 387 : " evTeXexeia, ut descendit ab adjectivo evT-eXexfe, i.e. plenus, perfectus, per- 
fectionem rei significat; evepyeia vero derivatum a v. evepyelv, earn actionem et mu- 
tationem, qua quid ex mera possibilitate ad plenam perducitur essentiam. Quare, 
kvepyeiav suum et peculiarem locum habere dicit ubi agitur de mutatione et motu, 
eandemque dicit pertinere et tendere (avvreiveiv, arvvTedelcrdai) ad evreXex eLav > P er - 
fectum rei statum, qui inde conficiatur. Sed licet alterum proprie viam, alterum 
finem via significet, tamen hsec duo ita inter se coherent, ut facile appareat cur saepis- 
sime nullo usurpentur discrimine." 



526 COMPOUND WORDS. [Book III. 

X eia (deAnim. II. 4, § 4), and to U *i fa e?»«i ovk l X " ** T ° 
wpmroT kwT€\ix* L * W (*■*■*!* XIL 8 ) * > ^ImWM Upyeta is the 
act of that which cannot be otherwise (de Aaim. III. 7); it ifl a kind 
of motion tending to iwreX^ta, but not attaining to it, except in those 
cases in which the r&n is the ivepyua itself. Wfl must not overlook 
the distinction between iuepyaa and «f k, which are also opposed to one 
another, not, however, as limp* is to evepyeta, for tf« is much nearer 
to evepyeta than to Ussumh (evcpyeiai) pro m. and re- 

turn to, the universal action («f«X which ii the origin and end of aU 
action: thus, a brave action DfO I the habit of bravery («£*, 

i.e. a^ptm), and bravery i- the- end (t<?\<x) sought by the brave man 
(Arist. £t& VII. 10): thus too, a"«T0ri<Ti<: is a <£«*, but UNMTN, M 
have before Shown, ifl an iWfytw*— « «*V 7 a> a7<rr*»/(m ef«s « < 
Mint Mpyf« (7'V'uw, IV. kker). To return, tm 

the point from which ns : ll,e 

ivepycia of the body, because tlie Mo) is incapable of mution— i» t» 

TO)!/ UCl/WTUII' TO VlTUp-)(tiV ^f^!* * S*** * (& «*lwUH<I, I. 3, § l). 

;U1 Wfl tni>t that I :i0W 

established, INMB the writing ol the philo-op> 

Barbaras wonH bnffl toofl bfltt i : 

Being about the meaning of the absurd 

told bv Crinit 

nont— | fafl look thr-.u-h Ufl Ar,: kl , VR ■ I 

iH.tNvith^andin- the NOtflBJ OfJflMflfli fll ^ 

including ' t> niolo^call;. I sig- 

nification, totally distinct from the older compoun It is 

remarkable that Cicero, wko WM Uttl the word was coined by 

ArUtotle, should have pven I translation of it ID] 
older word, which he must have met with in his Plato. 
(Tusemian. ]>L<put. I. 10) : At iflU fl fl h fl . t mm q*«**°r nota ilia genirm 
prmdffitrmm flflfflJ complexus, e quibits omnia orirentur, quintam quan- 
dam natmrmm mm* ess*, e qua sit nuns. Quintum genu* adkibet 
•mine; et sic nimum im^e"" appellat note no- 

mine, quasi qmmdmm contintuUam motion**, si perennem. Now the 
word bStXcx 

tinuance and duration, as appears from the 1 passages, 

of which are adduced by Nake (m Ckmrilw m , p. 177). Cluvrilus 

(p. 169, #«*•): 

• See Mielielet. de la M Uiphusupie JArutott (Par ■ 294. 



Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 527 

Euripides (Perithous apud Valcken. Viatrib. p. 39) : 

anptTO<; 8' aa-Tpuiv 
o^Ao? ei'OeAe^co? dfjL(pi^opev€i. 

Crobylus (apud Athenceum, p. 429 i>> repeated, p. 443 f) : 

to ei/oeAep^to? fxeQveiv tlv tj^oviyv eyei ; 
Diodorus (apud Athenceum, p. 431 d): 

ei to Trap ckclo-tov evceXeyuis iroTt]piov 
Triveiu to Xoiirov tov<z Xoyi<rp.ov<; av£dvei. 

Plato (Legg. IV. p. 717 e): p.vr\pv\v evheXe\Y\ irapeyopevov. (Tim. p. 43 
c): ywera tov piovTos eVSeAeyak 6-yeTov. (p. 58 c): Trjv de\ Kivqariv tov- 
Ttav ovaav eaopevtjv re et/SeAeya)? irnpeyeTai, exactly Cicero's COntinua- 
tam motionem et perennem. (Respubl. VII. p. 539 d) : dpKe? %rj eV \ 
Xoyoov fX€Ta\tj\j/€i peTvai e'i/SeAeyoo<? na\ j^vvTOvuvi p-rjhev aXXo irpctTTOVTi. 
From which passages of Plato, it is quite certain that we ought to 
read in Legg. X. p. 905 E : aoyoi/ra? Liev dvayKcuov irov yiyve<rdai tov? 
ye %toiKtj<Toi>Ta<; tov anavTa evdeXe^ta^ ovpavdv. Besides these pas- 
sages, we have in the Lexicographers the following notices; Bekker. 
Anecdot. p. 251, 24: — ei/BeAg^eo-Tari/?' cvveyeGTOLTt]*; koli dZiaXeiir- 
tov; Hesych. : evleXexe?' 7ruk-i/a'£ei, Aa'fcui/e? (where the last word, as 
Ruhnken observes in the auctarium, belongs to the gloss evleKahiKop) ; 
ivheXexio-ftos ' ivtuovtj (on which Toup, Vol. IV. p. 260, quotes Jose- 
phus XI. 4. p. 555 : r\yayov he ko.\ Trjv (TKt]vo7rr]yiav kcit ckcTvov tov 
kcuooV, — ko» Tou? naXovp-evovs evheXe^ia- /xov<s) ', ei/SeAeycoe* a£ta- 
Aet7TTW9, o-ui/eytoc, eirinovm. And Nake quotes from Basilius : to ydp 
evleXeyes to ttvkvov na\ crweyes. From all this it is clear that evleXe- 
X>/'<?, eVSeAe^eta, &c, were in Cicero's thoughts when he gave the trans- 
lation of evTeXe^eia^ which w T e have quoted, and that he probably 
thought the two words were identical. In this he is borne out by only 
two authorities; the first is a joke of Lucian's, who makes the letter 8 
complain that r has robbed him of his place in ivheXeyeia : a'/coi/We, 
<pu)vtjevTa Zikchtto.1, tov pev 3 Aeyoi/ros, d(pe'iXeTO liov ty\v evleXe-^eiav^ 
evTeXeyeiav d£tovv Xeyecrdai irapd TrdvTCts tou? vdp.ov$ (Judicium Vo- 
calium, p. 95, Hemsterh.) ; the other is a gloss of Gregorius of Corinth, 
who says (p. 155) that the Attics write ivTeXex €ia wr ^leXex €ia ' But 
these two authorities only prove that the Aristotelian word had be- 
come more common than the older compound, not that it was synony- 
mous with it or had superseded it, for we find the older word in the 
Septuagint and in Josephus. The earlier scholars, however, were quite 
misled by Cicero: Politian (Miscell cap. 1) and Andreas Schottus 
(Lull. Qucest. IV. 12) tried to justify his interpretation: Scaliger 



528 COMPOUND WORDS. [Book III. 

thought the only difference between the two words was one of pro- 
nunciation, probably like that between eVro* and evlov : in fact, it 
a great question at the revival of letters how the word ought to be 
written. Rabelais, with his usual learning and discrimination, saw 
that in Aristotle, at all events, the proper orthography a \e«*. 

In the chapter beaded ( ""'* on royaulme de la 

Quint* i: I *▼• v - *• l 9\ l ie "J« : 4™to- 

/,/,,-, prim* l> 

U, Wm\ >prement, la nom» ami* 

i nme errt 
Doiwitbataiidi] \ 
scholars, bare thought that I 

UDe. Such *] the opin 

a living Mholai has ~ h tin ir equivalent 

mology. Doderletn a-- on 

the analogy Of lAsVrwj <ppd<r<rm, if>y\a<r<rm; 

, the Platonic exptaasimi id he agrees with 1 

in thinking, that Grig. Cr. p. 

bai rightly axpkii m only ■ dialectical vai a*bieh 

perhaps then tf lome 

place we believe there m ■ rd as <Vr. 

adjective 

Dot, in the alip 

: in the latter. th< ready 

excluded by Aristotle. And. in I >• » '* ll,e 8ense did 

not guide ni to ■ discrimination between tben tu 

would. Aristotle himself has binted I ^ag 

irrekt ytta from rrreX*i and ; v . M 

oomponnd of «» with en »4H 

length in distance, but mom freammtly applicable to express length in 

duration, 

adverb to signify amply continuance and mngth af time. a ? in Homer, 

Itiat 

tftya 6 i lM<T ' 

\ 
Kit in meaning it h very near akin t With regard to 

the form of the compound, it may 1 I that the termina: 

regularly altered from - in Mich • 

have 

feo., not as grammaria] *** through a subetan- 



Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 529 

tive in -o?, eo<?, but by the common addition of the element -ya. The 
change from o to e, in the first syllable of the adjective, is due to the 
greater weight of evSeXexv (above, § 222). The element of BoAt^os 
is found in all the languages of the Indo-Germanic family, and may 
be detected also in the Hebrew bl2i (above, § 209). In Sanscrit, it 
appears as the root drih "to grow," adjective dirgha "long," Zend 
darega, Behistun daraga (Rawlinson, As. Soc. XL 1, p. 188), Persian 
dira, Sclavonic dolgui, Bohemian dlauhy, Polish dlugi, Servian dyg, 
Lithuanian ilga, Lettish ilg, Old Prussian ilga, and, probably, by dis- 
similation, the Latin longus, Gothic laggs, German lang, English long. 
Pott suggests (Etym. Forsch. I. 87) that in-dulgere belongs to this 
root, with the original signification of laxius, or longius reddere, remit- 
tere, just as languere seems to be connected with longus, and we admit 
the derivation as at least probable : the meaning to which he refers 
seems to be found in Virgil, Georgic. II. 276 : 

Sin tumulis acclive solum collesque supinos, 

Indulge ordinibus. 

and in the preface of Aulus Gellius : Animus, interstitione negotiorum 
aliqua data, laxari indulgerigue potuisset. The Sanscrit, Zend, and 
Persian forms approach nearly to the Greek I6pv y hpv<;, in which some 
meaning of growth and length is obviously contained. The Lettish 
verb ilgt " to delay," also belongs to this class : also, the Anglo-Saxon 
telg, "a plant," the Gothic tulgjan "to strengthen," and the Latin 
largus (Pott, Etym. Forsch. I. p. 251). The idea of prolongation and 
continuance, which is conveyed by evheXexv, and with which this 
etymology entirely accords, is directly opposed to the notion of ante- 
cedent completeness suggested by i i/TeAe'^eta. As we have seen above 
(§ 343), the ivreXtxeia belongs to the same class of definitions with the 
to ri t}v £?vat, which, being a irptarri ova-la or abstraction, precedes the 
actual or concrete existence of the thing, and carries us back by infer- 
ence to what it was (§ 192) •* toWe to ri r\v elvai eartv o<rwv 6 Ao'705 
e <tt\v ^piap^ (Aristot. Metaphys. VI. 4. § 9). Accordingly, the words 
in question stand opposed in much the same way as if they were differ- 
ent predications of tense ; and while evleXexn* points to the present and 
the future (Plat. Tim. 58, c, quoted above), which imply continuous 
motion, evreXex^o- is an expression of the prceteritum ac perfectum 
tempus, and belongs to the category of the immoveable. 



Mm 



BOOK IV. 



THE VERB. 






THE 

NEW CRATYLUS 



BOOK IV. 



THE VERB. 



CHAPTER I. 
THE PERSON-ENDINGS. 

345 Original comprehensiveness of the verb. 346 Causes which led to the mutila- 
tion of the affixes. 347 The person-endings are objective cases of the personal 
pronouns. 348 Differences of voice are only different cases of the pronominal 
affix. 349 A. Primary forms. 1st person singular. Reasons for believing 
that verbs in -}xi are older than verbs in -w. 350 Successive mutilations of -fit. 
Quantity of the original penultima. 351 In the active, the person-ending re- 
presents the instrumental or ablative case. 352 In the middle, it represents the 
locative. 353 2nd person singular. Usual form in -<r-. The by-form is -6-, not 
-O--0. 354 Evanescence of the characteristic of this person. 355 3rd person sin- 
gular. Active in -ti, -tw : middle in -tcu, -tt]v. 356 1st person plural. Active 
-/xes for -fxe-at. 357 Middle -fxeda, -fxedov, for -/xe&ai, -/xe0»ji/. 358 2nd person 
plural. Active -re for -res : middle -<r0e for -cdat. and -ct0tjv. 359 3rd person 
plural. Difficulties occasioned by the dual. 360 Plural in -vti and -vrai. 
Explanation of -ao-i. 361 Origin of -vt. 362 Latin person-endings. Difficul- 
ties of the passive forms. Igitur. The second persons. Are participial predi- 
cations without a copula allowable in Greek ? 363 B. Secondary forms. Active 
suffixes. Explanation of -crau. 364 Middle suffixes. They are not redupli- 
cations. 365 Table of existing forms. 366 Influence of the weight of the 
person-endings. 

345 rpHOSE students, whose notions of the nature of a verb 
I are derived from the appearance of that part of 
speech in our own and indeed in most modern languages, will 
not be able to understand very well the meaning of the term as 
applied in the grammars of the ancient languages. A verb in 



534 THE PERSON-ENDIN [Book IV. 

English can only express the copula or the copula and predicate 
of a sentence : it can never contain the subject ; in other words, no 
English verb can really be used impt nonaUy, as the grammarians 
say, except in such obsolete phr.i- 

&c. But in the ancient Ian. verbs are often found in 

the third person without any subject or nominative case ex- 
pressed: and unless some particular empl required, the 
nominative of the first and second persons is regularly omitted; 
so that the whole logical proposition may be included in a single 
word. 

346 The explanation of this follows from what we have 
said of the subftitution of pre] case-endings, &c. ; the 

original verb contain pronominal elements l I Is of 

the rektiom of place, whieh i 1 at once the case-en-: 

f the noun and 1 OM of the verb. A bare root or I 

without a pronominal sm' I no more form a noun, 

a modification of it i * without a corresponding 

By the lapse of time, the introduction of I 

and the oil ■ at work ll P° n a 

: as it rel vitality. 

Derated into bheee naked shapes in which we find but scanty I 

hing. A desire for greater distinctneei 

10 the appli , of a 

, m of nominative cases, or the express statement of the 
subject, and then, as th DM less necessary, 

they were gradually dro] [ ** ana * 

afiect upon the caaei of tho noun. We have ibowfl 
the Sanscrit language, which bad no | M in the ordinary 

■ most eomplet of case- 

endings; the pornoai mdSngn of the verb are i 
marked in Sanscrit than in (ireek. because the were 

less accustomed than the 

rition, and in general th 
full logical dcYelopemcnt. With 

in -ui. and some of the second.. the common \ 

the person-endi] show, absorbed in the 

more modern state of the tireek language. 



;U7 It baa Long been perceived that tho 






Chap. I.] THE PERSON-ENDINGS. 535 

the verbs in -fxi are personal pronouns; but it has been sup- 
posed by modern scholars (for instance, by Thiersch in his 
Grammar, and Pott) that these personal pronouns must needs 
be nominative cases, the root of the verb constituting the pre- 
dicate, and the connecting-syllable the copula. Nothing, in our 
opinion, can be more unphilosophical than such a supposition. 
Even if man, in the rudest and earliest times, had excogitated 
all the rules of logic which were adumbrated by Plato and set 
forth as a novelty by Aristotle, it appears to us inconceivable 
that he should have arranged predicate, copula and subject in 
an order converse to that which every logician knows to be the 
natural one. Besides, when the system of nominative cases 
was introduced, the nominative of the first person was in Latin 
ego, in Greek eywv, in Sanscrit aham ; of the second in Latin 
tu, in Greek rv, subsequently ov, in Sanscrit tva; and, as 
we have shown in the preceding book, the nominative sign in 
nouns expressing the third person was -s ; now the oldest forms 
of the singular person-endings in these languages, so far as they 
have come down to us, appear to have been -mi, -si, -ti, of 
which the first and third manifestly refer to the objective cases 
of the same pronouns : and when the third person appears as 
-si, this is manifestly only a dialectic softening of the objective t. 
In Hebrew it is well known that the pronominal affixes both of 
nouns and verbs perform the functions of objective cases (see 
Maskil le-Sopher, p. 17); we consider it equally certain that 
the person-endings of all the Indo-Germanic verbs are in statu 
regiminis ; indeed, this was established long ago by Mr. Garnett 
{Quarterly Review, LVII. p. 93 sqq.). The fact is, that the 
original verb stands on precisely the same footing as the 
noun ; it is a word, of which the element or differential part 
might be found in a noun, the constant part consisting, like 
that of the noun, in a pronominal element, expressing some 
relation of place. Thus SiSw-m would signify "giving here," 
i.e. where the speaker is; Stiu-ai, "giving where the per- 
son addressed is;" &So>-ti, "giving there," i.e. at any other 
place; and similarly with regard to TiOrj-jiii. Now the roots of 
hStoixi and TiOrjiui are So- and 0e- respectively, and both of 
them represent a Sanscrit a, for they correspond to the verbs 
daddmi and dadhdmi. But in each case the root seems to 
be connected with the person-ending by an intervening a, and 



536 THE PERSOX-EXDIN [Book IV. 

it is then reduplicated to express more vividly the continuity 
of the action; a custom which we find in the unformed dialects 
of rude tribes even at the present day. The root co is found 
with a similar prolongation in cw-po-v, " a '' (-pa-), 

the case-ending of which implies mere location, and does not, 
like the person-endings of the verb, mark a particular relative 
place. As the verb gradually receives its developement, we 
find that the differences of mood and tense affect the termina- 
tion! as well as the root; but this is sufficiently intelligible, for 
of course the OOl uld not receive its completion till 

the formation of sentences, when the expression of the nomi- 
native or rabjectire case had become necessary and com: 
and this, by rendering mm e nd i important, would 

also make them yield mure readily to the laws of eupl 
winch required modification! of the termination corresponding 
to those of the root or body of the word. 

348 In treating of the person-endings we must 
them as the oblique cases of personal pronouns. The number 
deeigna* or plural, is to be explained 

in the same manner as the numbers of those positional words. 
The division of verbs m 'S one of which ex- 

presses that the action 1 as affecting the speaker 

or person ipokei 1 the other, as affecting some other 

person or thing, depends upon a change in the case-endings; 
the former exhibits that relation of case which wo call the loca- 
tive, the latter that which is termed the instrumental. But we 
must | amine the person-en J number 

and voice, in their appearances as primary or sceonda- 
thai they appear affected or unaffected by the modifi- 

cations of tense and mood to which the verb in its full de- 
velopement m subjected. We shall, tin- 

primary or simpler them successively as 

thev appear in the different numbers and voices, and then pro- 
ceed to the discussion oi lb iary or subo: -rms. 
Throughout we shall presume a n hapter on the 
pronouns. 



Chap. 1.] THE PERSON-ENDINGS. 537 

A. PRIMARY FORMS. 

349 1st Person Singular. 

That the conjugation in -you is the original one may be proved 
from the Greek language alone, without the aid of comparative philo- 
logy. In the first place, those verbs which in the classical ages of 
Greek literature were still conjugated in -fit, such as e2/xt, h'thic/ni, Jo-t^/xi, 
(ptifx'i, &c, all convey the most elementary ideas ever expressed by 
verbs : " being," " giving," " standing," " saying," &c. They are words 
which must have existed in the oldest and rudest state of the language, 
and therefore could not have owed their existence to the observation of 
analogies which had arisen subsequently to that earlier state. Again, 
the conjugation in -fxi is departed from only in a few tenses (principally 
the present and imperfect active) of the ordinary verbs ; the other tenses 
all retain traces, more or less distinct, of the original form. Thus, 
though we have tuttto) we have tvtttohcu (which is perfectly analo- 
gous to lilofxat\ TvirToi-fjn, eTv\i/d-fxr]u, &c. Finally, the change from 
-fxt to -a) is explicable, and may be supported by orthographical analo- 
gies; the converse is not. In all languages, we find a tendency to 
abridge words as far as is consistent with the preservation of their 
meaning, and in those which exhibit systematic composition we 
observe a continual conflict for mastery between the body of the word 
and the suffix. The original verbs were very short and simple, and, 
even when the person-ending was retained at full length, did not 
fatigue the voice of the speaker; there was, therefore, no immediate 
reason for abolishing the person-endings even after they had forfeited 
their claim to indispensable utility. In other roots, which the neces- 
sities of language required, the verbal element would be longer, some- 
times composed of two distinct stems or a stem and a preposition, 
sometimes of a heavy, hard- sounding stem, with many consonants, 
or in general the present tense would be strengthened by insertion, 
whether of guna or anusvara, or by the addition of some pronominal 
element ; this of itself, on the principle we have mentioned, would in- 
terfere materially with the termination, which, when it became less 
necessary, would be dropt altogether. After this custom of dropping 
the ending in the present tense had become common, new verbs would 
be formed on the new, rather than on the old system, and so at length 
the number of verbs in -juw would become comparatively inconsiderable. 

350 Supposing -pi to be the original ending of the first person, 
the most natural method of avoiding an additional syllable, while the 
meaning of the ending was still retained, would be by keeping only the 



538 THE PERSOX-EXDIN [Book IV. 

consonant and omitting the final short vowel; this plan we find adopted 
in Latin, though su-rn and inqua-m are the only verb- which exhibit 
it in the present indicative ; in the other tenses and moods m is the re- 
gular ending, as in ammkt m i mi, Its omission at the end of 
the present indicative is perhaps only another instance of that use of 
the final anustara in Latin, which we have pointed out in treating of 
the accusative case; for it will be recollected, that the final m is liable 
to ecthlipsis in verbs a^ well as in nouns- But in Greek -a en: 
according to the Lawi <.f euphony, stand at the end of a word ; in i 
ening tin- ending, therefore, in the way we have supposed, the in I 
iUl K r DAI -truck cut, or resentaiiYe diu4 have been 
Mil.-tituted for it. We lad both methods adopted. The former is the 
cnimuMn one fa 

(ir - apj>ears in the secondary forms, as 

I- . of m and I aleo 

o h o ei ied in tl> 

hat riVT^-fi., not xwir- :ld be tl. 

btn of rrrrw, in wfatefc hi analogy of the Sanscrit 

It seems 

conclude, that, in DM - ^ with a consonant. 

ith the suffix • a short o or «, 

especially in forms like rvw-r-m, r S> 9 M , W root is str 

bv a consonantal addition. As we have suggested above ($ 347), there 
the mote of M ened 

; i. still seen in the third jvcr^on plural in -d«ri 
(belff " - 1 i r infennce, that t -iduum of 

some pronominal adjunct ftM • raV-fHS, ■•> s as 

which, therefore. sd any further corroboration. The long 

1 at the end of these barytone verbs is due : le of 

compensation which we so often find in tie nd other languages. 

Thus reVrti would stand t • end 

rv-KTi, for ri - The reader I formation of the 

comparative-endings -w* from -oi 1 he cases 

uite different ; in these the verb-root itself is length- 
ened, as in the nouns tm-pv ->t. 

XA Upon the who! nclnde, that the first person 

singular in I i reek. Latin, and Sanscrit, was always designated by m-, 
in the present indicative o( t' pe. That 

?n- was the element of the objective ca<es ->oun 

is ob\i,i>. i 'ear enough, that when tin • the 

•i-ending nub: \ press an agent ; in the action 



Chap. I.] THE PERSON-ENDIXGS. 539 

or doing implied by the root must be set forth as proceeding from him ; 
this is effected in the flexion-system of the languages we are consider- 
ing? by putting the name of the agent in the instrumental, ablative, or, 
what is equivalent in Greek, the genitive case. The strong resemblance 
which subsists between the instrumental and ablative of the third per- 
sonal pronoun in Greek, and the termination -tw of the third person 
imperative active, cannot be overlooked : and it has been remarked by 
an able philologer {Quarterly Eeview, Vol. LVII. p. 99, note), that 
" the ancient Latin imperatives, estod, vivitod, and the analogous Veda- 
imperative, jivatat = vivito, are unequivocally in the ablative form." 
See also Curtius, Sprachvergl. Beitrage, p. 270 sqq. In all proba- 
bility, tbe ending mi is merely an abbreviation of the instrumental 
me — mai, to which it stands related as irep\ does to irapai, whereas 
the third person of the imperative prefers the stronger inflexion of the 
ablative in -w[V] = -&>S = -oQe v, a difference of case which does not pro- 
duce any real difference in the meaning of the pronoun affixed. In- 
deed, as the instrumental and locative are often used with the same 
application (§ 246), and as the differences of voice are indicated by the 
contrast of their distinctive meanings, it would appear more reasonable 
that the ablative inflexion should have been used throughout the moods 
as an indication of the active verb. 

352 In the middle, however, we should expect to find indications 
of a locative-case in the personal suffix : for in this voice the action is 
supposed to end with the agent, as indeed is implied in the name at- 
mane-padam or " self- form," given to it by the Sanscrit grammarians. 
That the passive verb, in the languages which we are considering, must 
have been originally a middle or reflexive verb, is implied in the exist- 
ence of a first person, if the explanation we have given of the personal 
suffixes be the correct one, for the person must express that the action 
begins and ends at the same point. 

The middle or passive person-endings are distinguished from the 
active by a greater weight and fulness of form. The first person middle 
in Greek is -fxai; in Sanscrit it is wanting, but the other persons exhibit 
a similar alteration by guna of the active person-ending. As the active 
-mi points to the instrumental me, so -mai must be due to the locative 
-magi, the person-ending being, in each instance, an abbreviation of 
the regular case of the pronoun. Thus, if hi-lco-fxt means " a giving 
effected by me," or " I give," Bt'-Bo-jucu will signify " a giving of which 
I am the object," i. e. " I give myself," or " I am given," the giver 
being presumed. The analogy of the secondary form -^v shows that 
the complete locative affix mai must have been men = mayina ; com- 



540 THE PERSON-ENDIN [Book IV. 

pare er, fro, with el, ul, and the common locative in i with the more 
original form -*-». The Sanscrit third person imper. mid. tuda-tam 
may induce DJ to form the same conclusion with regard to the 2nd 
and 3rd person-endings in -o % while those in a and e are explained by 
the analogic- pointed out above (§ 263). 

363 £xd 1' woiujt 

The characteristic of the BOoond person in Gn. - - :md this 

may be considered m ■ shortened f«-rm of -<n (wh : . ined only 

in the Doric <'<>-"<'. though it appears consistently in the B 

Z« n-1. and SdftTOnk), n -in and Ql od of 

otlp I 

the connexion of which with the second p< n >• we 

bra before pointed on< -— *\ I" the hnperatta re as 

-fli. This ending • the Sai nann 

will not alh.v, .1 »n be 
considered ■ teiminntion ; fa 

the ending, will appear 
the folhn -^derations, in addition 

fn.in the analogy of the fTanwiiii Ths two words, in which thh 

initiation mod fr. QUI Si 

gnat antiquity. The fin ~ F : 

In these two instances, 

then, -I 1 " i* ol.\i.u-lv the termination. SS i? -s\ in tin- in 

the <r OH d to 

the root in such f | Wl of an easy 

mation; fol in the 000188 of time t f the 

termination would ho fol Inark 

of the second person, would W inserted on a s 
we sometimes find This m n (VetyL 

mu, p. 655); he formerly thought with Buttman n, that th 

mination WIS -odal in the 

he remarks u the (invk bl r to Q, as 

i. manHostiy erina I by the passive participle formed by the - 

; but prefixing 9 to the c\ then 

pre. There* no wonder if Un I * »*« 

out of the Sanscrit termination U >." In the second person of the 

• It naBM th.u Bophodai "rote i>;<rt>« in th* 2nd person plural: i 
A a id* dxo rvv t i ^vy*©*^* Ktu t« W* 



Chap. I.] THE PERSON-ENDINGS. 541 

Latin perfect, we look upon -ti as the person-ending, the preceding 
s being a representative of Jca = sa = ha, the proper characteristic of 
that tense. 

354 The termination of the second person passive, in the Greek 
verbs in -pi, is -o-ai, as in rl0€-<rai ; in the ordinary verbs this is con- 
tracted to -»;, as in tuVtj7 for Tvirrea-ai. It is very remarkable, that, 
though all Greek verbs keep the full form in -fxai for the first person, 
the second person is shortened in this way : and conversely, though in 
Sanscrit the full form of the second person is invariably preserved, the 
first person of the passive is abbreviated quite analogously to the ab- 
breviation of the second person in the passive of Greek barytone verbs. 
Thus, we have 

bhar-e (pefj-o-fxat, 

but lhar-a-se (pep-ti. 

This omission of the a- in the middle of Greek verbs has been more 
than once explained (see § 114). We have had a similar evanescence 
in the nouns (§ 244). 

355 3rd Person Singular. 

Of the third person singular we have little to say, after the general 
remarks which we have made on the two preceding suffixes. In the 
Doric forms of verbs in -pi it is written -Tt, which is either softened 
into -<n in the ordinary dialects, or represented by *, as is the case in 
all the barytone verbs. For the imperative in -tw, see above § 351. 

In the middle or passive, the regular ending -rat is invariably 
preserved in the primary forms. We have already adverted to the 
inference which may be drawn from the Sanscrit imperative tuda- 
tam (§ 352), namely, that -rat was originally -rrjv. The forms in 
-o-0a) belong to a later falsification, which will be discussed in the 
proper place. 

356 1st Person Plural. 

The arguments which have been advanced to prove the original 
identity of the dual and plural of nouns applies also to these numbers 
in the verb ; besides, Buttmann has shown {Ausfuhrl. Sprl. § 87. 4 
Anm. I.), that, in the case of the Greek verb, the dual is actually 
nothing but an older form of the plural. We shall, therefore, consider 
these numbers together. 

In the active voice, the Greek makes no distinction between the 
dual and the plural of the first person ; the Sanscrit presents the form 



542 THE PEIiSON-ENDi: [Bo 

vas or va for the first person of the dual in the active voice, but this 
is only a modification of the plural mas ; compare vayam for may amy 
&c. (Bopp, Vergl. Gramm. p. 331). 

The ordinary characteristic of the first person plural in Greek is 
-ncv, the older form is -/jc<t, which the Latin -mils, 

and to t! n that the singular -;/<i 

stand- bl -no-, the instrumental of the piWHI. b 
the eharactt ri.-tic of tin firol Demon ]«lural in old 
well in the secondary as in tlie primary -is thi« : 

clearly baOOfa H Thil -in>'.- cannot stand for mas, as J 

When we r< lleet fthat the idea pf " \A 

considered m oontarnod in th reonaJ pi 

shall refrain from ad<»j,; 

racteristic, namely, by supposing that the final * i? merely the ordinary 

mark pf thr plural numl»r. If. in-tead <.f th:- r tho last 

Utter M tht.* I f the second per- ..-. which 

course allowable, we -hall find I anno with all I 

phenomena <>f the plural chai ary one which 

i~ oo n o ai t ont with «»ur d .-. En th \k la- . 

find the form -ma-si as the I pereon plural < I 

acti\ lements at full length. 

In the middle <<r paei 
and plural of the I B are in the oldoel ' r#or, 

re recent BAM being -pt$ov y -pt&a, where the a 
i- omitted, as in t rsou plural of the 

active \erl) in Sanscrit. We are inclined, how. i?ider the dual 

form -iu-c\>-i\ or the JEofie - f the 

first pereon plural of the pa ible represents 

the element of tin is, as we have 

shown, one of the form* of the BOOOnd pen I final 

letter is -■. the old. - the locative 0800, which is neces- 

sary to the paaem i 

The Indian languages furnish analogies oonfirmator 
The characteristic of the San-ori: I lal is r,// : that of the pas- 

lual an km i. Dote the Aa stand? for the ojoanol i>ereon (B 
nana*, p. 651). Than, Benearifl ra-Aa - Zend aam 

rit dv-h\ ■ Zend </</:-./ - /end AisUi 

Sanscrit tisht h\i-s\, and /end oVattA-Jti = Sanscrit tl<uid-fi. The sylla- 
ble It'i'i stands lelati n -<rai does to -<r s that ia, in the relation of 

locative to instrumental. The same mav l>c sal I 



Chap. 1.] THE PERSON-ENDINGS. 543 

(for -did is one of the forms of the second personal pronoun), and of 
the Sanscrit -make, -mahai. The forms -mahi, -vahi, maybe com- 
pared with the less genuine form -/*e0a ; they have all lost the final n, 
the passive characteristic or locative ending, according to the principle 
so often explained (§ 114). The full form must have been -/xe-drju, 
which passed through -fxeQov and -fxedai to -juefla. 

358 2nd Person Plural. 

In Greek the second person plural of the active voice appears in a 
very mutilated state. It is invariably written -re, or in the dual -tov. 
We are enabled, however, by the aid of the cognate languages to arrive 
at its real form. In Latin it is -tis, or -tote. In the perfect, the plural 
in -s-tis must be explained in the same manner as the singular in -s-ti. 
In Sanscrit we find -thas as a dual or older form, and -dha as the 
plural, which is mutilated like the Greek. A comparison of the 
Greek dual -tov with the Latin plural -tis, and the Sanscrit dual -thas, 
leads us to conclude that it stands for -to?, as -ywei/ stands for -/*e? in 
the first person of the plural. We should, however, still be at a loss 
to explain the ending, were it not for the aid afforded us by the 
sister languages. It appears from the Sanscrit thas, that the second 
person dual is made up of a repetition of the second person singular; 
and this is farther shown by a comparison of the Latin imperative 
ending -tote = -tca-t<>, with the old Umbrian -tu-to. 

This view is confirmed by the passive characteristic of the second 
person plural -<rde for -o-flai, which in the dual or older form is -<r-6o-v 
for -o-tV, and in which the repetition of the second person singular is 
manifest. 

359 3rd Person Plural. 

The third person plural presents us with difficulties considerably 
greater than either of the other two. It is very hard to determine with 
certainty the elements of which the dual characteristic is composed, and 
still harder to reconcile the dual with the plural. 

It is only in the historical tenses of the ordinary Greek, that the 
second and third persons of the dual are distinguished from one an- 
other : in the primary forms they are the same in both active and 
passive, namely, both -to./ in the former, and both -adov in the latter; 
in the secondary forms n is substituted for o in the third person. In 
Homer there are three passages in which we find the termination ~ov in 
the third person of historical tenses, and Elmsley has shown (ad Ari- 
stoph. Ach. 733), that in the Attic writers the second person in the his- 
torical tenses was occasionally written -t^. It may be laid down, with 



544 THE PERSON -ENDINGS. [Book IV. 

Buttmann (Ausfiihrl. Sprachl. § 87. Anm. 2 note), that in the Old 
Ionic, the termination -©» was used for the second and third persons of 
the dual in all moods and tense? ; in the Old Attic, we find the follow- 
ing distinction, — 

Primary tenses and conjunctive, 2nd and 3rd o*, 

Ili-torical ttMM and optai 1 and 3rd n*, 

while in the more modem Greek the -1 

Primarv fa— M and conjunctive, 2nd and 3rd o», 

Historical tenses and o pla l i TB, 2nd ov, 3rd n»- 

The earne di-tinrtiou WM oh —T ed in the imperative; only in this case 
the third | i tm g ui ehed by o» ms( 

The letter It, in many modem languages an indistinct sound, has 

mad uieawtnti 

so many leiten HQ4 much fl t, that it might ■ _'0 to 

■ay one not tequainted with the bmki 

ti. oed before (| B6) that then lie oalj ?Un< * 

at tli rmdmGl ( * these />(« 

m in this position, tad - only twice, in h , which, as we 

shown, in pecuK i Wilh ■" need 

urn wondei that, when a consonant eaght to stand a-. ; . of a 

W or«l, in Old ■ sent 8> significant suffix reduced to its conso- 

nantal uliMiiont. ti mt ehonld - 

which ei B O M nw o nt thai 

qnontly appean in the 

and -to. for -to, - une principle, ture 

that the third pemon dual, - -<• or *•*■ M ^ 9econd 

i n-ending is made up of the element of the ■ onal pro- 

noun twioe repeated, the third ehonld be eo n ot rac tad by a similar 
repetition o( the thiid pereoo, We meat, then sem- 

blance of the first and - the dual in the active as well 

as in the paesrre < ithet prodnced by m 

analogy. In the | ' « Ihoneooi 

petition, namely, of the second person singular with a mark of 
t l u > boat] M in the third person the same - - 

.to-to-v, namely, a similar repetition of the third penon angular 
the same mark of the locative case. This may seem wonderful.- 
hapa, at fin* Bight, hardly credible— hut it it the only n : lain- 

mg the fact, and etymoiogieallj ipeakiag there ii nothing Ognjl 
The Sanscrit pteoenta the two character^: rm in whi 

can more easily reoogmae the distinction of persons. In the 

second person dual ia -.'/,.*-.* (for -Oa-nie or -Os- 

(f or a the passive, the second person d h&-m (for 



Chap. 1.] THE PERSON-ENDINGS. 545 

-thd-thd- with a locative ending); the third, d-td-m or d-te (for td-td 
with a locative ending). 

360 The genuine form of the third person plural of the Greek 
active verb in -fxi is -vn, which is still found in Doric remains (Butt- 
mann, Ausfuhrl. Sprl. § 107, Anm. 7, note), and all verbs give -i/tcu 
in the middle or passive. The Boeotians wrote -vdi for -vn (Bb'ckh, 
Corp. Inscript. I. n. 1569 a. III). This is an approximation to the 
ordinary Greek, in which the termination is - \ v \ <ri, or -<n with a com- 
pensation for the -». The Dorians wrote Zihovn, the Boeotians Sehdavdi, 
the Attics Sitoao-i or htlova-i. We have mentioned before that the roots 
of the verbs liZufii and tWi^m, are 0e-, So-, and that the length of the 
penultima is occasioned by the insertion of a short a which connects 
the root with the affix (§ 347). This addition to the root is not found 
in the first and second persons of the plural, B/So/xei/, llSore, TiQefxev, 
Tidere, on account of the greater weight of these forms. Now the 
first and second persons of the plural are proparoxytone, but the third 
is paroxytone. As the contracted forms Sicovo-t, Tifleun, Yo-Tao-t, heiK- 
vv<ri, are properispome, we may conclude that the accentuation of Bt- 
covti, Ttdevri, is correct, that the fuller forms were hiZ6a-vn 3 rSea-vTi, 
and that the additional vowel was lost at a later period in the third 
than in the two other persons of the plural. This view is confirmed 
by the Bosotic heloavdt and the Attic SidoWt, Tideao-t. That a short 
a is frequently substituted for a v, we have shown in treating of the 
declensions, and we find instances of it in the tenses of the verb : thus 
we have KeKXiarai for KCKAii/raj, (ruxrolaTO for o-w'coij/to, &C The v in 
ZiCovti would therefore become a short a, and not a long one as in St- 
locuTi, unless we suppose an original form liloa-vn, which became Se- 
loavQi in Bceotic, and, substituting a for v and <r for 6 according to the 
common practice, hicoa-a-crt or %t%6a<ri in Attic. That a final a of the 
crude verb is implied in the termination -a<ri may be also inferred from 
the perfect active, which invariably terminates in a, and uniformly ex- 
hibits this form of the third person plural. We cannot believe that this 
final a was found in the present tense of verbs which were otherwise 
strengthened by pronominal additions. The form heucuvaa-i, to which 
Bopp adverts ( Vergl. Gramm. p. 663\ appears to be the offspring of a 
later use of analogy, and was perhaps suggested by the wish to avoid 
any risk of a confusion with the singular heiKuvo-i. The greater weight 
of the person- suffix explains the form ndeaTai, -riQevrai. We must 
conclude that the rt passed through Oi into <ri before the v was lost, 
and then the change of Itlowi into lilodai, Tidevai into rideT<ri, &c, is 
the same as that of TuVroi/o-a, into Tvirroxxra, eVs into e!e, &c. 

Nn 



546 THE PERSOX-EXI)I\ [Book IV. 

301 The Sanscrit presents us with the fullest analogy for this 
form of the third person, both in the active and the passive — the former 
being -nti, the latter -nti or -ut<ti. In L:itin and old II m it 

is -nt in the active. The Latin passive f«>nn in -ntur deserves a special 
discussion. Dr l'richard [BatUm >-, p. 134, 

foil.) first called attention to the connexion - twees the 

"WYlsh pronoun kmyni l ' tiny" (written y/'' led as a suffix) and 

the Welsh characteristioi of the third person plural, -ewi, -ent, or -ynL 

He doet Hot appear. ho\vr\rr, t<» ha\ If of the 

relation which rabeitti between the pronoun hirynt and these suffixes 
in Welsh. The hot is, i that then uses of nt 

nderednsi reduplication of the third pronominal element It is (i)a 

BgD of the ncnter plural ( .:id M Mirh appears in /nry-nt ; 

( V J) an objeotil nid a- SHOO aj.ji.ar- in the j 

(:>) i do i n ona tia tiTO, a< in the third ponsoa plural of verbs. 

In this la-t u>r, Mr C.irn-tt [Qmmi 100) 

oonriden it analogous to the Bethoenan nesrf*=i7/i, and d< ri\ 

iihination of the demonstrative roots mi + • have 

ali.ady; of the bffBMI hi piM the* M .! - — M in the 

Finnish di Tali MM "that f (irevk i 

'•her,"' M thnii ;'* SoSBOOt are. dual. 

dat. ii.ii/ti ; Tliir. San-rr. aim-. /end no; Latin not; Welsh 

1' NVe have before stated our 

belief thai all these b*Ye aril an obscurer pronunciation of the 

demonstrative t. That :\ standi fai tin- / in the person-endings is 
shown by tha sat nna tTinr-rc-r for «VinrT<T«, ecc^ and we 

believe with Kuhn (./< I - . 31), that the first 

consonant in the plural t< nnination | representative of the 

demonstrative element -f, so that tin :i of the third 

person singular, perfectly analogona to that of the other persons which 

\vr have -mi u-cd to form thrir plural. The voices arr listinguiabed 

by the same difierenea o( oass a- in thr other inflexions. The I 

dialed ha- preserved -itu\ the true form of the inipenr. 
(Aniens, D tic -rrmw, and still more the later 

-TuuTui, are due to corrupt analogies. 

968 It seems right that we ahonid here make a few special 

remarks on tin- prr-on-nulin-s in Latin. In the active these are 
preserved more faithfully than in the (inrk, because the laws of the 
language do not forbid either m or /. the signs of the first and third 
person, to stand at the end o[ the word. In the present indicative, the 
iign o( the tir-t peffSOO sir_ ably WSB a the 



Chap. I J THE PERSON-ENDINGS. 547 

case of sum and inquam. The passive presents much greater difficulties. 
If we compare amo, amat, amant, amare, with their passive forms 
arno-r, amat-ur, amant-ur, amari-er, we should be inclined at first to 
suppose that the termination r, or er, ur, was sufficient to convert an 
active into a passive form. But then, what does this termination 
mean, and how are we to explain amaris and amamini, which do not 
receive it ? Bopp (Annals of Oriental Literature, I. p. 62. VergL 
Gramm. p. 688) and Pott (Etymol. Forsch. I. p. 133, 6) suppose that 
this final r is a representative of the reflexive pronoun, the termination 
of the second person singular being an inversion for ama-sir : Kuhn 
(I. I. p. 26 note) suggests that it may represent the radical consonant 
of the substantive verb. These conjectures are derived from assumptions 
respecting the nature and origin of the person-endings, of which we 
have before expressed our disapprobation. Our opinion with regard to 
the origin of these passive suffixes ought to be consistent with the view 
we have taken of the person-endings in Sanscrit and Greek ; that is, we 
ought to be able to show that the final -wr, which marks the passive 
voice, is a mark of the locative case. Now if we compare the third 
persons in -tur and -ntur with the corresponding singular forms in -t 
and -7it, we must feel that we have here a difference of inflexion. In 
the active, the case-ending is generally lost, but we should infer from 
the Greek and Sanscrit analogies that the original forms exhibited the 
ablative or instrumental inflexions, and this inference is confirmed by 
the imperatives in -to, -tud, -to-te ( Varron. p. 245). For the true expla- 
nation of the passive -tur and -ntur we have a perfect analogy in the 
particle igitur. According to Festus (p. 105, ed. Muller), igitur signi- 
fies inde, postea, turn, and in a Fragment of the XII Tables ( Varron. 
p. 149) it obviously means " thereupon." On a full consideration of this 
particle, it appears to us that its true analysis is the following. The 
first two syllables i-gi- must be taken to represent the composite forms 
e-go-, e-ho, e-ja, and the termination is an inflexion of the third element, 
which is found as a lighter affix in the synonym i-ta. We must there- 
fore compare i-gi-tur with ego-met and e-yia-urj ; and as the most ancient 
r in the Italian languages seems to have originated in a sound like 
(Varron. p. 51), we may conclude that tur is a locative like t60i, so 
that i-gi-tur is an emphatic expression of " there," just as e-go-met is 
of " here." To the more obvious suggestion that tur is merely the case- 
ending -tus = -6ev ( Varron. p. 242), there is this answer, that there is no 
other form in -tur, and that the forms in -ter are synonymous with 
those in -tim, in other words, they have a locative meaning, whereas 
the forms in -tus are ablatives : compare aman-ter with carp-tim, and 
civili-ter wih cceli-tus. As we have amari-er by the side of ama-tur, 

Nn2 



51S THE PERSOX-ENDI.n [Book IV. 

and as iyi-tur is an isolated form, it seems reasonable to class its ter- 
mination, and that of the third person passive, with the Ifii 
-ter, -Llm 1 1 ), rather than with the ablatives in -tat. J 

only in the third per-on. -in-ular and plural, that Wf have the affix com- 
plete. The fir-t IDgvlai hll I ■ eontraction similar to tliat 
which we have pointed out in the Sanscrit: amor stand- I I r, as 
bhnrr does for MflMHnA Tli< ■ plural * also contracted (<mm- 
rnur stand- fin t), but not to so gsntj an extent- The second 
H -iii'_ r 'il;ir and plural remiire a dill -ion. (<*) *■* 

farmer, which ndi in -rw < i m be 

reducible to th- ns, accor 

which they li;t\. sdop( • ^T 8 

(/•>/>/,. /■■ /•••■ ''• i- p. I-"" tih ' awk,# **' lMe 

fine! r being u I *■ n 1" 

of the oomplem m B ; ; 

688) doubt- erhetem so adopt th ee that there is e 

thesm ef Ifce i ndin_r. so that eeeeeni standi hi "/»'*-• " am 

ral objections n wis mo 

II 11 ehsmld Mpnnsj that tise final /• of the imaginary amatir could be 
| a u, „ M | men, ^bich would leave the 

| ; unexplained. In the lir-t pl.t 
cultv in the <-'a.>>e of tie- en »und consistently in the 

imperative and • •ciierally in the eUinne moods and tenses, even in the 
bsmwrm merely the mai rson, 

the moead p ir --u- in qneetmi SI rms. Again, it will be 

recollected, that in tie f the Greek and Latin verb the 

,,f the in, mi the others, in the absence 

of any sign of person, not in the want of any other characteri>t 
we have tvttt€, a ma, &c The prim same as that which has 

Boned an omission of the nominative si^n in the vocative nam 
(above, § 858). Analogy « . 

the -x, which ■ omitted in amar. . SI the sign of the second person, and 
I mark of the passive voice. T emains, is 

identical with the intinitive active. Now the infinitive and imrnr 
have other point-* of re-emblance in regard t<» form, as we shall see in a 
future chapter ; ttwfl vatym, the second person singular first aorist im- 
perative middle, might be thought the same word as t. first 
■nrist hsfnitil known to even* reader I 
that the intinitive i- often omd for the imperative. The 1-atin int 
in -/■< corresponds, as we shall show more at length h M the 
Jfiellfl infinitive in -.>t^-<t, « th th verbals, formed with the 

id prouominal surtix. a- ' shell also 



Chap, lj THE PERSON-ENDINGS. 549 

endeavour to prove that a passive verbal is generally used to form the 
active infinitive. Now the difference between amare and amarier is 
one of case only : the more common form of the latter word is amari, in 
which even this difference is neglected, for the i belongs to the verbal in 
-ris = -sis, as appears from the forms amaris, yeXais. All things con- 
sidered, it appears to be far from improbable that the second person 
passive, amare, is this verbal which is also used for the infinitive, and 
that amaris was formed, by an addition of the characteristic of the 
second person, on a mistaken analogy, (b) We might suppose that 
the second person plural of the Latin passive verb, which ends in -mini, 
bore a similar relation to the Greek infinitive in -fxevai, and indeed this 
has been suggested by Grafe {das Sanskrit Verbum, p. 120). That 
this, however, is not the case, but that the second person plural is a 
participle in the nominative case with the copula suppressed, formed 
indeed by the same pronominal suffix as the Greek infinitive referred to, 
but not used like it in the locative, appears from the following con- 
siderations, which were first brought forward by Bopp (Annals of 
Oriental Lit. I. p. 51. Vergl. Gramm. p. 689). It is clear that the 
Latins had a passive participle in -minus : we find it rather shortened 
in alu-mnus, Vertu-mnus (comp. Kptfiefxvov, &c); and at full length 
in ter-minns, fe-mina, and ge-mini for genimini. In the imperative it 
is written -minor, as in amaminor. Now the sign of the plural nomi- 
native in the old Umbrian is -r ; thus we have in the Eugubine tables 
sulator, screhitor for subacti, scripti, corresponding to a singular form 
in o, as orto, sulato for ortus, subactus; and, what is still more to the 
point, the Latins had a singular imperative in -mino ; thus we find 
fam\no = dicito, in Festus (p. 87), pra?famino =prafato, in Cato (B. R 
141), and in an inscription, published by Gruter (p. 204), we have: is 
earn agruni nei habeto nei fruimino, where the participle in -mino is 
clearly used for the third person singular. There need be no confusion 
between the r of -minor and that which marks the other persons of the 
passive voice. As r is the mark of both genitive singular and nomina- 
tive plural in the Umbrian, so its substitute -s designated both of the 
same cases in old Latin, and its vocalization -i again the same two cases 
in the more modern state of the language. Nor need we be surprised 
that the termination is fixed, and does not change according to the 
gender of the substantive ; for when the use of this participle without 
the verb estis became permanent and regular, the gender of course would 
not change : if it did it would be unnecessary to investigate the form at 
all, since it would then stand on the same footing with the Greek use of 
the participle for the third person of the perfect passive, rervfXfxevoi 
cl*\ being the regular form. In this case, however, the copula is never 



550 THE PERSON-EXDI\ [Book IV. 

omitted. At least, it is clear that in the only instance which has been 
quoted to prove the contrary, namely, JKschyl. Humeri. 340, the true 
reading is not a-rrevcofjievai^ for the immediately following 6V a *S tcara- 
<pepoo, Sec. would then be intolerable; and the /j»;c' e' dyKpiaiv {X$tm 
would have no meaning, if applied to the Eumenides, whose special 
bu-iness was to impeach the boam ade. 1 

and to the whole context we b**i \mtund to read the passage thus 
in our netoaon of tie i^j-8): 

<T7T€vcufsevo<: c' d<pc\c7v Ttva rdacc fitpliiva*, 
dewv c' uTeXciav fjMft Xefrai? €iriKpatv€iv t 
fMfO n uyKpHTtv (AflfiV, 

'/.(vc ai/jotrTayf*; d^idfuaov ' 1 Af'tr^a* 

a? dtrt]£it6<raTo t 

i. r. "Zeus, b ling uurioiu (making 1 hu-iness/or h'\m*<K dt Ajam. 
147) to relieve every one from these cares, and by my min^t rations to 

obtain an immunity f<>r the gode, and not to 1 

baa renounoed all i nte rco u rse of deahngi with the odious race of h 
ci.lt-." Although we do not befiere thai the participle in -utvo* is 
used as a primary pfedioatfl without the oopida, we are aware that 

with other participles this construction i- not uncommon (see JEschyl. 
B9, 515, ed Klau-mV And we need n I our- 

Belret to find Greek ii menon which is one of the 

moat singular features of the Latin language. The best syntactical ana- 
fof Bopp'fl explanation of the second person plural passive in Latin, 
is one which he ha- pointed out in the Sanscrit language. There is a 
periphrastic future in thai language, <>f which the third person, singular, 

dual, and plural, appear- thing else than the nominative mascu- 

line of a participle ha\ ing a future sense and formed by the suffix tri. 
In the nominative ca-c -insular of this participle the r is left out and 
a long <i Subst itu ted fof it, M in diti ve" (daturut) ; but 

the nominative of the dual and plural . 7*. The first 

and second persons of this future are expressed by a combination of this 
participle with the verb substantive, as will appear from the following 

scheme : 

S — Dual. 

1 >tvu l>\tatma$ 

ft D /' Ma 

8 

In the tir- ns the participle and verb are sometimes 

separated by the intervention of other words, as in: l<irtii tad atmi 
t<\. M I will do this for j urus hoc rwr/; 7 M-BJtftrata) ; 



Chap. 1.] THE PERSON-ENDINGS. 551 

kathamtrdtd parasutdn asi? "why are you going to preserve the 
sons of another?" — cur servaturus alius filios es ? (Ramayana). The 
suggestion of Ewald, in his review of Grafe (Zeitschrift fur die Kunde 
des Morgenlandes for 1837, p. 110 foil.), that -mini is a corruption of 
the Sanscrit -dhvdm, does not appear to us to merit any serious attention. 

B. SECONDARY FORMS. 

£63 The secondary forms of the person-endings are generally 
shorter varieties of the primary forms: this abbreviation is caused, as we 
have already hinted, by the augmented length of the verb in the histori- 
cal tenses. The first person singular is marked by -v, a representative of 
-/a or -fxt. The same substitution takes place in the Frankish language 
in the present tense : thus we have rnachon " I make," machos " thou 
makest," rnachot "he makes" and " ye make," but machomes and ma- 
chont for the first and third persons plural. We find the same letter 
standing for -rt in the third person singular, and for -vti in the third 
person plural. It appears, indeed, to be the regular abbreviation of the 
third person plural, for, though we have beside it a longer form in -<rav 
as the termination of the third person in some of the historical tenses 
both active and passive, we consider this as an illegitimate and later 
suffix. Eminent philologers (Buttmann Ausfuhrl. Sprl. § 107- Anm. 
7 note; Bopp Annals of Oriental Literat. p. 60) regard this -<rav as 
the third person plural of the verb substantive; an opinion from which 
we entirely dissent, for the following reason. Those tenses in which 
this ending occurs do not offer any trace of a periphrastic formation in 
the other persons. Let us take a simple instance. The imperfect of 
Tt6tifM runs thus in the active and passive : 

Active. 
€Tidr]-v(— /u) 

€TldtJ-^ 

CTlde-TOV 
€Tlde-Tt]V 

€Tlde-fX€V 

iride-T€ 
eride-a-au 

Now if we compare these two forms with any common form of the 
imperative indicative, ctutttoi/, for example, we shall find that they 



Passive. 


iride 


-fxriv 


€T10€ 


-GO 


eTide- 


•TO 


eTtde-fJiedou 


eTi0€< 


■adov 


eride- 


■adr]v 


eride-ixeQa 


erlde- 


<r6e 


irtde- 


■VTO 



552 THE PERSON-ENDING S. [Book IV. 

correspond exactly except in the third person plural. We can hardly 
believe, therefore, that when such a perfect correspondence 
every other person, both active and passive, the third person plural of 
the active alone should be really different in nature and origin. In the 
analogies for such a variation, for instance, the third person plural of 
the perfect passive Terv^fxevoi elo-l, the third person of the San- 
phrastic future, and the second plural of the Latin passive verb, men- 
tioned above, we have clear ind: f a partieiple, which in the 
last two cases, appears alone, but in the case under consideration, the 
first part of ir'tOe-fruv fbf jfirt l flf" betH no resemblance to any parti- 
cij>le which could be joined with I b to form a person 
of rrvAf*. Accordingly | rather that the plural 
endings ctvttto-v, eT*0c-raJ> pen originally the HMj tlian that 

different. And this we think po--il.]o. If we compare the MNM 
ending of the third pemon plural in the present tense, namely -<ri(*), 
with the old oik- it: ing facts. In the pre- 

n lias been made for the loss of the •■ in the 
original ending, and ti/tttoi for tv'ttoj^i, and nitre 

tutttoi'ti. Tl) md at the end of this termi- 

nation, when tin- following word begilM with a vowel, may have owed 
it- Origin t-» an indi-tinct fsalieg that the u included in the diphthong 
betas the ending was -till wanting, or from a mi-taken analogy: | 
however, it WSJ not essential by the Gl ]>aars 

befor S ipposing then that the original forms of th 

perfect in and witto-vt^ which may be inferred fron 

middle, we have only to inquire what abbreviations would meet 
bablv result from the greater weight of the form. The existing X-twwtov 
lead- u- I =€Ti6t]v; and as this would be identical with 

angular, the analogy i>\' jjou a-*, 

bed by the -<n-» of the present, would readily suggest the insertion of 
<r. The thoroughly corrupt ri-irTCT»-<ra» from ti>itt«t«, shows to • 
an extent this secondary process might be carried. 1 
ab/ui-n by the side of <i-/'/-.< ; in the former nam the ~n of the suffix -wf 
is alone retained, in the latter t is preserved and softened into s. 

964 We have thus seen that in the active voice, the secondary 
forms, when they differ from the primary, are generally corrupt* 
mutilated. The contrary is the case in tin angular of the 

secondary form passive, which is written -p*v instead of -im, and 
"which, as we have seen above (J :>.' - have been tin 

inflexion. Of the other persou-endin_ -t and second dual and 



Chap. 1.] THE PERSON- ENDINGS. 553 

plural do not differ from the primary passive forms. The third dual is, 
as we have mentioned, -o-Orjv instead of -<t0oj/, which again is more 
genuine. The second and third singular and the third plural differ from 
the primary passive forms by being written -<ro, -to, -vto, instead of 
-o-ai, -Tat, -vrai. The second person singular is generally subjected to 
a contraction similar to that of the primary form ; namely, as TuVTe- 
<rai becomes ti/Vt^, or tvittci, SO ervirre-aro and eVin^a-cro become 
ctvtttov and eVin^a). 

Bopp ( Vergl. Gramm. 680) and Kuhn (de Conjugatione in -/xi, p. 25) 
have attempted to show that the middle or passive forms are redupli- 
cations, namely, -fxai for -fxa/ju or fxafxa, and so on ; so that the agent 
as well as the object of the action are expressed by the affix. The latter 
sees a confirmation of this view in the secondary form -wv, which he 
thinks stands for urm or yma/x. This opinion was probably suggested by 
the erroneous belief that the person-endings are nominative cases. We 
have already shown that this is an untenable hypothesis. But there 
are other objections to this theory respecting the person-ending. If 
we may consider the active forms as inflexions of the affix, we may 
fairly conclude that the same explanation will apply to the middle 
form, and there can be no more reason why part of the active ending 
should be included in the middle, than there would be for supposing 
that the locative ending must include the ablative. Besides, in the 
remaining pronominal elements, which still maintain an independent 
existence as particles, we have forms analogous to all the person-end- 
ings of the verbs, and these particles cannot be explained as reduplica- 
tions ; why then should we attempt such an explanation in the other 
case ? The third pronominal root furnishes us with the following ana- 
logies to the person-endings : rot (corresponding to the third person 
singular active) ; ro (corresponding to the third person singular passive, 
secondary form) ; re for re-i/, comp. *e, kci/, &c. (corresponding to the 
second person plural active for tc-v or re-<?). The first, the following : 
fxoi = fxi (corresponding to the first person singular active); fxr} = fxai t 
comp. 8>7, oat, &c. (corresponding to the first person singular passive) ; 
/xe'i/ (corresponding to the first person plural active, though the final 
letter is of different origin) ; fxtjv (corresponding to the first person sin- 
gular passive, secondary form). For the change of <rai, rai, into <ro, to, 
we may compare ir-po with napai, uVo with u7rcu, &c. 

365 The following table will enable the student to estimate at 
one view the difference between the primary and secondary forms of the 
person-endings in the two voices. 



554 



THE PERSOX-EXDINGS. 



[Book IV. 



Primary form 
Secondary form 



-in 

-V 



ACTIVE. 

SINGULAR. 
2 
-m, -6a } -vi, 
-*, -6a 



■K -TO), -T(, 



Primary form 
Secondary form 



Primary form 

Secondary form 



DUAL. 

2 
-TOV 
-TOV 

PLOT LL. 






2 

-re 



s 

•TOV 
-Tt\V 



-v, [-era*] 



Primary form 

Secondary form 



Primary f.»rm 

Beoondary form 






PASSIVE. 

-IN' ,11. AH. 
2 

-<ro, - 



1 

.fteBov 
•fstdov 



I'l Al.. 
2 



s 



s 

-<t(Vi 



Primary form 
Secondary form 



l 



nun 

2 



3 

-rrai, 

-KTO, -aTO 



36(3 We cannot leave the subject of tin -affixes without 

making a few remarks on an interesting phenomenon which Bopp was 

the first to explain satisfactorily, and which he calls the "influence of 
the weight of the person-endings." Every student of (Jreek grammar 
must have remarked, that though the <. s | rbs in -^« are all 

formed from roots ending in a vowel or -»i, which is regularly length- 
ened when joined to the person-endings, yet this is the case only in the 
singular of the active voice. The explanation of the phenomenon is as 
follows. In the process of abbreviation, always going on in 



Chap. 1.] THE PERSON-ENDINGS. 555 

which admit of indefinite composition, there is a war between the body 
of the word and its appendages ; and when these latter become very- 
weighty, the curtailment falls upon the body of the word. Now all 
the dual or plural person-endings are duplicates of the singular, and, 
therefore, twice as heavy, and the passive endings are, as we have seen, 
necessarily fuller than the active. Accordingly, to keep up the equi- 
librium of the verb, it was necessary that the root should be left in 
its simple form in those persons where a heavier system of terminations 
was adopted. In the third person plural active the long syllable is 
retained, but, as we have shown, by a sacrifice of part of the termina- 
tion. For the rest, we may repeat, what we have said before, that a 
principle of equilibrium or compensation is observed throughout the 
Greek language, so that this " influence of the weight of the person- 
endings" is not a new or isolated phenomenon, but a good example of 
the general rule. 



CHAPTER II. 
THE TENS J 

3(»7 Relations of mood and ten^e. Their proper arrangement 368 Limitations of 
Bopp's theory of agglutination. 3M Genuine forms of verhs include pronomi- 
nal adjuncts. 37<> Augment and reduplication are not identical. The aug- 
ment t- from dva expresses distance. 3/1 The future <r- an indication of prox- 
imity. 37'2 Connexion of aorist and future. Burnoufs theory of the tenses. 
V>7.\ How the aorist combines the expression of posteriority with that of past 
time. 37 I Tin 2nd aorist. 375 The desiderative in -<r</«. 37fi The 1st and 
ted ] ^t and perfect agree in termination, and differ in the re- 

duplication of the latter. This is shown by the Latin forms of the perfect. 
878 Repetition! of the termination in *sire aorists : erroneous 

riewi rei p ett i n g thcM formations. 31lO Supposed active aorists which must be 
considered as belonging to this . in -rjv due to the insertion of 

the pronominal element ///. WW! .\ •;» similarly formed by the insertion 

of tlttjd. WWW This l.i»t element is not immediately connected with the root of 
tHUiui. ."Middle forms with transitive signification. 384 Middle futures to 
artist. \trl>s. i;al formation of passive futures. 386 Tenses in -<tkov. 

- ns. 

3G7 1 1 is difficult to icstions connected 

X with tli- vek, without 

including some t ng to an inquiry into 

the origin ami moaning of the modal inflexions, because, as we 
shall BOOH MS, the intlexions of tense and mood are in 
identical. In tli< ^sive analysis, however, of the verbs, 

it is customary 1 : r the expression of the relations of 

time immediately after those of number and person, and distinct 
from those of modality; and since these must he 1 d as 

subject to some sort of modality, to treat of them in the 
instance tfl they appear in the indicative mood, in that mood 
which is tiwi when nothing 

tion is intended. For form*! nkfl ill abide bj 

old method. 

The tense-svstom of the Greek verb is wonderfully compre- 
hensive: in number of tenses it : Mb the Latin, and in 
the preoisenssa of their sign: it leaves the Sanscrit a 
long way behind. The proper and most general division of the 
Greek inflexions of tense and mood, is into d< finite and itide- 
jinitc forms. In accordance, however, with tlu -tern, we 
will first discuss the tenses agreeably to the three great divi- 
sions. — according as they signify j>n<<nt. past, or future time. 



Chap. 2.] THE TENSES. 557 

Of these divisions, we must omit the present tense : the affec- 
tions of that form are not so much variations of tense, as peculi- 
arities of conjugation; it belongs, therefore, to a future chapter. 
Before we discuss in detail the different tense-forms, it may- 
be convenient that we should state the general results at which 
we have arrived. It is hoped that the reader will be convinced 
that the proper expression of past time is by means of the 
prefix a- or e- from a-na, denoting distance or separation ; that 
future time is expressed by the second element, under the form 
s- implying proximity ; that continuous action is denoted by 
reduplication ; posteriority in past time by a combination of the 
prefix e- with the affix s- ; and continuation up to the present 
time, by a combination of the reduplicated root with the latter 
affix. These are the regular forms. Abnormal varieties will 
be noticed in the proper place. 

368 It will, perhaps, he proper that we should in the first place 
make a few remarks on the theory of Bopp, according to which many 
of the past and future tenses are formed by agglutination, or composi- 
tion with the substantive verb. Thus he thinks {Annals of Oriental 
Literature, p. 45) that -eo-w, middle -eaofxai, is properly the character- 
istic of the future tense, and that tins is merely the present tense of the 
substantive verb 'ES provided with -w for the termination, to which 
the usage of language has given a future signification. He even goes 
so far as to assume that ea-ovfxai may be an abbreviation of eaea-o/j-ai, 
and (p. 61) that e'ltjaav is a compound of e'/r; and o-avri ! He conceives 
there is an analogy for this in the Sanscrit future characteristic -syami. 
" It may be supposed," he says (p. 47), " that the root As would have 
had a future tense originally, and it seems to me credible that syami is 
this future tense, being lost by lapse of time in disconnected use, and 
being found at present extant only compounded with attributive roots." 
In the same way he considers the first aorist, as it is called (ervrr-o-a, 
&c), as a compound of the root of the attributive verb with the first 
preterite of the substantive verb, and similarly analyzes fu-erunt for 
fuesunt, fu-erim for fuesim, fac-sim, &c. In favour of this general 
view, he adduces the Provencal compound futures, aural for aver ai, 
&c. (p. 46). But these are widely different formations from those 
which he imagines in Sanscrit and Greek. The two parts of the com- 
pound are both existing words, and may be written separately, as 
indeed appears from the instances which he quotes from Sainte-Palaye : 
compatar vos ai for je votes compterai; dar vos n ai for je vous en don- 



558 THE TENSES. [Book IV. 

nerai ; dir vos ai for je votes dirai ; dir vos em for nous rout dirons ; 
gitar m'etz for vous mejeterez. See also Raynouard, Gramm. Romane, 
p. 221. Whereas his supposed compounds are made up of a root, 
which of course cannot exist separately, and of a termination which 
never does appear as a distinct word \ for there is no such verb as 
cam in Greek, and syami is equally imaginary. There art* instances of 
compound tenses in Sanscrit: namely, the future of which we have 
already spoken (§ 3()2), and which is composed of a participle and the 
full verb asmi ; also, a preterite formed of an abstra in o, 

used only in the accusative tfm, and corresponding t<> an infinitive in 
Zend, and one of the three \ . rl.- it | u I was," MMn m I have been," 
and chakara "I have made:" thai from the root iq " to rule." we have 
the abstract substantive /a/, ■OOOMtrte i >'im, and 1 -:tmn with 

the p er fec ts of as-, hkAy and // rmed the perfects ifam-asa, 

all signifying " I ruled" I Bopp, t 
(>'/•>//////). p. 889)* These compounds might !>»■ divided, as is often the 
with tin- former. To a oortnm i truth of 

Hop])'- theory in its ipptiootioi t«» the Latin tenses in -l>o, -Uim, and 
-ri (- | we hare 

eleewhere pointed out an agglutination running through all the tenses 

of the Latin \. , -siri (FflTT re are also in- 

stances of auxiliary or peri] nnatioiis in (Jreek, of whiofc 

shall speak hereafter, but they are all listinotij developed 

verb-, and therefore furui-li no analogy : support of Bopp's 

theory. In •_■ h.t.iI. ips li.ivr M it to presume a composition 

in etymology when the elements I -t separately, than we have 

to infer an ellipsis in syntax, when the supposed full er occurs. 

309 Hut perhaps the greatest objection to this comprehension 
theory of agglutination, ari-es from its contradiction to a mo<: 
developing the tenses natural in itself and supported by BIU1I analogy 
of comparative grammar. In the verb, as well as in the i is a 

wide distinction between compound words and those which are merely 
developements of a root by means of pronominal additions. In | 
ing (Hit the analogy l>etween the verb and the noun, we have me n 
tioned that the person-endings in their modifications correspond to the 
cases. We are oonvinced that the differences of tense and mood, and, 
in some instances, of voiee, were originally expressed by pronominal 
adjuncts, the same in kind with those whi< :he affixes be- 

tween the root and ease-endi: un. Therx^ MO in fact I 

in which the crude-form of a word, whether it be a noun or a verb, 
may be affected. It may either be affected internally, that is. by rvdu- 



Chap. 2.] THE TENSES. 559 

plication, guna, or anusvdra, or externally, by means of some prefix 
or affix. The first method is adopted in the two primary tenses, the 
present and perfect, as will be shown in the chapter on the conjuga- 
tions. The second is applied to the formation of all the other moods 
and tenses, and, in some cases, also to the expression of the passive 
voice. This external pronominal affection is brought about in two 
ways ; first, by a simple prefix of the demonstrative element a, or e, 
called the augment : secondly, by an affix which is always some modi- 
fication of the second pronominal element: thus we have aorists and 
futures under the form sa ; perfects under the form ka y or ha; the 
optative mood under the form ya; the passive voice under the form ya 
or thy a; and sometimes two forms of the same element are combined, 
as in the iterative s-kd, and, according to one view, in the desiderative 
s-ya, and the aorist th-ya just mentioned. In a subsequent chapter 
we shall refer to the same root the derivative affixes in -tja = dya, and 
-e'w, &c. = ya. We begin with the augment. 

370 In the Greek system of tenses, past time is denoted by a 
short € prefixed to the verb or, apparently, by a reduplication of the 
first consonant and root-vowel, which, however, is generally altered 
according to certain rules. Buttmann is inclined to consider the latter 
as the original characteristic of past time, the former being a mutila- 
tion of it (Ausfiihrl. Sprl. § 82, 3 note). Even though we had no 
other objection to offer to this view, we should consider Bopp's argu- 
ment fatal to it. The historical tenses in the Sanscrit verb are marked 
by an augment a : the perfect, in the same way as the Greek, by 
reduplication : but, as Bopp remarks {Annals of Oriental Literature, 
p. 41), " the Sanscrit augment has no connexion at all with the redupli- 
cation, because the redoubled consonant is generally articulated by the 
vowel of the root ; tup forming tutup-, and lif, lilig ; now, if the first 
preterit of these roots were utopat, ile$at, instead of atopat, ale$at, then 
it might be said that there exists some connexion between the redu- 
plication and the augment, when there also would be a mere inflexion, 
whilst, in its actual state, I consider it as an affix which had its proper 
signification." There are, however, other reasons for believing that the 
augment and reduplication are essentially different. Besides the repe- 
tition of the initial consonant with e to form a perfect, there is another 
reduplication, frequently found in verbs in -/**, of the initial consonant 
with a short t to form the present and imperfect. Thus we have t*» 
6rj-iii in the present, and re-Oei-Ka in the perfect. We believe there is 
no essential difference between these two prefixes: the difference of 
tense is expressed by the suffix -<a and the change of the root- vowel, 



560 THE TENSES. [Book IV. 

What the prefix or reduplication means, we must now endeavour to 
find out. The root 0c- might appear in a noun,— fe-oc for instance— as 
well as in the verb -n-rV/ii. In the noun it might imply that the per- 
son indicated was " a placer/' but in I 

of an action— ■• a pMg." N«W an act necessarily implies a continu- 
ance or duration, and what more Wmfk of expressing 
could wr Mr than bj I the root I and thu- we 00 
that, in the bookoa Efjkk of the Negroes, acta are expressed U 

\ am ( ,f n I it was with the original 

(Jreel tens • Thi pfOOOBl and in ■ a con- 

tinuance- [ *« p fc""g " 

■ntinued 

a mixture of ptaoooo oad pari ti tin of I 

duration M pre- n* - Ute 

Ml in this, that I :**** 

of the anion a- ' lime « ■» 

it litahoi bomgh all tfa '; scholars 

rally ohowa. New the oariol Boa* bMI 
Kb th in trakl ■• r^ : 

B cases, when it entirely KBBO it- nua: 
■jfiwlilll Of the augment IN have Mbit spoken (• 
Mm 0001 IMO *»* *• m P 1 ' 

M bnplj o*j I n- go* resent time, a meai usiljr 

remark^ future as well as the past. 

In our opinion it is the pronominal ro 

iind olooatao ■ d aotaaeao. We hare seen how 

t1ll ^ ,:h that of the first personal 

lloun (p. I we shall thai understand how the separate pai 

hieh denotes eou.pletenesa or all between the near and the 
here. ■ DOod as a mark ,A' paal lime in So> defi- 

niteiu-s of huality presumed by oM reader 

them unsuitable for th I of futur bl looking back 

pgjl H -tion. i oaaaaaaa, fix ha position, or regard it 

with a subordinate idea of distance- goaa 

in look! 
indefinite and 000*000*, though peril.. ■ *U cases with a 

sentiment of proximity or approach— the h is OOBI- 

M pronominai root, in the former case, is used as a prefix, and 
the accent is drawn back on it to IBBBB0I time ret - 

jOOl b v . ersely future time is O^RN 

striking ana! '»d in tin " 



Chap. 2.] THE TENSES. 561 

of two syllables, which throw their accent backwards or forwards, 
according as the noun to which they refer precedes or follows. We 
observe something very similar in the shifting of the accent in common 
conversation. It is scarcely necessary to refer to the argument for the 
difference of the augment and reduplication which is afforded by the 
augmentation of the reduplicated perfect to form the plusquamper- 
fectum. 

371 The addition of the letter -<r- to the root of the verb, is the 
commonest method of denoting the future in Greek. This letter, as we 
have mentioned above, represents the second pronominal element; its 
use to denote the future is due to the principle just alluded to, that the 
future, or, as the Germans more correctly call it, Zukunft, properly 
refers to an approximation or " coming." Indeed, the idea of union is 
not excluded from our notions of future time. "The next day," means 
the day following, not the day past : and as the augment points to 
dvdy indicating "distance," so the future sign leads us to o-v-i>, in- 
dicating conjunction. We find this illustrated by the phraseology 
of the best authors. Thus, ol avudev, or eVaVtoflei/, are those of 
former times (Theocr. VII. 5), but to e^d^ei/ov ?to? (Thucyd. VI. 3), 
" the adjoining year," means the year which follows. In certain 
cases the letter -o-- is not immediately joined to the root, but a 
short vowel e intervenes, just as we have both liebete and liebte in 
German, both charmed and charm'd in English, or, to take a still 
more striking analogy from our own language, just as the e is regu- 
larly sounded in some participles, and as regularly dropt in others. 
Of this common future in -<xo>, there are two leading modifications in 
Greek ; they are called by grammarians the Attic future, and the second 
future. The distinction between these two futures, which both end in 
-w in the Attic dialect, consists in this, that, whereas in the Attic 
future in -eo, -u> ; -aw, -w ; the e or a belongs to the root, — in the 
second future the e included in the a? is added to the root : and that in 
the verbs which form the future in -*&> for -icrto the characteristic of the 
verb is dropt ; whereas the second future keeps' its characteristic unal- 
tered. The second future is the regular form for verbs ending in A, ^ 
1/, p. It is to be observed that the Ionians used the uncontracted form 
in -60) instead of the Attic future, and that in Homer we have such 
futures as epvw, n-avvm for epvo-uy, tcxvvo-u). In general, we may say of 
the two shortened futures, that they are abbreviations, the Attic future 
of a future in -o-w, the second future of a future in -e'-<ro>, the <r- being 
omitted as in -rwret for rinrTeo-ai, htjfxoio for hrjfxdo-io, &c. (see § 114). 
If we can understand that lrnxo<no<i and xpvo-eo? belong to the same 

Oo 



562 THE TENSES. [Book IV. 

formations, we shall have little difficulty in identifying the ordinary 
future in -o-co with its weaker form in -eon 

372 The circumstance most deserving of notice in the future is its 
connexion with the tense called the aorist. Th - end- 

ing to the regular future r»r-«, the regular first aorist ^wwa, ac- 
tually differing from it only in the anient. In fact. tV«> «•»»*•» 
( C f. TVTTTmicQa, tvtttoucOov) T»lrm - t, 

;rifea«to0if» stands id ssimpei 

hall show, in the foUowing chapter, that the ssms ret • 

wen 

the future and the sorisl wsstal 

Bornoaf, in hii MOod ,rom 

a oompsrisoo with the I 

nndsring thesnhy _ md, and ■ suf- 

aciently, if si sll, sttsaded so by (hose whn hare written 
ws shall gise bk illnsti 
HediTida 

and tin- sbc ... l.u-v. The principal ssbsss an-, (l) the present, (2) the 
tutu , ISOOsJbrj imperfect, (2) the 

aorist, ana I S) the pine-perl sf wttsh ■ faransd frees the cor- 

, n ary tense. The following mrestigstioa of the Fi 
rerfa /;,-,■ ahowi - ,c primary and the 

: — 

I. Principal tenses, which expresi that the set ' • the 

time of ipeski 
(!) Pre* - u I am reading, !•*■* mo- 

ment. 
(«) Fntnre,> foot, "1 shall raid," '•'■ * " 

ding the pre- nt. 

(;n Perfect, ;"« At, "1 I •" »•«■ at »° ni0 1 

ceding the present moment. 

The whole duration o( time ifl thin divided into thr 

present, which is fixed, so that if 3 -." »o °ne 

will ask von "whan? - —snd the future and perfect. which are hxed 
relatively to the present Forthessf 

read" would eonvev a elear and intelligible idea, even t 

should answer! M I do not know,- or - I do sol rassenaU 1 

tion -when will vou read . : " or -when ha. 

these primary tenses enable sn to see at earn bs which uaikiusJ 



Chap. 2.] THE TENSES. 563 

time, — present, future, or past, — the act relates, and are therefore ab- 
solute and independent, and express only a simple relation to one of the 
three points of time. 

II. Secondary tenses, which imply a relation to some point of time 
other than the present. 

(1) Imperfect,^ lisais, "I was reading." 

(2) Aorist, je lus, " I read." 

(3) Plus-perfect, f avals lu, " I had read." 

All these assertions suggest the question "when?" and if you would 
have your hearer understand you, the precise point of time, when you 
were reading, or read, or had read, must be stated. Accordingly, not 
being determined by themselves, they require some additional state- 
ment to fix their meaning ; and thus they express a double relation or 
two relations, (l) to the past, generally, and this is determined by the 
forms themselves; (2) to some fixed point in the past. The primary 
tenses, therefore, may be called definite {determine) ; the secondary, in- 
definite or half-definite (indetermine or semi-determine). The former 
express only one relation, and this relation is determined by their form ; 
the latter, two relations, of which the form determines only one. 

DEFINITE TENSES. 

The present expresses simultaneity | ^ ^ ^ ^ rf 

The future posteriority > J , , 

™, - .... I speaking. 

The perfect anteriority ; * 

INDEFINITE TENSES- 

The imperfect expresses simultaneity — je lisais 'pendant que vous 

ecrivicz. 
The aorist expresses posteriority — je lus apres que vous eutes fini 

d'ecrire. 
The plus-perfect expresses anteriority— j'avais lus avant que vous 

eussiez ecrit. 

Now all these tenses express anteriority alone, in regard to the time 
of speaking. The relation, in which they differ from one another, is 
the only one expressed by the definite tenses. It is, therefore, by a 
natural analogy that, in the Greek language, the imperfect is derived 
from the present, the aorist from the future, and plus-perfect from 
the perfect, by prefixing the augment, which is the mark of past time, 
to these tenses, which in themselves denote simultaneity, posteriority, 
and anteriority. 

Oo2 



564 THE TENSES. [Book IV. 

373 This view of the case will contribute materially to the bd 
understanding of the whole system of moods and senses in GfSsk. * e 
have seen, from what Burnonf says that all three of the tenses which 
express a double relation may be called oopi*™, or indefinite. But 
-econd of them, which is formed from the future, is peculiarly so, 
from the mixture of pest and future time implied in it. and therefore the 
(J reek grammarian- have particularly j OsM it bj ' 

Thus we find it used in MM wb ,,f *■ 

Lodefimte tenses, thongfa sever, r. ■»*• ten * l 

toted from Xeaophon by Burnouf (§ 357), ss ce of 

it. dm fix Umj pert ■* <*"*> or » n P lirt P°f 

toriority in Id l"» i,lt of time: rw* *n«™p<»* «" 

mw « -r KM ypa\}sarrc*, <rur 

To7 , , them down, and 

them. When r continu - thus 

I to approximate M Ik & 1&**Jt ■ to SOU* 

food pout Of circumstance, whieli is necesear 

■HDS smj, tie- optative, which ■ tin- SStisI of an Sll future, is used to 
express nprtiti-.iK. b *■ indi« aorists are 

transient tim« first aorist conveys 

t hi. 1 oesSSMSaflj even U the indicative, SSBH those 

•, it implir- that SBSSStlil 

oompleted, so th f fissmsi U* 

of its augment, ss in the infinitive • aorist may be us. 

the future Ui (see Poison, sel 

Creqnentlj described histories! erenti h lbs present tense. S? 

l. ir l* v . I the imperfect in a narr ere we si 

rist, especially in Homer and 1 B narrator 

representing the action M it" he had bees present at tie 

j 505). The SSI - K»ve 

bs employment of the imperfect, in the old <l«zypa<f>a\ and 
in Pindar, to desoribe a ; . at the public games (see Diseen, 

,„/ /*;,../. ;,. Thucy.l. 111. s. V. w, and A 

j uu , I ; 10 bum j| le in the inscriptions on wor 

art , /-..,.. .here IMiny ,//. X I. M pfSS a >p*cial 

explanation of the phrase, and refers it to the modesty or cauUon of 
the arti- 

374 The second aorist, as it is called, bears precisely th e same 

relation to the second future : thus we have second future ,Sa\». second 
aori i««, the latter for 



Chap. 2.] THE TENSES. 565 

ifidxeov, as appears from the infinitive (3a\e?v (in Ionic fiaXeeiv), and 
the participle fia\ov<ra, Doric ftaXoTo-a, Ionic /3a\eva-a. Such an 
aorist as tfxewa is formed on the compensation principle for epevya = 
€fxeve<ra. It will be recollected, that although we retain the names 
first future, first aorist, second future, second aorist, we do not mean 
that each verb was provided with such an apparatus of longer and 
shorter forms. Some would have the more complete tense only ; others, 
only the contracted one ; and in the same verb, certain writers would 
adopt the former, while others would prefer the latter. The opinion of 
Herodian (Bekker. Anecd. p. 1290), an opinion adopted by many 
modern scholars (Philol. Mus. II. p. 205), that there is no such thing 
as a second future, is only so far true as this — the second future is not 
a distinct tense, for it is only a contraction ; but there are such contracted 
futures ; indeed they are the regular forms for verbs the roots of which 
terminate with a liquid ; and we might go so far as to say, that every 
tense of the subjunctive mood is an instance of the shortened future, to 
which the corresponding tense of the optative stands in the relation of 
aorist. Instead, therefore, of expunging the second future from every 
grammar, it would be much better if the opposition of future and 
aorist, or generally of the definite tense to the indefinite, were marked 
throughout the paradigm, in which case we should have not merely 
two futures but half a dozen. The second aorist, as we shall see in the 
chapter on the conjugations, is that which presents the root of the verb 
in its simplest form, and there may have been some cases in which this 
tense, as denoting single or transitory acts, never had the future <r- of 
the proper or first aorist. 

37^ From the future Ti>'\//a> is formed the desiderative Ti^euo, 
to which again the form Tin//eia stands as imperfect; it is generally 
considered as an optative aorist, and the desire or wish conveyed by 
it has deprived it of all actual reference to the past, and therefore of 
its augment. Besides this, the formation of a new present tense 
from some past or future tense of a verb is one of the commonest 
phenomena in the Greek language: thus we have from the aorist 
ri<a the new present ^o>, and from the perfect TedvrjKa the new present 

Te01/>/KW, &c. 

376 The Greek grammarians acknowledge a first and second per- 
fect as well as a first and second aorist. The first perfect is thus dis- 
tinguished. When the final letter of the root of the verb is (3, tt, <j>, 
or 7» K ? Xi tnis consonant either becomes aspirated or remains so. In 
all other cases the characteristic of the first perfect is -ku. The second 



566 THE Tl [Book IV. 

perfect, though it occasionally admits of alterations of the root, prin- 
cipally by guna, adds nothing but -a, -ac, -c, as a termination. Some 
scholars think that the second perfect must be considered as older and 
more organic than that called the first, U it i- formed out of the 
resources of the root itself without foreign additions, and corresponds 
exactly to the proper perfects in Latin and . and to the p< l 

of the first six of tin.- :ijugations in old I an. We 

entertain Dg doubts as to the truth of this assertion. The 

second perfect matt be a mutilated form, for the post time iinpli 
this tense could not fed by tie- rodnplioation alone. When we 

compare the aoriste SoVca, tew™, with 1 1 »« * perf ! ?■<■, we 

perceive the only real difference to be that the aorieti I 

the perfects reduplication. And if \ " I ' i' I' 

I ' , fi >vc scc that the termination it simp]? hi. Thai 

-.-ha)' ■ ' 

serit r in ino>! i 

also been shown how the -<»ft sound of * i* often en h e titnt ed for the 

hard k. Of tin- inbetitution of h both for k and s it is unncces^r 

■poaV 

:>77 It appears then prol Usa- 

alone, that the tennis 
tical. The analog] 

The Latin con, ineomplet neans 

past time by . l>s have a 

proper redupli* i from (■■!!>>. /•</" 

from cado* [n i dm ' ByllaJ of reduplicati -t, as 

in//</< tromjbuto; in othersj the length of the pennltiaaa ia all that 
remains of the original form of the perfect, as in /<"/i from 

a few -t ill have both form- : till - 

/////', both tii(ii</i and (full ; and I 

for they are equivalent-, mOTC or le>s mutilated in 

spending I Another perfect, so called. •■■ Iiich 

ifl never reduplicated, and therei' to the nai 

It lfl true that the t of the other perfects 

(->', - /7//r'\ and it would be easy to say 

this is a form of the perfect which ha- duplication, just M 

tense in Latin has alwaj 

that we have a future in -etm, S 

tense in -st, furnishes a sufficient reason for believing that the latter was 

an indefinite tense or aorisi We shall s .tie this - 



Chap. 2.] THE TENSES. 567 

tion completely without examining the inflexions of the real or redu- 
plicated perfect. The most undoubted and ancient form of this tense is 
furnished by the Yeibfuio (Gr. 0u/w), which appears both as^o and 
fuo (Gr. Gr. Art. 327). The latter, stiU farther shortened into bo, fur- 
nishes the usual future of all vowel verbs; thus ama-bo = ama-fuo, &c; 
its imperfect, originally e-fuam, under the form e-bam, appears as the 
adjunct to the imperfect of all verbs, not excluding^ itself in the later 
condition of the language ; and its perfect fuvi =fufui, under the weak- 
ened foimfui or ui or vi, furnishes a perfect to all verbs ending in a 
vowel ; thus amavi = ama-fui, &c. (see Bopp, Vergl. Gramm. p. 804. 
Varron. p. 253, sqq.). Now asfufui may be properly compared with 
Trecpvua, as i is the regular exponent of guttural vocalization, as the 
guttural, before it subsides into i, is generally softened into s and h, 
and as we find s, k, and h in the aorist and perfect of Greek verbs, we 
have abundant reason to believe t\\&t fufui stands for fufusa, which is 
again an offspring otfufuka. If then we restore the regular inflexions 
of the assumed fufusa we shall get: 

fufusa-[ni~\ =fufuis =fufui 

fufusa-tha =fufu is- 1 i 

fufusa -t =fufui-s-t —fufuit 

fufusa-mus = fufui-s-mus =fufuimus 

fufusa-tis =fufuis-tis 

fufusa-nt =fufue-s-nt =fufueriint 

If we admit this transposition and substitution, which seem to be justi- 
fied by general principles and by the analogy of the French change of 
I through ul into m, we must apply the same explanation to all regular 
perfects. Thus tutud'i stands for tutudis = tutudsa, &c. But it is ma- 
nifest that the forms in -si contain something more than a mere s. 
According to the principle stated above (§ 372), the future in -sim 
must be antecedent to the tense in -si, supposing that this latter is an 
aorist. Now if we compare fac-sim, for example, with sim = siem 
(Varron. p. 248), we shall feel justified in concluding that fac-sim- 
fac-sicm is analogous to the desideratives in -o-efw, and that dic-si, for 
example, corresponds rather to le'^eia than to elei^a. The early loss 
of the primitive system of augments and reduplications in the Latin 
language, has introduced a mode of extending the affix or person-end- 
ings, which we shall see also in the later Greek imperative. We regard 
this as springing from a false sense of analogy : for the affix s- does not 
denote past time but future. We must not, however, forget that these 
subsequent extensions invariably presume a neglect or ignorance of the 
original significance of formative elements ; consequently, that the pro- 



5G8 THE TENSES. [Book IV. 

cedure is entirely conventional and arbitrary. In point of fact, there is 

no more difficulty in understanding the transition of 

into dian, durirti, S,c. than in teeing the reasons fat the change of the 

active Tvme-T-w into the passive TVTrTe-crO-ta, on the an;. i-jr-rf- 

T-of, TviTTe-a-d-ov. On the whole, then, we may fairly conclude that 
the suffix of the future, eoriot, and peHeet,M well iii - in I^atin, 

is the seme, bang alwaji seam a presentaar?o of the second pron 

that in the ca-e where tlii- ri-tic appears to be lei 

past into // or i ; and that while the (Ireek distinguishes the aorist and 
period from tin- future by augment <>r n duplication, in Latin the pro- 
per distinction ha- beeo looij the only differences which remain being 

accidental an<l not BUI ential. 

'A~ll Thii view of the ease am futures as tomIh 

for T«i'i;'o-aj, ft) I • F F u (root /3<F, Latin 

•-... abor F - 

(mot \«F); hut aleo the mntilated perfect* like ot&a, and those for? 
which the participial nouns in -i \c. § 2<K>) w«»uld naturally \tc 

referred. We are led, b o wafer , by the result of khii investigate 

a epeeia] inq^riiy re ep ee ti ng the original form of the yhi*quamperftetum. 

standi fa i " '<i. It 

hai 1 . that in the pre-ei. and there- 

for." in the imparl seed with 

the p eroo n -co din g by an mterrening >«. In the other persons we gene- 
rally find M*. Ai mmed in 
form I as this generally implies an in- 
clude \%e may ooncluoV that the root ••■ is strengthened 
in the present and iinju rfeet by this pronominal addition. \ 

tquamptrfict UM sly find ri other 

persons also end u - u ; so tl. 

for t i T-o-f-o-n, ami i 

for then the « would he inexplicable. The same conclusion would be 

deduced from the form which is found in in- 

Now as we should i that the jlnsqmmmperfWtiim would 

differ from the perfed only in the augment ] 

the double addition o( the fatal ~: affix as the result of a 

and abnormal analogy. The Latin verb, 1 ws us the 

possibility of snob a procedure. If we compare fu'% =f u mm m with 
///«';wm =[/]/"«"*«". we shall recognise the last faint tmOBS of the 
legitimate formation: and we so the same regularity in the 



Chap. 2.] THE TENSES. 569 

inflexions of these verbs which form their perfect and plusquamper- 
fectum with the aid of these tenses. Here, however, the parallelism of 
the definite and indefinite tenses terminates, and even in the substantive 
verb the transitions are effected by accretions of the affix : thus from 
fuerim =/uesiem we have fuissem =/uesesiem ; and in the verbs which 
have the aorist-perfect in -si, the same abnormal formation is found 
even in the indicative ; thus from rexi we have plusquamperf. reaeram 
= reg-se-sam and rexerim = reg-se-siem, which is again lengthened into 
rexissem = reg-si-se-siem. From this use of the element s- to transfer 
the definite tense into the corresponding indefinite, it might seem 
that the same suffix is employed to indicate both future and past 
time : but this is not exactly the case. In the formation of the aorist 
from the future, it was intended to express posteriority in relation 
to some past event (above, § 372), and we observe that this suffix 
is never used by itself to signify past time in Greek ; this is always 
done by the augment. The want of an augment in Latin, and the 
gradual loss of a regular future by the substitution for it of a con- 
junctive, gave this termination the improper influence which it exerts 
in that language. 

379 The form which some of the tenses present in the Greek 
passive has occasioned difficulties which no philologer has hitherto been 
able to surmount. We conceive that the general principles which we 
have laid down at the beginning of this chapter will afford a satisfac- 
tory explanation of these troublesome phenomena. It has been men- 
tioned, that in Sanscrit there are two forms of verbs, considered accord- 
ing to their person-endings ; the one is called parasmaipadam, or 
transitive, and has endings in the instrumental case ; the other, called 
atmanepadam, is middle or deponent, and has endings in the locative 
case. The passive voice is formed from the atmanepadam, by inserting 
the pronominal syllable ya between the root and the ending. Now we 
find that, in Greek, the present tense of the atmanepadam is used as a 
passive and also as a middle, and the passive forms of the other tenses 
generally bear the same relation to the active forms that we find in the 
present passive or middle, as compared with the same tense in the 
active ; the difference, namely, is only in the ending. In the perfect 
and plusquamperfectum the characteristic <r, k, or k is frequently dropt 
altogether, as we have seen in the case of the second perfect and second 
aorist. The form CTu^a/iifv from e>rvy£a-Qi), which we should expect 
as the passive aorist, is never strictly passive, except in those cases 
where the reflexive and passive significations are interchanged or 



570 THE TENS! [Book IV. 

become commutable*. The forms actuall- <V, 

grvinp, &c., have the active person-suffixes t hlOUgh o nt all tlie moods, 
and philolo^ers are quite at a h- have got 

(heir uniformly in de nti o n Bopp (/; Irk ltW 

284 foil ; FoealinmVM, p. 50 foL) 1 methods of explain- 

ing the former. He OOnjOOtOTOI that it is emV r for the verbal 

adjective and the wbtt—rtn verb (eTv<f>0t,v for tuh-toV jr), or by an 
addition to the root of the aerial Mp, OB the Mipposed analogy of the 

< inline ,,',/;-/.' 

khi f ,rin. r of thOM BXplai 

U in.li: a former 

H-'l'l' pr.-pox-.l | 
• oonjeotnro, whioh 
may be driven, JIc mppoe ,oce ^ 

from the pnaaifa pnrtkij ' iC kamai" 

lKlti. : ■ tue 

syllable tm,! 1 -. with the active partici; > be a passive 

pnrticiplol And how dom it hnppon tin- ■ explicable, and 

l„ Gact, Una explanation u\U u 
•m form 

(1 f _, ! IVrha] 111) i« 

more abnnrd than any of thcee, Ho myi that 1mm k en imperfect 

of ^ m OOnjnf »ne of the conjugation in -,w, a> if the distino- 

llon | | i„ -a- il lid in any ;*iise I 

nd to i di 

That tlo : lomonl in I 

u c inatremed to admit 

Bzplain Mwm oiherwiee than as a mm i *fl»*% 

pi Bopp, who eoMJdnwi it as i oomponnd frith the aobetni 

verb >)> (VocaUm Tkm m ion of the second aorist 

passive hna fed n ommoneot 

verba. To take one of tin ■ • 

root .-to, which meoiM M l »n transitive future and 

ibriy km -Tam- 

• The future middle i< often passive (MOM id in »wm ca«ea •#• y. PiixL 

p^g iori*t apparently » used. 1 

Interchange of ti d addlta U nence* hare been sen: 

- r.ittinann. / 

IB, Stadelmann, de indole ti utu .Vedii. p- 1. 

rip. y/.>/»«./ mi o, 



Chap. 2 ] THE TENSES. 571 

mar we find in the paradigm of the active voice an aorist and perfect 
€<tt»7i', ea-Tt]Ka, which bear a passive signification (" I stood" or " was 
caused to stand") throughout all the moods : whereas fo-Tddrjv, which 
is a synonym to 'lcrrt}v, is not placed in the active but in the passive 
paradigm. It is true that at first sight co-t^u seems to correspond to 
edrjv, &c, but if we compare o-rijvai, o-Ttjdt, eo-r^ei/, g-tci?, &c, with 
Oeivat, 0e'c, tde/xev, &c, and ea-TtjKa with TedeiKa^ we shall be constrained 
to admit that these are widely different forms, and that the root a-rd 
has suffered some change in them which has not been experienced by 
the root 6e in the others. But eTe'0»/i>, which stands for ededtjv (one 
of the aspirates being necessarily abolished, and the second retained in 
preference to the first, in consequence of the importance of the termina- 
tion), corresponds to the other aorist ean-ddriv ; and ea-rrjv, a-Ttjaofjiai ; 

ea-rctdtjv^ <rTa.6tjaofxai ; are perfectly analogous to ervTrrju^ TVTrtjcronai • 

irvcpdtjv, rv(pdij(Tonai ; so that Ti6t]fxi must be considered as having lost 
its second aorist passive, and ea-rtjv, a-rtja-ofxai, must be placed by the 
side of e<rTcidt}i>, o-Tadtjaofjiai, in the passive paradigm. We find other 
instances of a loss of the second aorist, and we must determine from 
the meaning and the form in the plural and other moods, whether the 
active or the passive aorist is the one wanting. Thus edwv is not only 
active in signification, but we see from eho/xev, So'?, lov$, &c, that 
the form contains no foreign element ; whereas when we find (pvw 
(0i//uu), 'pvau), €(pvaa, active; but e(pvv, 7re'0uk-a, passive: Ivco, BJo-fi), 
ecvcra, active; tcW, eecvua, passive: afievvv/M, o-/3e<r&), active; eV/?^i/ } 
p:i--ive: jitjcrw, e/itjcra, active; ej3t]v, (3e(3t]Ka, passive: &c, and also 
observe the forms <pvvai, ecvfxev, ea-fitjfxev, fiijuat, we conclude that in 
these cases the root has received some accession, and that the verb has 
no short form of the active aorist. 

381 Having vindicated the claim of these intransitive aorists in 
-»/i', -w, to rank with the passive forms in -drjv, we must endeavour to 
point out the pronominal element which has given them their passive 
signification. This is, in our opinion, the second pronoun, under that 
form which indicates the locative case. It is used to form passive and 
other derivative verbs in Sanscrit, such as denominatives and causals. 
That it was of most extensive application in Greek, we shall see in 
another chapter. In almost all cases, however, it has been absorbed by 
one or other of the various euphonical artifices which the fineness of the 
Greek ear necessitated. Among other instances of this, it may be 
easily seen, that it lies hid in the derivative verb-endings -aw, -o'w, in 
many of those in -w», and also perhaps in some of those in -ew (Bopp, 
Vergl. Gramm. p. 727). A similar absorption has taken place in the 



572 THE TENS i [Book IV. 

optative of verbs in -vw, -vpt (Buttmann, Au*f. Sprl. § 107, Anm. 36), 
and we have seen something of the kind in ijueptx: for cya-pepo*. 
consider, then, that co-Trjv, ecpiv, icvv, &c, stand for foiupapi, ((pvyam, 
ecuT/afii, &c, resj>ectiv« ly. Tlie Latin language affords us an excellent 
example of the way in which this pronominal formation can give a 
DMRTC MOM without the addition of an atmantpadam affix. It seems 
that in Latin the contracted verb* in -ao agree in their uses with the 
Greek in -eu», and those in -co with the Greek in -am or -ym. The 
nou in -co was, as we shall see, that which was always 
adopted in forming mpound nouns; thus, iCep-rcrrt* made 

M was the caM with the Lnfthl verb* in -ao : 
tl, u - from Again, we find that many 

active v. rl- in Latin, cither nn or contracted in <i, have a 

•arae root which is uncontracte-i 
what ■ DMtl *nD take a few instances: 

1m. a. ti\« nn •-• mtracted in c; active f*nd*r*> passive 

ptmji ve $cand*re, paasi I pamdH^ passive 

; active >,Vvr«, passive /far analogous to 7<rrnfu, 

assive ja< P*«- 

■TC contracted in I Of nno • ; 1 l»e obs< r 

letfo verb- are all derivative- fn-in the verbal nouns of the neuter 
verba: a . • assive srW Utn pardre, passive par 

active // Mite Ih/uvre ; acth ^ve f*g*rt. The 

which the Latin language has applied in the formation of 
complete varhfl am been adopted in ( h ' »n of one 

. and the fanM dependent 01 it ; and there are traces of the same 
in- rtion in I i*** 

from worn* (Bookh, md Pinal r>ni IV. - ,; . Bmmmm 

p. xv.). 

S Til I rid in -tV is easily explain- . I: n tains the element 
in the 1 n c 5 .. Wm mijht say then that the form in i was the 

ultimate -tate of that in t/,i. jntl M n*rf = sn W i stand- for mm 
for there is no reason, etymologicalljr speaking, why r\ and • should 
not be considered as identical, any more than t nguishing 

* ecu the noun-endings -<tk, -aa ; the adjectives in -rtf"*,, -utot ; 
and the genitives in -(<r)io, - :1 ost be nvnfnl nfuse 

bet WWW the locative pt ononn e\. and the simple element c. 
used as a verb- root in (Jr^k. Latin, and German, 
nor moat we consider the . which is synonvmous wi: 

bentkal with the verb-root i, which ■ a similar manner 

in opposition to ./-. '-. W ! i ■ w< o ■ pan p*r~*o with ns r e V and 



Chap. 2.] THE TENSES. 573 

this last with irep-dw, and when we recollect the corresponding ana- 
logies, such as inter-eo contrasted with inter-Jicio, ven-eo with ven- 
dico, venum-do, and ten-do, &c, we must be led to conclude that all 
these verbs are compounds in which eo " I go" is opposed to do "I put," 
&c, and that the latter are entirely analogous to the forms in -so, -sivi, 
which we first explained in another work (Varron. p. 251). In the 
indicative present of the verbs in -so, such as cap-es-so — capere sino, 
arces-so = accedere sino, &c, the form sino has lost the inserted nasal 
which distinguishes this tense from the perfect, just as the word pons, 
discussed above (§ 295), refers us to the original form of po-no=pos-no, 
in which the formative n has not yet made its appearance. The verbs 
in -do keep only the shorter form of the inflexions, which has been 
extended in the separate verb do, das, dat, but the perfect remains to 
vindicate the relationship. And the verbs compounded with the separa- 
ble -eo are distinguished from the neuter verbs mentioned above (pend- 
eo, pat-eo, sed-eo, &c), both by the conjugation of the present, and by 
the form of the perfect, which correspond to eo, and not to the ordinary 
verbs of the so-called second conjugation. But if per-do is truly repre- 
sented by irep-6u) f we must recognise a verbal compound in the latter, 
and the same reasoning will apply to the other cases in which the ele- 
ment 6- appears in its simple form, such for instance as irekd-du), <p\eye- 
0u>, vepe-dia, 6a\e-6u), (pae-du), (p6iuv-6io, Sec. Besides these we have, 
but always in the past tense, such forms as eltwKadov from Iiukw, &c, 
with regard to which a question has been raised, whether they are 
aorists or imperfects (Elmsley, ad Eurip. Med. 186. Pierson, Moeris, 
p. 118. Ruhnken, Thncvus, p. 87. Hermann, ad Soph. (Ed. Col.l6l9) : 
we are quite sure, as well from the meaning as from the analogy of the 
presents in -0a>, that they are all imperfects of lost verbs in -6<a. Now 
it must be obvious on the slightest consideration that causative verbs 
in -Om can have nothing to do with passive forms in -drjv. And it is 
also obvious that any true explanation of eTixpQtiv must also be appli- 
cable to cti/'ttj/j/. We conceive that we have correctly analyzed these 
aorists, when we identify the interpolated elements with the synony- 
mous locatives 6i and * respectively. According to this, e-Tv<p-drj jjjj = 
eVuV-i/j" j will mean "there was a single act of beating performed 
close at hand by me," so that these tenses were originally reciprocal or 
middle. It is scarcely necessary to add, that, while the a-, k, h, of the 
future, aorist, and perfect active, affect the verb-root itself with an 
expression of future and approximate time, the interpolated -fliy, -n of 
the passive aorist confine the instrumental case of the person-ending to 
a home-circle of limited agency, so that instead of the mere locality 



574 THE T: [Bo. 

which i< expressed by the formi in ->*a<, - nave an expression 

of locality added to that of instrumentality signified by the case of 
the person-ending. In I becomes equal to -w. 

3f{.', I- j i of < HM poooftle that the pronominal element 0- may 

be connected with tin- : but to (Imagine, with 

•, that any tci - — • —is added 

M root or crude-form of r*e the natural 

-hcs of 1 a of locat connected 

with that can easily conceive that the 

- Terh as well ss to the 
in q the pooMVO iniiniti\c. It has been mentions 

that T,-tV«< - ' * ll, •" 

quentlv, t in the simple 

element \ and v>: <*ui =dad6mi, we most 

. -dadhanu. We also discern the simple 
element in something great to do ;" compare the 

lir-t oyHlblo erith <*, mapnms, fial ( Hesych.), mmctt, 

Sanscrit ma A at, tn thieoj 

in fowo" (*fp« longer form with a kind of 

passive sense b Snaoorid sea, Latin 

ee#-*u), and in «'.t-( j .u> re we find the loc as in 

tin l passive. That this last has for its future ftopai, clearly 

nn, w«.nld of itself bo some proof that the word is not 

< onsiderations add much 
i4that tike cognate word srf-ssi has only 
the futur- turesare, as we shall show in the fol- 

bwing ohaptei ke 6tU>ficn for r\ 

■f wm, as well as «V- 
leponenl worn ; in other words, that although the action may peso 

the agent being considered as the 

• dited. he i- OpoksO] of in the locative and BOI in tin? instru- 

mental ceen. - reason we find that all Terbs in Greek and 

Latin, whieh. >s an action, confine the henffiw 

.jent, are i r deponent in form, 

and, for the same ieas< reeks use the i xpreoo 

that a person at the cause, of an action. This 

the middl oeot one of ev*or, -jmlo^o* (as opposed to 

- 
; contpicari, imturri, o*/x>v. ; of 

rds implyi 1« motions, as mirari, rvrrrt, Ux: 



Chap. 2.] THE TENSES. 575 

384 In Greek we find certain words of this class with the present 
tense of an active, but the future of a deponent form ; thus dnovta makes 
ctKovcrofxat ; dav/jLaty^ davfxdaofxai ; 6vt]<rK(a, davov/iai ; 7ra'(r^co, 7rei<TO/xai ; 
&c. It is easy to understand this : when we speak of something that 
will make an impression upon our senses or feelings, or, in general, 
befall us, as future, we consider ourselves as merely the object of these 
outward impressions or accidents ; but when we speak of their present 
effect, we consider ourselves as an agent or inchoative in respect of 
them. If any one says " I am hearing," he asserts that he is exercising 
that sense ; if he says " I shall hear," he says merely that there will be 
a sound or noise: again, if he says " I am dying," he speaks of his being 
on the way towards death, and therefore, an inchoative verb like 6vtj<rK(a 
might very well be used : if he says " I shall die," he merely states that 
his death will take place, that he will be dead (daveTrai), in which 
event he cannot be considered as an actor at all. The same principle 
lias extended itself even to the primitive verb of existence : for while 
elf*! = ea-fjii has lost its original future €<t-(to-/xi, which is now repre- 
sented only by the conjunctive u> = icr-iia = eor-io-fxi, we find in constant 
use €<r<To/jiai or eo-o/jia*, which means " there is or will be existence for 
me." Some such method might be adopted to explain all those nu- 
merous instances in Greek, where we find an active present with a 
deponent future (Gr. dr. 350). M. Burnouf justly remarks (I. I. § 204) 
that the active verbs with middle futures, are precisely those which, 
in the French language, are reflected in form but not in sense; thus, 
ciyt'ia-o/jiai or <ria)7rr/(rto/*ai is je me talrai ; (3t]<ronai, je men irai; 
davixdaotxai, j,_> m'ifonnerai ; dtxapTtjvopai, je me tromperai ; o<>co- 
gofica. : virovcdaonai, je mctadierai a ; &c. 

385 It is remarkable that the passive futures formed from the 
aorists in -tjv and -Qtjv, have person-endings of the middle form. It is 
an irregularity that they should be formed from the aorists at all, and 
we can only explain it on the supposition that they were first con- 
structed when the future middle, as it is called, which is often used in 
a passive sense (Monk on Eurip. Hippolyt. 1458, above, § 379), was 
appropriated to the active verb, and another passive future was necessary 
{Journal of Education, IV. p. 158); at all events, they must be con- 
sidered as subsequent to the other forms of the future. 

386 Another instance of the formation of a tense by the addition 
of a suffix used to form a set of verbs, is furnished by the iterative 
tenses in -<tkov. This ending is affixed to the imperfect and to both 
aorists of the indicative, and the augment is omitted; thus ctutttov 



576 THE J [Boor IV. 

makes tutttcvkov; ervxj/a, T\>\$/a<rKov ; and fAnror, \lirt<ncov ; and so 
kltO in tlie | WITH Thi- node of forming tonnes ■ pecvl 
Ionian-, who were in tl f omitting the augment of I 

rical tenaei in thou deaoriptn . and from them the custom was 

introduced into the long narrative speeches which t 
tin- Athenian drama ptn il iU -tenses, nccor Kuttmann 

3), denote not a con tinned, but a repented 
notion. The 1 from tha hnmnrfnot imj»liea occasionally 

noo ofnonm dntntion frequently inpentnd — a* in Poind. III. 1 
tj yvt> ntknt times a m omental/ action 

Ttr pu'/tava — TCM M M H CT CM Ta £i*Aa raira awatp(€<rgti% 

famed from the I ; H. :■■ I. I v. 

»>*<£»/ Vu I 
The a tives occur very seldom, 

and thona from tin- tir-t nnriot are never fuuud in |>ro*e. There in one 
bmtel III. 17) where the word uplta^ is used as an 

Unpnribot, bnt, as lluttmaun remark- lnuation in tims is 

implied, there is nt.il ' o of ropetitioa in //•! <v in this passage. 

It i- iann baa not remarked 

perfect is used in Attic prone as an it i connexion with aVrra 

and the o]itati\c : an, I a instance, Xen. A nab. IV. 5, § 27 • «<«« es 
. -..•»;, wh.rr eattninlv a r titiou is implied f 10). But 

tli.it the ideas of repetition and continnance are intimately 
tha former being relnai atter as the idea of a series of 

poilltl il I I line ; ami therefore as the gem : 

the idea suggested or generated, v. 
that tha Bebrew tenaa which indknana continuous time, is often used 
an a futu \U <9hnJ Mai it is well known that asm 

appears as tha future of sunn. No one needs to be t iture 

il b] n- nature ii us involve a series 

7 Than in, M well in Iha Qmak as in tha I-atin language, a nunse- 
_ in -rrn, Huttmann is inclined to consider these 
tenninationa 00 totally different ft preterites 

we have been - uhrl. Sprl. £ re seems 

to l>e a sufficient similarity of mcani: | justify us 

in the befinf thai both formations owe their the name ; 

although the original ra< the ending seems in the case of the 

Vntha in -<jkw to have been Split np into a number of 
ioationa, The sense of the 1 



Chap. 2.] THE TENSES. 577 

cresco, glisco, guiesco, nascor, nosco, disco, scisco, ira-scor, paci- 
scor, puerasco, tenerasco, illucesco, grandesco, maturesco, expergi- 
sco, conticesco, &c. It is to be remarked, that not one of these keeps 
the -sco-form in the perfect ; "which is cre-vi, guie-vi, contic-ui, &c. 
Pott has truly remarked (Etym. Forsch. I. p. 56), that many Greek 
verbs in -o-koj, and more than people generally suppose, are genuine 
inchoatives : he instances tjfid-o-Ku, yt]pd-<n«o, yeveid-o-nu), kim-o-kco and 
Kui-o-KOfjiat, dvtj-o-Kto (TKolic Quai-<TKbi), " to be taken in death/' fjn-fxvri- 
<TKOfxai (^Eolic ixi-}xva'i-<TKOfxai) , yi-yvw-aKw. In others this meaning is 
less clearly seen, as dxdl-o-KU), " I make sound/' Ixd-trKo/jLai, " I make 
myself gracious," yavvv-tTKOjxai, " I become merry," dxi-arnoixai, " I fall 
into the enemy's hands." The following have a causative signification, 

fitOu-OKtio, Trnri-aKU), yafj.i-<TKU3 and ya/jii-^u), irivv-GKuy and Trivvaab), 
Cica-crKU), €Trtf3a a-Kt/Jiev, iri(puv-<TKtii and TTKpd-crKOfjai, dva(3iu>-<TKQ}xai, 

/Mfxi>tj-(TKU), dpe-<TKU), &c. Now it is sufficiently obvious that the only 
difference between an inchoative and a causative is this, that the one is 
I pasture, the Other an active relation. But the idea of iteration or 
repetition presupposes the idea of a beginning, and the very distinction 
betw e en an imperfect and an iterative preterite is, that the former pre- 
sumes a line, the hitter a sequence of points, the former unbroken con- 
tinuation, the latter a series of recommencements. 

We find an analogous ending, with a similar meaning, in nouns 
derived from verbs ; thus we have c'i-<tko<; from I'ikciu, Xea-^rj from 
Xeyeiv, aia-^o<: from alcovfxai : in the last two instances the k is aspirated 
on the compensation principle, as in 7ra-o-^w, root Trevd-; for the root of 
the former is Xey- or AeF, as we shall show hereafter, of the latter, 
Faic-, Lithuanian </(</</: the first seems to stand for 2/k-o-ko?, or the k 
has been dropt, as in \d-<TKia (XatceTir), disco (doc-ere), fAt-o-yo, misceo 
(ixiyijvat), ta-^ui (t^co), (above, § 219)« 

The pronominal roots sa, ka, are ultimately the same; as tense- 
endings we have established their identity. If, then, our view of the 
termination -<tk is correct, this is a junction of two forms of the same 
element, just like the very common pronominal endings -n-*t, -ta-na, &c; 
and the principles already explained will enable us to understand how 
a compound signifying successive proximity may be used to express 
the ideas of indication, continuance, repeated action, growth and causa- 
tion. As the locative 6i may become a verb-root, and denote the act 
of placing, so o-k- is found as the element of a set of words which 
denote progression by successive steps. Such are o-KaXXw, o-Ka£a), o-zceAp?, 
scando, scala, &c. (See Kcnrick, Herodotus, p. 24). 



Pp 



CHAPTER III. 
THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 

388 Distinctions of mood are rather syntactical than etymological., 389 (1) Con- 
junctive tmd opiatk I of the conjunctive. 390 Lxplanation of the 
optative , Ml ( onjunctive and optative related as future and aonst. 392 Dif- 
ferent turn, of the fut„ " of tense between the ^con- 
junctive and optative are indicated by their syntactical use. 394 tapeaalJy 
by the construction of oi «f. I* Correspondences of the future and con- 

J— ta hvi '" ,t ' aPP H^^%he e coZ e net^e 

sentence. Wi Vm of the 0* (HMO • wish. 398 The conjunctive 

Md future intcrehan^t hi Lotto, Ml Sanscrit fonw. 401 Cmu. ™«""* 

optative OPM U as diflcn: ■■ W '■#""»- 

/,>, „„,/ ,nfim(,rr. The forn.cr d.tm^ished by it. y *S> only. 

«! Acdw pmnvcDdisfi oftho Omoo irn] 

end,.,-. .|i.| San.ri. to] ' ■ ~ek infinitive. « Lalin .inhnittTM. 

107 Bonooil iniink. '*"" thc *mpormiWe and inbn.uvc. 

medaUl Ml 'he fabc analogy which led to the pasaire 

farm. O/ the in 111 The three .: • the mhnuiye active 

are the locate - I. M Th« <"« k intiniti " P" 11 ^ *" "j* 

US(l)/>oHU 414 I effect par 

pl, s . ,, : the present participle. 4I( and panic.ple. Low 

JeUted 117 \! .tives and participles. 418 Teutonic infinitive-* declinable 
pvtldplc. 119 J runds and supines. ; -ed abaolutely 

toOtook, Loda and Bom 

H. ... ... KM 111. Litin verb, /tmoV. 

388 riMli: distinctions of mood and tens. M rather 

X to the mtthodk ul language of syntax than to a 

essential variolic in tl.. 

mood is merely the ind» ■ peculiar affection oi 

person-endings, and the infinitive ■ meiv! 
form o( the participle, which again is an adjective 
the third person plural o\' tl, I indicate 

, spring* from the genith 

conjunctive and op* though ' 

Grmmmars to dam (hen rtind moods, hai 

their own. it hai kmg been fell bj 

grounds, that, considered in theii 

to the other moods, they nuw I differing 

only. It has also been 

conjunctive ad to the primary forms, or those of the 

primary tenses, while the pen *-endinga of the optative always 

agree with the secondary forms. of the historical tenses 



Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 579 

(Buttmann, Ausfuhrl. Sprl. $ 88, 3, 4). A more exact etymo- 
logical and syntactical examination of the whole question will 
show clearly, that, in the oldest form of the language, these 
moods have no right to a separate classification, and at the 
same time enable us to point out the real connexion between 
them. 

389 (1) Conjunctive and Optative. 

The form, which the conjunctive generally presents, differs from the 
indicative in the following points. Where the indicative has w, ou, o, 
the conjunctive has w; where the indicative has e, et, y, the conjunc- 
tive has rj, y : the a of the first and second persons of the first 
aorist, active and middle, become w and rj respectively. There is no 
reason to believe that there is any more essential difference between 
the to and »/ of the conjunctive, than there is between the o and e of 
the indicative ; as the two latter represent the short a in Sanscrit, 
the two former may be considered as substitutes for the long a, 
which is the characteristic of the Let or conjunctive mood in the Veda- 
dialect; and in every case we must conclude that an original t- or 
vocalized o-- is absorbed, or more or less imperfectly represented by 
this long vowel. This a is found in the conjunctive of the Doric 
dialect : for instance, we have lo-avn {Corpus Inscript. Vol. II. p. 641, 
no. 3053); eVto-rai/Tt {ib. p. 413, no. 2556, 1. 68); cparai (Pindar, 
Pytli. IV. 92 = 164); /3<^e<? (Theocr. XV. 22); see Kuhn 1. 1. 
p. 39. In the older writers, the root-syllable alone is changed 
(sometimes by the addition of an t), the connecting-vowel not being 
affected, though this seems to take place only in the dual and plural : 
thus we have fieio/jiev, deioLiev, aTeio/xev^ irapcrrtjeTOU, hajofxev, yvuofxev. 
In the passive this may take place in the singular, as in aTrodeiofxai. 
In the active we occasionally find both root-vowel and connecting- 
vowel affected by guna, as in o-Ttjrjs, eLifttjy, deiy^ ecpeitjs, hwj, &c. 
Buttmann supposes the existence of conjunctives without any mark to 
distinguish them from the indicative {Ausfuhrl. Sprl. §88, Anm. 3), 
but these could only be corrupt and mutilated forms. We believe that 
all the instances which he mentions belong to the analogy of falofxev, 
the production having fallen upon the first syllable. With regard to 
these epic forms in general, it is clear, that if delw, Be'iys, Oetri, Oeioixev, 
dTrode'iofxai are to be considered as belonging to the same form, the 
short connecting- vowel is due to the weight of the person-endings. It 
is equally clear, that they are all futures, and perhaps very ancient 
forms of the future: at least, forms answering to delofxev, 'loLiev are 

Pp2 



580 THE MOODS AXD PARTICIPLES. [Book IV. 

used with a future signification in Homer; fteiouai, for instance, it ■ 
regular future. Perhaps in the original form the increment did not e.v 
to botli root and connecting-TOweL J other in- I tins 

superfluous strengthening of the form : thus on I Z^ai 

and Ko/ila-onai | only Tr\tpin>nai, or wAewro/icu from 

7rAc'F(o : whereat we hare also vXam i would beaeaffi- 

cient Optative from rauui, but we have also ti/j*>»/»" 

890 The char which firms a diphthong 

with the oonn wel: to thia the long rowel »; is occasionally 

subjoined. 1 1 f the secondary form, with 

ption of the first person, whieh is generally - 
that the shorter Bonn in h was bete, at in the bnperatct, occasi< 
snbstitnted for it. in those cases win- re the ton of tbi 

regularly ended like the indkatire ; thus* let: a<ppm* 

on T(J row wc'ack (/ 'fivjnum, #. r. t^c^oi*). 

optatiret, whieh add q tic <. always form th< 

The ret son for the diatoms In rmi 

whieh hat no no reason why 1 1 *«- wei| 

should drive off the full ending ; but the kmtJBf form in -r;» of course 
Would n<»t admit of it In tl :iaracteristic i was 

: i 1 1 1 < - omitted, at alreadj in e l ndsd in the a. I in a 

llouius (</< s III. 

88, p, -ji; i 

• . ■■ \ ' ' i • 

where we adopt the emendation proposed by Bergk (RAeinvcA. Mus. 

for 1835, p. 818), whid rmed ai well by tl. 

remark in the 1 ' 558: 

Ur^ocr, \-;\.'.. Wit believe that thai mats the original 

formation of the • 

Would be the regular indetermii e conjun 

Art^onu = \a^).i'ai = Xa^sW. Bopp has suggested (^mw<i// of Oriental 
an explanation «-f this chi whith at least 

rres to be mention mye: " l Ptsaaa why the fan 

expresses the potential Dtood BH ' RtaV, in 1 

nor perhaps in any other Eaiopeaa language, but in Sanscrit, the 
radical element i expresses wishing, desiring : and what syllable could 
be more properly employed to indicate a: .n the one to 

whieh the Hindu grammariai the primary signit 

Kanti — /mrin.j «/<>•»>, f 1 will not attirm that this is the prin 

mo a n i ng of the root /, and tl anmaihai -it reason 



Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 581 

for putting Kanti at the head of their explanations, but certain it is, 
that imas has, among other significations, that of we desire or wish. 
Now it is remarkable, that the sense expressed in Sanscrit, and the 
languages here compared with it, by a syllable, signifying desire, incor- 
porated into the verb, is in English, and often in German also, expressed 
by detached auxiliary verbs, having the primary signification of wishing 
(In Notker we read, i" mahta baldur weinon — vellem vehementer 
plorare). The German mogen has frequently this signification, and the 
English may is of the same origin, derived from the Saxon magan, in 
Gothic likewise magan." We have already said, that in our opinion 
the theory of agglutination, which Bopp has introduced, must be 
received with great caution and subject to many limitations. The 
inflexions of verbs may and do take place in the same way as the 
modifications of nouns ; namely, by pronominal insertion between the 
root and the person-ending in verbs, and between the root and case-end- 
ing in nouns. Of the pronominal elements which may be so inserted, 
there is no one more common than -ia, Sanscrit ya, corresponding to 
the second pronoun or the relative form. We know that the s, which 
characterizes the future and aorist, may degenerate into i, and we have 
had no difficulty in identifying this s with the second element. As 
then we shall see that the conjunctive and optative are virtually related 
as future and aorist, we must refer their characteristic i to a pronominal 
insertion of the same kind, and thus rpecpoi-ixi for Tp€<po<ra-m will be 
quite analogous to fid for fuesa. 

391 Having now considered the forms of the conjunctive and opta- 
tive separately, we must endeavour to determine the connexion between 
them. In the last chapter we mentioned that the desiderative tuv^6<« 
was related to the so-called optative aorist Tv^eia, as present to imper- 
fect, as definite tense to indefinite ; the augment of the latter is omitted 
like that of the iterative preterits. Now if we take the verbs in -/*<, 
which present us with the oldest forms, we shall find a conjunctive delta, 
del*)?, Sec. corresponding to an optative delrjv, 0e<V, &c. The conjunctive 
has the primary form of the person-endings, the optative, the second- 
ary form : in other respects they do not differ, for they both contain 
the verb-root affected by the insertion of t : compare 0euo, deltjs, &c ; 
0e<>, 0e<V, &c. ; with ritypi (ti-0€-o>), Tid^, &c. ; CTid^v, irWrj^, &C 
In the existing state, the conjunctive is just as heavy a form as the 
optative ; we must conclude, however, that, as the optative has the 
lighter endings, it must have been originally a heavier form than 
the conjunctive, and as this could result only from its having some 
prefix which the conjunctive wanted, it follows that it had the aug- 



582 THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLE [Book IV. 

merit, or was related to the conjunctive as aorist to future. When the 
optative ceased to be used as a past tense in primary sentences, it 
would naturally lose its augment, or mark of past time, retaining, how- 
ever, its lighter person-ending as a trace of what it once was. The 
other differences between it and the conjunctive would spring up as 
time and use widened the gap which separated the parent tense from 
its offspring. 

'M)2 On the whole, then, we may say that future time was 
expressed by two varieties of the same pronominn 

Hm form <r-, *i ; in the 
other, the same element Spp fl Mt d M i-, ya~ These two forms were 
occasionally united, as in th (Latin - 

but in D)0*4 OHM only one of the < «juivah nt insertions was I I 
thai we have tli*^ latt< r only in t! -<>*"", 

fteiofitv, th'ioiKv, \e. ; and t! nn onl J I more 

permanent fatU«S ind'n m\<. hid. id it 

analogy of tie [ in -<no an<l -<<>, that the «o-called decider 

18 the primiti\< line form, of whieh the fut 

inetive in <-, are ineesssrfS d. j<ir rations. To ail tbeee three 
of the future tie re \vi re OQRfSBOO] stS OF pal 

to the tir-t, tlie KH ho second, 

the nrdin khs third. .ary tir-t SOl 

last ilooe pieeerred the augment. btSMMB in the indicative mood the 
ilea of ]>;i-t t i 1 1 x j iP • | Mmnafc 1 in this I , .ente; 

in the other two the augment was are nerer 

used as direct . \] I past time, tl ways bear 

preterite meaning in suhordi: :ie«>. We d<» nut say that there 

ever existed ■ desi I r.uive farm of every tense of the indicative mood 
to which then sss in tie 

have been one, and there niibt have bsSB jinally ; but after- 

ward- the I onsen of the optatta 

introduction of the int only 

very remarkable variety in tl. n of these optatives, desideratives, 

and futures, is, that the i is sometimes appended -wd, 

IS in i^.'.-.ui. at othet I : and 

sometimes placed after the s, as nee before the 

.n- or its substitute. ft, cVatnw (Gb th. p. 229), *nd in 

some of the Sanscrit volitives (Wilk: H varieties are 

tine to subsequent analogies, and not to any thing in the original prin- 
ciples of the langua. 



Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 583 

393 "We shall now proceed to show, that the syntactical relation 
of the optative to the conjunctive is that which subsists between indefi- 
nite and definite tenses. It is well known to every student of Greek, 
that, in connected sentences, the Latin subjunctive present corresponds 
to the Greek conjunctive, and the Latin subjunctive imperfect to the 
Greek optative; in other words, the Greeks used the conjunctive in 
sentences dependent upon a verb in the present or future tense, and the 
optative in those which were dependent on a verb in the past tense : for 
instance, ypd(p<a, \'va ixavQavys corresponds to scribo, ut discas ; but 
eypaxjsa, 7va fxavdavot? to scripsi, ut disceres. Therefore, the conjunc- 
tive is a definite tense, for it has relation to the present moment, and 
the optative is indefinite, for it must be determined by some particular 
time or circumstance referred to. The following considerations will 
show, that, as well in dependent as in connected sentences, the conjunc- 
tive corresponds to a future, and the optative to the aorist derived from 
it; in other words, the conjunctive is a determinate tense, and signifies 
"the 'probable occurrence of something after the time of speaking:" 
and the optative is an indeterminate tense, and signifies " the probable 
occurrence of something after the time specified" (above, § 372). And 
first, the conjunctive appears as an actual future in Homer. Thus we 
have in the Iliad, I. 262 : 

ov yap 7T(o Tolovs 'ihov dvepas, ovle 'IScojjlcii. 

Iliad, VI. 459: 

K<xi ttot€ rr<? elTrtjai, <3o)i/ Kara §anpv -^eovcrav 
u "Ektooo<?, ijde ywt], k. t. A." 

CO<? 7TOT6 T<9 €p€€l, 

where the future, which follows, clearly shows that the conjunctive 
before it is a future. Iliad, VII. 197 : 

ov yap t/s fxe ft'nj ye ckwv denovra Virjrai. 

Odf/SS. VI 201 : 

ovk €<t6' otrro? dvtjp Bjeoo? ftpoTo's, oi/'Se ytvr]Tai, 

o<? kcv Oaif/Kcop dvlpwv e's ya'iav 'iKtjrai, 
on which see Wyttenbach (Eclog. Histor. p. 3*3), quoted by Gaisford 
(in his notes on Herodotus, Vol. I. p. 5). Odyss. XVI. 437 : 

ovk eo-0' ovtos dvtjp, ov<? earcreTai, ovle yevrjrai, 

os K€v Tri\efxdx<? <r$ viei X e ^P a<; € ' 7roi0 ' e '- 
It will be observed that we have & *€» with the future in this passage, 
but o? kcv with the conjunctive in that which precedes. 



584 THE MOODS AXD PARTICIPLES. [Book IV. 

394 Instead of this direct future with •», the Attics employed ov 
fxrj with the aorist subjunctive; thus we have in Plato, fi y ' 7 . VI. 
p. 492 E : ovtc yap yiyverai, ovre yeyovev^ ovce ovv at) yiv^rai^ k. 
(cf. Phcedr. p. 350 o) where ovce n*} yevr/Tai : MonymoM 

with the ovci yevtjTcu of the two passages from the Odyssee. The 
combination of the negatives ov pq is found not only lufore the aorist 
subjunctive with a motive fut ur«- sense, but also before the future 
indicative, generally in a prohibitive sense. In the latter case, Elmsley 
and others would take tin- sentence infanogatfa ly, accordi 
method adopted with regard to the | m of mov». '[ 

Eurip. Jlirr/,,r. :;10: 

ov /ii] Trpo<roi<rci<; %c7pa, pcuc^fi'd-oc c' loir, 
op£(t ntap'mv rtjv <rt)v £}Xoi ; 

should mean, ■ceording not keep off your 

hand (will you not — D04 put y«»ur band n _ > and pla 

lianal, and not Wipe off your f.-lly M 1 B rf ■ '■ M With the 

conjunctive H I \].l.iin<d as an ellipse — »• Mr; y^tjr <]iiivalent 

to ov ceo* fffTi fit; "uld happen." 

Neither tin- one DOT the other of thc-e I \planation< i- :rate. 

With regard to «i pttj with the future, it i- i'ina- 

tion alwajl implic- a prohibition. There are passages in which it ■ 
I>. -rfeetly equivalent in inra- with the conjunctive \ as in 

Sophoclee, a lf>\ 

OVTCN nt] 7TOT6 <t (k toovC iC pawv, 

Electro, i< 
Euripides, /' 

(TK^llH' ] . OV fltj tr. 

<Tiu' ti/iOi - ; »/i' <>.\ (i» irpa^iiv iro.Xif. 

Aristoph. B : 

vV«#, ov fiij <t (y* 
wtpto <trra. 

It is obvious thai an assertion, d theae 

passages. The proper explanation of those from Bophoelee and Aristo- 
phanes has I by Hermann (on s IfeeVa, v. 1 1 1 

lie Bajl that the gene ra l mean: With the future is due 

entirely to the eireum-tanee. that in the oatta, where a prohibition is 
implied, the verb is always in the second peteonj — and *'wi; 

net touch. juivalent to u -es which 



Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 585 

lie is discussing, the verb is in the first or third person ; and the infini- 
tive, in the passage which we have quoted from Euripides, implies a 
third person. Now when we say, as in the passage from the (Edipus 
Coloneus, " will not a person not drag you from this seat against your 
will ?" this is equivalent to, " will he not suffer you to remain?" which 
implies " of course he will ;" and so in the other passages. With 
regard to ov firj with the conjunctive, Hermann thinks, that, although 
an ellipse such as we have mentioned is possible — for we have the full 
form in Herodotus, e. g. in I. 84 : ov yap j|i/ Seii/oV /xtj a Aw ttotc — yet 
this ellipse would be somewhat harsh and unnatural, and it would be 
much better to follow the analogy of the future, and suppose that ov 
/*»/ with the conjunctive is also interrogative: thus iEschylus, Sept. c. 
Thehas, 38 : 

Ka\ TuyvC a«oi»cra9 ov ti fxrj XrjcpdaS SoAco • 

would mean, " Having heard of these things, shall I not not-be-caught 
by stratagem ?" i. e. " shall I not be safe from it V which implies, " of 
course I shall." We think this view a sound one ; the following illus- 
trations will perhaps convince our readers that it is so. There can be 
no doubt that oJ, with the future or subjunctive taken interrogatively, 
is equivalent to an injunction or exhortation. The future is generally 
in the second person : thus, ov /uei/e?? ; means " stop \" ; the conjunctive 
in the first, as ovk lm ; " shall I not go V We have a good analogy for 
this in the use of quin by the best Latin writers. This particle, which 
is equivalent to cur nun, is constantly used with the indicative present, 
taken interrogatively, but always implying an exhortation; thus we 
have, Plautus, Mencechm. II. 1, 22: Quin nos hinc domum redimus? 
Terence, Andr. IV. 4, 15: Quin dicis unde est dare? Livy, I. 57: 
Quin, si vigor juventce inest, conscendimus equos ? where see Draken- 
borch's note : so that Bentley is quite right in reading quin redimus ? 
instead of quin redeamus? in Ter. Eunuch. IV. 7, 41. It is also clear 
that /i>/, with the conjunctive or future, is the expression of a direct 
prohibition. We need not give any instance to show that m rv^rj^ 
differs from /^rj tvtttc only in being particular instead of general. The 
imperative use of m with the future has been denied by Elmsley, who 
would substitute the conjunctive for the future in Euripides, Med. 804 : 
Ae£ et? le /jLtjliv rwi/ efxo\ Seooy/jLevuiv, and would either emend or explain 
away a number of other passages which he quotes in his note upon that 
line, but which are, we think, sufiicient to justify the construction. 
Matthias (Gr. Gr. § 511, 3) quotes two or three others, and we may 
add Soph. Aj. 572: koi rdfxd reJ^ W T ' «7 w ' /a VX at «««« dri<rov<r 
'A^aioT?, mB' 6 \vpemv efxoi (above, p. 486). As, therefore, ov with 
both future and conjunctive, taken interrogatively, may convey a posi- 



586 THE MOODS ASD PARTICIPLJ [Book IV. 

tive injunction, and fxrj with cither of the same inflexions, taken impera- 
tively, may convey a negative command, it would not be unnatural 
that, when command with regard to one act and prohibition with regard 
to another were to be expressed at once, the first would be effected by 
ou with the future or conjunctive, taken interr _ . the second by 

fxt] with the future or conjunctive, without any interrogation. We have 
an instance of this in JEttth] i 

ou <r?ya ; /xrjCev ruvV c^eiV Kara irroki*. 
In most cases, however, the two sentences, which generally seem to 
have referred to a command of something and the prohibition 
opposite, would be joined t g< thei eopulativc conjuii 

and thus the whole would be included in the interrogation, U in the 
passage from tli 

ou <r?y ave£ci i^tjce cciXluv apus ; 
and in Kurip. // ;)S: 

to ccivci \c£a<r\ oujfi <rvjK\(i<r(ts <rr> 

Kiii itt] /ut'j/Ti.: nitV (uV^i'o-tow \6yov? ; 

From tlii- sustain of joining together an injunction of any thing 
and a prohibition of the custom of em pi 

a eonihination ofth ■ in the strongest terms SB 

onion of the two hi ; and tin- combination would always be 

. by implication, in1 snd with twnatttdtanf nssai 

A- the future or tl ; >rm was more used in connexion witli the 

direct negative mi and in the 8SC 1 Ik? more 

generally employed by the A ■ a prohibition in the second 

n by mean- of ken interr _ end a* theconjun - 

or shorter form of the future, was more frequently Bnbjoined I 
direct or subjective negation uf, to express a direct prohibition, it would 
be more usually employed, in eonnexion with m utj and in an interro- 
gate • sxpresa the direct negation of something future, in the 
sense in which am was used with the oonjnaotrri by II i r« Ihnfl in 
the collocation cm •. whether With th* fat ;h theconjun* 
the notion of the verb i< negatived and lermssd -tion 
expressed by o», i< dent from the nature of the case. For as o» m< 
is equivalent to hoc, and on mi ; to m.iw, - mivalent 
to «'i\ < ." ; and am ptf pchm : to o»« To> ; This is also - the fact, 
that, if by any ehanee the combination rated from 

the uij is repeated i m medi at ely before the verb to which it belongs : • 

we find in Soph. (1 

-ft», fttj T 



Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 587 

In this syntactical peculiarity of the Greek language we see clear 
enough traces of the original identity of the future and conjunctive, in 
an actual and strongly marked divergency of use. 

395 The employment of the conjunctive in dependent or connected 
sentences, and its contrast here to the optative, on the one hand, and to 
the past tenses of the indicative on the other, will also show very 
directly its affinity to the future (see Gr. Gr. art. 502, &c. 607, 614). 
It almost invariably follows idv or any relative word succeeded by dv in 
the protasis, in which case it is equivalent to a conditional future, and 
is generally followed in the apodosis by the future indicative, either 
without aV, which is the ordinary construction, as idv t< €%$<;, Zwo-ei? : 
or with a«/, which is very rare in Attic Greek. There is scarcely one 
undoubted instance in the dramatists; in Aristoph. Nub. 466, the 
critics and the MSS. are equally divided between dp and dv — o\j/ofxai, 
we ought to prefer the former particle in Eurip. Bacch. 639 • Tt ' ^°^ 
dp €k TovTiav epeT; and in iEschin. c. Ctes. 54)3, the true reading 
is dvepel. In Xenophon, Cyrop. VII. 5, § 21, we have: orav Ze k<x\ 
a'icrdbovTai f//xa? evhov ovtcis, iroXv dv en /xdWov rj vvv a^peioi ecrovTcti. 
Dindorf omits the aV, though there is no variation in the MSS. so far 
as we know. A very similar passage is found in Dinarchus (in JDe- 
mosth. § 111): iro\v ydp dv hiKaiorepov iXerja-ere ty\v yjnpav, where 
Bekker conjectures ixetjo-aire, which, as Hermann remarks (Opuscul. 
IV. p. 33), is probable, but not necessary. See also Xen. Cyrop. IV. 
5, § 49. It is worthy of remark that the construction with ov ^ and 
the subjunctive is considered quite equivalent to the future in the 
apodosis : thus we have in Thucyd. IV. 95 : r\ v viKtjo-conev, ov ju^VoTe 
iafidXuo-tv, and in Sophocles, Electr. 43: ov ydp o-e p.rj yt]pa tc ko.\ 
Xp OV( ? p-a-Kpy yvw<T ovV vTTOTrrevcrova-iv. The conjunctive also follows 
el or a relative word without dv, but then there is a difference of 
meaning : thus, idv ri e^j/^, SwVci? means " if you shall happen to have 
any thing (which will probably be the case) you will give it;* but 
eV Tt exV* woul(i not nave implied any probability, — "if you shall 
happen to have any thing (which is a mere contingency)" (see Philol. 
Mus. I. p. 96 foil.). If, however, we compare either of these cases with 
the optative similarly used, we shall easily perceive, that, while the 
conjunctive in the hypothesis implies only one relation — that is, a rela- 
tion to the time of speaking— and therefore stands on the same footing 
with the definite tenses, the optative presumes a relation to some time 
or circumstance which it is necessary to define. Thus, el <ri 6'x°</", 
htoiriv dv means " if I had any thing under certain circumstances (i. e. 
as often as I had it), I would give it," where the verbs are clearly in 



588 THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLl [Book IV. 

the indefinite tense, or express a double relation — of past time in regard 
to the time of speaking, and of posteriority in reference to the time or 
circumstance spoken of. Perhaps the most direct proof of this ■ 
usage of the conjunctive or future, as contracted with that of the opta- 
tive, in the apodosis. Both the future and enjoin-: antly 
Med with kcv = uv in the apodosis of condition- in the older state of the 
language, and we have ju-t -hown that even iu the Atti there 
were MOM taioei of tWfl usage of av with the future. But then the 
protasis is always expressed, fur the OODJU 1 future being 
definite t e am , and OTpieoeiug only a 

would not re'juire £$ wlen Med iud- ■p.-ndi-ntly. NMM aw refers at 
once to some other circum-tan<-<\ which «.th«r circumstance, namely 
time of sp - preen med b Um future and conjunctive : when the 

condition WM expi eSBod, mpany the Apodoeie, though 

even then it woold --ary. and would consequently \)C on. 

when the -yntax of the language gained its full developement. 
find the Ml udence between the future and COnjni 

certain fonM of tl, /•. art. 580, 582, 583 ft). 

injunctive and optative is Caliber 
shown by tluir ooom&omJ wppmnm mam final sentence, to 

expreei i mwrnmrnm of ooMeqMMM. This usage has been very well 

explained by l>r Arnold (Thucyd. Ill g are 

inetanoetj Berodot. I\ nee x*P°* «/io»»\«WarTo 

>i"», koi ot lwwt€K <r<p*as 

Ht] 8WOJOTO. Thllevd. VII. 17: MM «' x\rjpov¥ y oru»? vavua^.aK t< 

u>\vok* a-wuipav. Ellrip. // *<' t. 

1120: 

IM»* T«ra 
TaMMf, tv utirep •*>*, cu Ofiiv. 

M It Beans to i Di Am J 1. "that in all these cases the transi- 

tion from the subjunctive |Q the optative mood that 

the several consequences an ■- mporaneous, but that the - 

junetive mood indicates the imms>li<it>\ and the optative the remoej 
eoneeqnenoo o( the action contained in the principal verb, the K 
being a OOaseqoenee upon the tirst : and that fco mark this grad.r 
different moods arc employed, and the subjunctive is thus Med 



Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 589 

when the principal verb is in the past tense, because otherwise the dis- 
tinction intended could not be marked." 

397 With regard to the separate use of the optative without av, 
that is, as a proper optative expressive of a wish, it need only be 
remarked, that the entire dependence of the verb expressive of the wish 
upon some circumstance or event is obvious, not only from the fact that 
the past tense of the auxiliary is used in modern languages, but also 
from the employment of the limiting particle de, " in this particular/' 
in connexion with el and the optative, and from the use of the past 
tense wcpeXe for the same purpose. It is remarkable that the optative 
proper is accompanied not only by the conditional particle, but also by 
7rws av, as the apodosis of a condition implied. This shows how little 
reason there is to suppose with Bopp that the optative intrinsically and 
primarily expresses a wish. It only does so as an indefinite and de- 
pendent tense, having reference to some other time or circumstance than 
the present. In our own language " if I only could manage to bring it 
about !" and " how could I manage to bring it about T are expressions 
of the same wish. Inattention to this latter usage has prevented all 
the commentators from seeing the force of a very natural passage in 
iEschylus (Agamcmn. 1198). Cassandra says wildly to the Chorus: 
€KfJiapTvpt](Tov Trpov/jiocras to fx eldevat Xoyto-iraXaia^ tujvo a/j.apTia<s 
cofuav- — " give me a direct testimony confirmed by oath that I am 
acquainted with the old traditionary sins of this family" (see above 
§ 311) ; to which the Coryphaeus replies: 

koi 7raK av opKO<; i irijy/jia yevvaico*: irayev, 
iramviov yevoiro ; 

" and would to God that an oath, strong as I could make it, might serve 
as a remedy for them !" The words which follow show that we have 
here rather an admission than a question on the part of the Chorus ; 
and the emphasis, implied in the cumulative tr^yjxa yewaiM irayev, sug- 
gests the objection that no assent to prophecy, however earnest, will 
serve as a cure for the evils predicted. This is in fact the foundation 
of the idiom in question : for when we say, " how could it be brought 
about?" we are seeking for some consummation devoutly to be wished. 

398 This connexion of the conjunctive and optative appears also 
from an examination of other languages, as well those which form their 
moods and tenses by inflexion, as those which use auxiliaries. 

We cannot have a better proof of the correspondences in meaning 
between the future and aorist on the one hand, and the conjunctive and 



590 THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. [Book IV. 

optative on the other, than that which is furnished by the tense-system 
of the Latin verb. It is true that we are obliged to call in a sort of 
philological algebra, before we can restore the existing forms to their 
proper shape and their legitimate functions. But this procedure is one 
which justifies itself, and leaves no ambiguity as to the correctness of 
the results. To begin with the substantive verb sum = csuin, we cannot 
doubt that the future ero, eris, erit, &c. is another form of the conjunc- 
tive sim, sis, sit, &c. The one has lost its characteristic i, which the 
other has retained at the expense of its initial vowel j but even in its 
monosyllabic form it is not complete, for we find the fuller word 
in the older writers, so that the complete future or conjunctive must 
have been esiem = ero. In order to apply this result to the ordinary 
verb, we must set aside the futures in -ho, -lis, -lit, &c. which are 
generally found in the first two conjugations, and here and there (as 
Hit and quibit) in the fourth. In the third or consonantal conjugation, 
the future generally ends in -am, -cs, -et, Sec The first person in -am 
belongs to the present conjunctive of the last three conjugations, which 
exhibit -am, -as, -at, Sec. ; the other persons in -cs, -et, Sec are found 
throughout in the present conjunctive of the first conjugation, which 
gives us -cm, -cs, -et, Sec. To begin with NftpOK, we might assume 
an original rcg-iam on the analogy of naralis for narialis, fiuialis for 
funialis, Sec. : and we have many old forms to convince us that the 
Latin conjunctive ended in im ; such are tempcr-im, t d i w , <Ix-im, Sec 
Consequently, rcg-am was originally ivy IBM or rcg-im. and this har- 
monizes with the form fui[m~\ for fuesa : so that the corresponding 
aorist ought to be c-rcg-i. According to this principle amem is equi- 
valent to ama-im ; and rcg-cm (which must be assumed from rcg-et, 
reg-et, Sec), presumes an original rcg-a-'un=rcg-ia-itn = )\g-*im, of 
which we have a further extension in I - 

and a third in rcg-sis-scm = reg-se-se-sicm (above, § SIS). > 
regem = rcg-si-m is really nothing more than the determinate I 
corresponding to [e~]rcg-si the aorist ; and as one performs its functions 
in the conjunctive, the other in the indicative mood, we can plainly 
see that the differences of mood, as they are called, arc set at nought 
by this pair of tenses, and we may infer that there is, after all, rather 
a conventional than a real distinction between the modal and temporal 
forms. The dissimilitude of the future indicative in -ho and the pre- 
sent subjunctive of the verbs which admit this formation, is due to the 
subsequent introduction of this composite tense. It is easy to under- 
stand why the first person of the subjunctive has been called in by the 
other future : at any rate no Englishman need wonder that a broader 
form should be used for the first than for the other persons of the 



Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 591 

future, for we are in the constant habit of saying " I shall," when we 
say " you will," and vice versa. 

399 The Sanscrit language seems to have lost the future corre- 
sponding to the aorist. We find an aorist or perfect in -sha-m analo- 
gous to the Greek in -<ra : thus, from pack- (ireirToi, coquere) we have 
the aorist apdkskam, from srlp- (epireiv, serpere) we have the aorist 
asarpsam. We should of course expect to find a corresponding future 
in -ska-mi, and such a form occurs in the Vedas (see Kosen, Rig- Veda 
Sankita, p. iv.) ; but the Sanscrit future always inserts an i, which, 
according to the laws of euphony, becomes y ; and the future of pack- 
is not pakskami, corresponding to apdkskam, but pakskyami, which 
rather corresponds to the Greek desiderative in -<rel(o. Now it is 
remarkable that the Sanscrit has an aorist corresponding to this future, 
in which the radical vowel is not increased as in the other aorist ; and 
this aorist, like the similar Greek aorist in -a-eia, is very seldom used 
singly (Wilkins, Sanscrit Grammar, p. 297), but occurs chiefly as an 
optative, in conditional sentences (Gr. Gr. Art. 502, III.) ; as-.jandnan 
eked a-bkavishyat, sukkam a-bhaviskyat, "if there were knowledge, there 
would be happiness" (Wilkins, Sanscrit Grammar, p. 655), i. e. el 
eTTia-Ttjfxr] e'ltj, nai €vhai[xovia au e'lrj. Or sometimes for the sake of 
greater emphasis, the demonstrative tadd will be prefixed to the apodo- 
sis in correlation to the conditional relative yadi : as in the following 
instance, where the hypothesis is assumed to be false, and where both 
clauses would have the imperfect indicative in Greek, and the imperfect 
subjunctive in Latin (Gr. Gr. Art. 502, IV. a): yadi gild komala 
a-bhaviskyat, tadd grigdlair eva a-bkakshishyat, " if a stone were soft, 
which it is not, in that case it would certainly be eaten up by the 
jackals." When, however, the time of speaking only is referred to 
(Gr. Gr. Art. 502, II.), the unaugmented form, which is used as the 
regular future, is invariably employed. Thus, Krishna says (Bhagavad- 
Gita, XVIII. cloka 68) : 

ya idah paramah gukyah madbhakteskvabhidhdskyati, 
bhaktin mayi pardn kritvd, mdmevaishyatyasangayak. 
i.e. ya idam paramam gukyam mat bkaktesku abhi-dkdskyati, 
bkaktim mayi pardm kritvd, mdm eva eskyati a-sangayas, 

— w he who shall explain this most excellent mystery to my worship- 
pers, having performed the highest act of worship to me, shall approach 
me without hesitation." Abki-dkd-skyati (a compound of the root 
dhd- " to place," Greek de-, with the preposition abhi, Greek eW, and 
therefore signifying " to place near," " to lay before," " to explain,") is 



592 THE MOODS AND PARTICIPL1 [Book IV. 

the regular future, and is so used independently of any protasis in the 
Nalus, XII. 76: vittdrena abki ddtkyAmi u l will tell you at full 
length;" e-shyati (= atslnjati) is a similar future of tin I the 

2nd person occurs in the ap< participle in Bhag. Q&. ^ HI- > ■ 

The only difference, in fact, between this and the Greek optative is in the 
use of the ■llftmit. which therefore mark this optative 

v<rv BtrOBglj. The potential or subjunctive, on the ether hand, MM 
augment, and i- Manly Corned from the present (next to which 
placed by the Sanscrit -rainmarians) by t I <»f BUS desidera- 

tivc i. It i~ cither an optar KJJL clok. 88, 

iKul, , Uhm pa j" i ■■ tnat 

Wicked woman we would fUiedHy kill her ;" or a conjunct: 
NaL XVIL 15: tod wmkm MM dralyan, y "that 

disOOime mat be made known to MO, ImI he 

</)• We MO, thm, that in the Sanscrit forms no less than in the 

mto mere 

differ tense. 

400 In our own and other languages, in which the moods and 

formed hy auxiliar : he future 

and subjunctive, and the conjunctive and seed as a nla- 

betweae pieaeM and peet tin* IWe, future - 1 erfll ;"' wIijmh 

t.w - I would ; ' fata* •• l unc - 

tive -I B r,nan future Ich *?** 

subjunctive Ick wiM ; fatoi «"»» conjunc- 

tive lei MOje, optative Ich moc 

101 (d) I.M1M.KAT1VI 1MTIVE. 

It nuv be doubted if the imperative i~ really rank 

,,f a distinct nood- The mark< which d 

sidered M modal inflexions as ti. nly the personal termii. 

which i> generally omitted in the second _thencd in the other 

persona. It appears natural, that. ; uunand. I 

ttoo of the person immediately addressed should Ik? omitted, and a 
: emphaab laid en tin whom the command is MM 

apply. Una is effected in Engfaah and Qutnaa, by plaeh _ 

noun after the verb. M "glTS ye." : ; ''• in the I 

penoa angolas, by omitting the pronoun ■ taw 

book," tial </<' •' A command is expressed in the ancient languages in 
a precisely analogous manner: in the second person «n_ I per- 

gonal inflexion is frequently omitted, or when expressed, a stronger 
form is used, as is always the case in the other persons. 



Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 593 

402 The person-endings of the Greek imperative are, in the active 
voice, as follows : 

Second person singular : omitted as in Tinn-e ; -?, as in 0e'-<?, So-?, 
&c. ; -0 1, as in 't<rra-6i ; for this the Laconians used the indicative form 
-en, just as 0eo<? in the same dialect is written <rio<z : thus we have 
drraai for dvaaTrjdi ; Kaf3/3a<Ti for Kardfirjdt ; see Valckll. ad Adon* 
p. 104 : and the -0i is changed into -n when a 0- precedes, as in Tide- 
*rt ; for the same reason the -? is turned into -v when a o-- precedes, as 
in tv\J/o-v for Tux^a-?, or Tvir-aa-di. 

Third person singular : -too, the idea of instrumentality being ex- 
pressed by the ablative case (§ 351). 

Second and third dual and second plural are the same as those in 
the indicative, the third dual having, however, « instead of the rj y 
which appears in the secondary forms of that person in the indicative. 

The third person plural is either -ctid (later -vtw-i/J or -Two-av : the 
former appears to be the more genuine ; it is the same as the indicative 
with a lengthening of the vowel, corresponding to that which appears 
in the third singular. Whether the final -i' is merely adscititious, or 
intended to mark more strongly the genitive plural or ablative case, 
is uncertain. With regard to the form in -rw-o-ai/, it seems to have 
arisen from a mistaken analogy derived from the secondary tenses in 
the indicative : the ear led to the impression that TvirreTco-o-av was 
a plural formed from the singular, like irervcpei-a-av from erervtyei — . 
and they did not perceive the compensation-principle in the latter case. 

403 The passive- endings are, in the singular, second person -<ro i 
contracted as in the secondary forms of the indicative; third person 
-O-0W : in the dual, second person -<rOov ; third person -<rd<av : in the 
plural, second person -adou ; third person -cr0toi/, or -adwaau. In the 
first aorist middle the ending of the second person singular is not -co as 
it should be if contracted from -a-o-o, but -at. The neuter aorists in 
-r\v form their imperative like the ordinary verbs in -m in the active 
voice; of course we have rv(p6r]Tt not rv<pdr]di, for the reason men- 
tioned before. 

404 The Sanscrit imperative differs from the Greek in having a 
first person in all three numbers and in both voices. This is also the 
case in English, though only in poetry and in the plural, as "Leave 
we the theme,"—" Charge we the foe." The characteristic of the first 
person imperative active in Sanscrit is -ni instead of -mi. In the case 
of verbs in -ami, the first person imperative differs from the first 
person present indicative only in the substitution of -ni for -mi : in the 

Qq 



594 THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. [Book IV. 

case of verbs in -emi, -ami and -aumi, it is formed like the imperfect 
indicative, by resolution into -ayani and -avani. In the middle this 
is contracted into di, by an elision similar to that which transforms 
the first person indicative atmane]>a<lam from -me into e. The second 
person of the imperative active is expressed either by the p- 
ending -dhi = Greek -61, occasionally abbreviated into -hi, as bru-hx 
"say;" or by the mere crude-form of the verb, as tanu, like I 
in Greek. The other persons in the active are expressed much in the 
same way as in the indicative; the third per- ilar and plural 

are -tu, -ntu, instead of -//, - it tin y correspond to the 

Greek -tu, -vtw. The second perso: /»idam is - 

the other endings -tain, maJkai, - - l/irdm, -nlam, 

present the locative case of the personal pronouns under a v 
form. 

40.) The Quack infinitive dm Um fallowing endings is the active 
voice. In the more recent authors the infinitive of the verb i 
ends in -mm, j by a ^li<>rt lowel in the present tense, as 

-rt-Oc-vat, \-<jt ; but by a long TOWe] <r diphthoi.. 

the second aori-t, M i'< 7-vat, <TTt)-t>at^ cod-**n. The accent seems to show 
that the infinitive in -i- rani imply the ouuiponnd termination 

-j-j/o? = -aivoK (§258), so that the infinith sents the 

locative of a word anal . Botaio wmq. The verbs in -*> foni: 

infinitive of the present, future, and - not in -ei-v or -e~-v, of 

the fir>t aorUt in -ff«i, of the perfect in -€-vat. The passive infinitive 
of all verbs ended in -*#oi, that of the muter BOIIOta in -ij-iai. All 
infinitives in -ci-v or -wi have -^erai or -uev as their rcpresenta: 
in the more ancient author-. Fat -or the and Dorians 

wrote -if*, the Doiianfl also -cw, The Dorians and 
stituted -«« for the infinitive ending -»-u; and for the contracted ^ 
in -cuo, -.no, there was an .Eolic infinitive in - UiSr, S\f/o\-. 

y(\av, v\}/ovi> (Buttmann, Ausfuhrl. Sprl. § 10 -1). 

406 The Latin language nil ive infinitives: the one termi- 

nates in -;v or -a -*-*«> *+**): the other in -turn 

(dictu-m)^ which, in the modern granunai rdly enough called 

the supine in -ion. In tie .bjoined to the former 

infinitive, thus from r'ukrc WO hll r=ril<*\ 

however, is generally contracted by tbe omission either of the cha- 
racteristic >• = .* of the active, as in dici r; of the last syllable 
as in c'uhri; or of both at once, ns in did; the latter infinitiv 
written -tu (dic-tu)\ modern grammars call it the supine fa 






Cu.it. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 595 

407 The Sanscrit infinitive is perfectly analogous to the Latin in- 
finitive in -turn. Thus the root ?ru (Greek k\v-) "to hear/' makes 
?rutas, " heard," and grotum, " to hear/' These infinitives in -turn 
are cases of verbal nouns : another case is the Sanscrit gerund in -tvd g 
thus from hi-tum, "to leave," or, "the leaving," we have hi-tvd, "by 
or in the leaving," = tw Xelireiv. 

408 Those acquainted with Greek syntax are aware that the 
infinitive is sometimes used to express a command : it must be remarked 
too by every one, that there is a great resemblance between the third 
person singular imperative passive and the termination of the passive 
infinitive. A modern philologer (Grafe, das Sanskrit Verbum, p. 58) 
has gone so far as to propose, that the first person singular imperative 
in Sanscrit, as tisht'tidni, and the second person singular first aorist 
imperative in Greek, as rv^/ov, should be considered as forms of the 
infinitive in -vat : nay more, that the first person plural, as tish-t'tiama, 
is the same as the infinitive l<nd^xev for la-Tavat. It would be difficult 
to convince us that these resemblances are more than accidental, 
though, as we have shown above, the Latin language presents some 
analogies which favour the supposition (above, § 362), 

409 "With regard to the similarity between tutttcV^w, &c. and tvt- 
Teadai, &c. we must explain ourselves at greater length. It is remark- 
able, that, where t appears in the active person-endings, -<rd appears in 
the passive : thus we have TU7rTe-T-oi/, TvirTe-adov; Tvirre-re, TU7rTe- 
ad-e ; Tvrrre-T-u), Tv-rrTe-ad-w ; &c. At first sight one might be dis- 
posed to think that this <rd- is merely an arbitrary insertion to mark 
the passive voice. But this view is overthrown by the appearance of 
the same combination -o-0- in the infinitives, where there is no cor- 
responding t in the active voice. Besides, in some instances, we 
have seen that the -a-6 admits of an easy explanation ; in fact, merely 
the imperative third person singular and the infinitives remain unex- 
plained. We must, therefore, seek for some solution in these two cases, 
and, if a probable and consistent theory suggests itself, we must take 
it on its own merits, even though it may not harmonize with the 
account which we have given of the same combination of letters in 
the dual and plural person- endings. 

On examining the passive imperative-endings we find, that, though 
the second person has generally the same ending as the corresponding 
person in secondary form of the ordinary suffixes (tuVtou for rvirreao, 
compare ervirrov ; t£tv\1/o = reruTr-o-o, compare irerv^o), the third 
person always ends in -d<a or -<r0« (as rvrrre-adu, rerv<p-6(a)^ though 

QQ2 



596 THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. [Book IV. 

the corresponding secondary form is -to; nay more, that the aspirate is 
even extended to the preceding consonant, though this is not a-pi rated 
in the corresponding tense of the indicative; thus tre-Tv-mo, imperative 
TCTU(pd(o. We must, therefore, conclude that there is something essen- 
tial and necessary in this aspiration. Now we observe, not only that 
the present imperative Tv-rrTeadu) is like the present infinitive tJt- 
T€<rdai in tbii respeot, but llto that there is the lance 

between the perfect imperative rervepdu) and the perfect infinitive 
TCTixpdai. There is only one way of explaining the.-e resemblances, 
namely, by BnppOfling that tiny afOM frmn the Me "f the infinitive 
to express a command, and by a Mil- aphony which 

accommodated the final Bound to the I tivc im- 

perative. Beeidesj the Senecril I 'hat if the ma 

of the tfixet WU (,irri<<l out. the tliird person of the passive i: 
mu-t have been rvn-re-rtjv, and this iM drhen out by •• lance 

to the corrupted dual. On the wbol 

the fonM of the imperati\o. both active ;m 1 pa— i\e, the influence 
of a later and abnormal analogy operating on the basis of acon\eii- 
tional idiom whieli employed tlie infmithe a- the vehicle of commands 
and entreaties W con- 

nexion b e tw ee n the infinitive acti\- and the corresponding 

imperative middle, whieli inii;t be a I I of Til^a-<raj. 

•110 An examination of the active infinitive endings will show us 
that there an- in fact three, and only three, dUtii. 

(1) -f.iiiiu. contracted to -ptv or -pm»\ 
(J) to -€*> or -av, or -ri»; 

(:;) -<r or -«. 

Although the same verb in differ _'uage appears with 

infinitives in -iuiu< and -<•>, we think it n: say that the form 

in -€u> is a contraction of that in -jumu. These three terminations 
are. we conceive. participial endings, and therefore it is just as pos- 
sible for a verb to have two o( then infinitive endings, M r the 
same verb to exhibit two different fornix of the participle. 

We will tir>t produce other instances of theeeeo b an adjec- 

tival or participial signification. 

(l) -utrcn. The regular passive participle is invariably 
-/aci>ck, but we must not suppose that the termination itself is neces- 
sarily pasMve; for although W€Wf .-r = 
Trpdy-pev-T, the termination -/ur;»' = -^t ~ses an active ageut, as 
we may see in such word-* as ico\i>-icpay-ii*v = troXi^rpa- 



Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 597 

iroi-ixr\v— Troi-fxev-s, &c. (above, p. 223). Indeed, an active sense is gene- 
rally conveyed by the combination -fxe-v, when it is followed by the 
second element; cf. •yap~}xovr\, dp-\xovia, &c. Under the shortened form 
pvo-, we have this compound affix, with a participial meaning, in such 
words as Kptjhe-fxvov, " a fillet," i. e. " that which is bound round the 
head :" /xe'Bi-jui/o?, " that which is measured" (a certain quantity of corn, 
Latin modi-us), fieXe-fxvov, " that which is thrown" (a dart) ; yv-^i/o?, 
" stript" (from €k8u'w, Pott, Etym. Forsch. II. p. 182); fxepi-fiva, " that 
which is thought of or recollected," comp. fjLep-fxrjp-i^w, fxep-ixep-os, pap- 
Ti/p, Latin me-mor or mesmor, Sanscrit root smri. In Latin we have 
seen ama-mini, ama-minor ; we have also the participles, alu-mnus 
"reared;" auctu-mnus "increased;" vertu-mnus "turned;" da-mnum 
"given;" ceru-mna "a load or weight;" not, as Yoss thinks, for 
aipovfjievov, but, as Pott suggests (Etym. Forsch. I. p. 279), connected 
with the Sanscrit root yas = adniti (because Sanscrit ayas — Latin ces), 
so that ce-ger is qui cerumnam gerit. We have, besides, shortened 
forms in -men corresponding to the Greek infinitives in -p.ev ; thus, from 
the root col- " to raise up" (cel-sus, col-lis, Greek koXwvv], neWeiv, cut- 
mus, ex-cel-lere, &c), we have not only colu-mna, but cul-men. Bopp 
(Annals of Oriental Literature, p. 52) mentions dis-cri-men (which 
means quod discernitur, not, as he says, quod discer nit), stra-men=quod 
struitur, legu-men =quod legitur prwfa-men, "what is said at the com- 
mencement" (cf. Vergl. Gr. p. 1115). He also compares car-men with 
the Sanscrit karman u a deed," from the root krl " to make," and with 
the Greek wo'ititxa^'iroiri-nev-T. Other instances are su-men-quod 
sugitur, volu-men = quod volvitur, se-men = quod seritur, &c. The 
Sanscrit termination -mdna frequently makes a participle, which has 
a middle or active signification, unless preceded by the syllable -ya, 
when it becomes passive ; and the words ser-mon, Xei-p-wv, &c. (§ 256), 
may be considered as implying action. 

(2) -vai. This termination also has both an active and a passive 
participial meaning (§ 255) : an active, in such words as -rex-vn (from 
Teu'x<o), "that which makes," repir-vo?, "he who pleases," &c. ; a pas- 
sive, in such words as tU-vov, " that which is brought forth," o-Kti-vrj, 
"that which is covered" (comp. a-ni-a, o-ko-tos, Sanscrit root ch'had "to 
cover," Hebr. ]pW, Latin squa-ma, ob-scu-rus, scu-tum, &c), 6p<p-v6<;, 
(epecpu)), ddXTr-vos, &c. In Latin we have the same termination with an 
active meaning in pce-na (Greek iroi-vt]), "that which atones," comp. the 
Sanscrit root pu- " to purify," pe(' n )-?ia, " that which flies" (Greek Trert;- 
i/<k, ttt»7-i/o?) ; but in by far the greater number of cases it has a pas- 
sive signification, as in ple-nus, sd-nus, reg-num, pug-na, more anciently 
puc-na, (Greek itvk-v6^\ do-num, lig-num, "that which is bound" (a 



598 THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLI [Book IV. 

faggot), ta-nus (comp. vacuus), pa-ius, diy-nus, "what is shown" 
(ccik-), &c. 

(3) -? or -«. The analogy of the other two terminations -/xevai, 
"uat, shortened to -pau and -cn>, would lead us to expect that this end- 
ing was originally -crcu, an opinion which is confirmed by the distinct 
i, which is inserted between it and the last vowel of the crude-form : 
thus, we have yeXaW, not ytXaSi, ai. -idered as 

analogous to rvrrfit, for rvvrcvi, Sec. One of i nations which 

we have seen used to iHflM the <>>tractum r - action of the 

verb, is -<tk, as vpaK-(n<: y fxifitj-trt^, \ipr-<rrc, <£a'-<ric, &c. ; another, not 
quite so common, is -tut, as tcrj-Tik, eirtj-Tvs, aA»7-Ti*, 6pyr]r 
<ro)(ppovi<r-Tv<;. These tv -«w and -tk, are equivalent in 

meaning; and the reader who ha- ulna Hill the changes in the second 
personal pronoun fri Mb will not be dispo- y the 

Utility of their beinf By the same in form. It so happens, 

that the two Latin inlinitives .. milarly related to one 

another; the one ending ■ ■ OOOB of t ft] in -<m ; 

that —ding in -turn corn-pond- M tl<- ' rhal in -I con- 

sider the £olio infinitive in - 'ive of the 

former Latin infinitive: every OM kn 

dialect to the Latin, and it would ha% --range, if the Greek had 

retained DO traces of likeness in an bnVorion of 10 common occurrence as 
the infinitive DQ 

Upon the whole, then, we have no hesitation in asserting that the 
three forms of tlie (J reck infinit finally -u.hn, -*ai, 

and -.raj or -cm. and that these are the locatives of three verbals, 
have seen that even the two former HI ith an I 

■eon ; but if it is objected that they an nerally passive in 

signification, and that therefore they eannot well express the action of 
■ transitive verb, it may be answered that the participle in -n.Iu* in 
Latin is used more frequently in a passive than in an active 
tion, and yet the ablative of this participl- like a case of the 

active infinitive — thus, dandmi mean- _ivcn." but nWMM, ' 

riving; - other onom may be u-. d in a similar manner, as ad opt* dan* 
net, nt mi imium oj t, Besides, aM ogt H <><",-««, 

which are used as active infinit strictly passive, we l 

remark conversely, that the active participles in -rr are occasionally 
used in an infinitive sense, in which the dirVerer. 
neglected (see Wirron. p. 861, note 8). The reason for all t: 
verv plain and simple. In the indetinitcness pro]>or to the intir 
mood, it matters little whether we consider the verb as tr.v 
intransitive. Tor instance, what dit; there in our own Ian- 



Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 599 

guage between "the thing is doing" or "the thing is being done?" 
All this would have been seen long ago, if the Greek and Latin infini- 
tives had not lost their case-endings and become mere crude-forms. 
The consequence of which has been, that, although it is admitted that 
the Greek infinitive is to all intents and purposes a noun, to be declined 
by the article,, the loss of the final -eu has prevented grammarians from 
discerning its relation to forms which may be declined without articles 
or prepositions. The Latin infinitive stands in the same predicament, 
except that as the Romans had other verbals still admitting of inflex- " 
ion, and had no article to help out the infinitive, its employment as a 
noun is confined to the general objective or accusative case. As a nomi- 
native, it occurs only in later writers who were familiar with the Greek 
idiom. Supposing that we had not only pugna but pugnamen and 
pugnatus, we should be able to represent from one root all forms of the 
infinitive ; pug-nd (irvK-vai), pug-na-mine (irvK-va-fxevai), pug-na-se = 
pug-na-re (iruK-vd-o-ai), pug-na-tu (wvK-ua-Tv'i), pug-na-ndo, pug-na- 
turn, &c, being all different expressions, in the way of cases, of the 
same idea, — " closeness for the sake of fighting." 

It is perhaps right to add that the first aorist infinitive active (as 
Tvir-a-ai) is, in our opinion, a representative of the third form of the 
infinitive, the final s having dropt off. 

411 The ending of the Greek infinitive passive, we have seen, is 
invariably -adai. This we shall now be able to explain without diffi- 
culty. The second person plural in -o-0e must have been originally 
-<70cu for -<rdt)v; cf. TUTrT€-<rde with Tvirro-fxai and erwirrofiriv. It is 
therefore not an unreasonable inference that the infinitive n-virTeadat 
was originally Tvirreadipi or TvirrevBrivai ; the <r before the 6 being 
one of those euphonic insertions which are due to the Greek predilec- 
tion for the combination <rd. Consequently, Tvirrevdat is ultimately 
identical in form with ueXevo-dfjvat. 

412 The -<?r, which marks the Latin infinitive passive, is that 
sign of the locative which we have seen used as the characteristic of 
the passive voice in the other moods. And for this reason we con- 
sider that forms like dicier are mutilated, and that the r, which marks 
the active infinitive, has been omitted between the two vowels, just as 
in the genitive plural of all consonantal nouns. It is obvious that 
spargier for spargerer (Hor. IV. Carm. XL 8) is abridged on the same 
principle as lapidum for lapiderum. The r, which is retained in musa- 
rum is also retained in the vowel-verbs, and this fuller form (as wearier 



600 THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. [Book IV. 

= vocas7/er, from xocare-cocane) is perfectly analogous to that of the 
indicative passive (as vocatur from rocat). 

The Sanscrit gerund in -trd -tand- between the Latin infinitive «lti 
and the Greek verbal in -tJc. yuX as the San-crit pronoun team stands 
between the Greek <ru and the Latin tu (above, § 133). 

( 

413 (3) Tartu in 

Although we have already I < k participle in con- 

nexion witli the adjective, and have endeavoured to explain the prin- 
ciples of iH Syntactical USB (above, j 800 kbod requires that 
we should again consider it in it- etymological and syntactical relation 

to the infinitive mood and other inthxion- of the verb. 

The characterise of the participle .otiv.-. in the ;uture, 

and aorists, is -nt, both in Latin and < I hi- appears only in the 

oblique QMM of 1 line and neu; tttovto*, TiQiv-ro*, 

ti;'\^«vtoc, ftiK-i'iJi/Ti- . masculine 

-vt and -at are always abbn \ iat- <1 ; th<- f, which i- the characteri-tic 
of the nomina! r, invariably retained in the older 

conjugation: thu- I '< . , (M the analogy qletl for 

fa ; but for tvtttovt-*; we have -vrr-rusv, where tin- H is absorbed, 03 in 
kuWuov for KdWuMs; for tu^/oktc f ' <r- ; lot Okh'kt?, 

tmam\ U>r •/,, for decent*, docens . he. The fern ini 

formed according to the principle! n in the last book ; and the 

neuter, by Leaving out the nominative s ; the / is necessarily on i 
In Latin we have occasionally ned form of tin- participle, 

Qeed :'- an active partieiple, though it is general'; 
equivalent to the Greek verbal- in -Wo? : we I that MMi 

moribundus, amabundu*, oriundut, arc filmed from *•</*/(;)«*, fnori(I)»*, 
ainii{',)mi. oW('W. <m, Tarentum, lhixentum*, &c, are 

from 'AKpayat, To. it, (above, § v?(>l). 

414 The Greek partieiple of tl 

-o? ; -o'toc, -I'l'uc, -, participle end- *, as 

we have said in speaking of the infinitives. The Latin passive par 
pie ends in -tn.<. and the Greeks ha\ 

The Sanscrit aetive participle ends in -tit. like the Grivk and Latin, 
with the exception of the perfect participle, o( which the terminations 
are -us, -utki. 

We cannot agree with some modern scholars [Pott, KtymoL J' 
I. p. J)J. QioBO, ./; I Dial. p. 103, Bepp, Krit. (,rinun. nilc 186) in 
considering the Greek and Sanscrit perfect particq 



Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 601 

the same form with the present. There is no trace throughout of the 
n, which appears so essential to the ordinary participle form, and, 
though it may be said that there is an appearance of a weaker as well 
as a stronger form in the declension of the Sanscrit participle, yet this 
does not go so far as to establish an identity between this participle 
and one in which the weaker form is consistently employed. It is 
very probable that the Sanscrit perfect participle contains the Sanscrit 
ending -vat, which we find in td-vat " so much," dana-vat " rich," &c. 
The Greek perfect participle ends in -Fot, as appears from the neuter 
-Fo<? for -Fot, and the oblique cases -Fo't-o?, &c. The nominative mas- 
culine in -to? is a representative of -Fot?, the length of the vowel being 
a compensation for the lost consonants. The feminine in -v?a and the 
lengthened i would seem to point at once to the loss of an aspirate or 
digarnma, and of a sibilant, so that this form is perfectly analogous to 
the Sanscrit. We have remarked above (§ 329), the connexion between 
t//aFao?-o5 and rjpw = vf)-FaoT-s. The affinity between this termina- 
tion -ot or -For, the Sanscrit -vat, and the common adjective ending 
-ko$, will appear from the following considerations. That irarpiKo^ 
and iruTpwo? are all but synonyms is well known (see Hermann ad 
Eurip. Bacch. 1362. Neumann ad Aristot. Rerumpubl. Beliquias, 
p. 65). Now W T e find that iraTpvios, 7raT0i>o?, 7raT/)ft)5, 7raTj0wo5, are 
also nearly synonymous; that these words are merely by-forms, no 
etymologist will deny. "We likewise find fxr]rpvid, apparently the femi- 
nine of fxriTpM and fxtiTpvios ; also the adjective fxrjTptKos. It appears to 
us that all these words, as well as the Latin patruus, Sanscrit pitrivt/as, 
belong to the same class as the perfect participles. The feminine 
termination -v?a sometimes occurs in words apparently participles, but 
evidently not perfects, as apirviai (apirovo-ai), dyvid (ayov<ra), opyvta 
(opeyovaa), (above, § 296). It has been already mentioned (§ 257) that 
the Sanscrit feminine corresponding to these forms in -vTa is -uslii: thus, 
't€Tv<pv7a = tutupushi. According to this analogy we may class the 
Latin noun sec-uri-s = sec-usi-s " the cutter," with the participial forms 
just mentioned (see Bopp, Vergl. Gr. p. 1097). 

415 The participle termination in -nt owes its origin to the same 
pronominal combination as the third-person-plural ending in the verb. 
The endings of tMvti, ndevTat, are, as we have seen, mutilated forms 
of instrumental and locative cases, expressing that the act of placing is 
produced by, or has reference to, a set of persons or things. There is 
no reason why these forms should not be inflected through all the cases. 
If they are so treated we obtain the regular participle ti0c« = mO&r-ti 
&c. No doubt the same series of inflexions might be appended to any 



602 THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLL [Book IV. 

other person of the verb. Why this is never done is obvious. The 
participle expresses the action of the verb without any limitation as to 
person. Such a meaning is conveyed by the form tiScvt-, uninflected. 
By the addition of different inflexions we confine it to one or other of 
the meanings "they place," "they are placed," &c, u if he pit 
&c. The passive participle in -nevos, we have already 1 in 

speaking of the infinitive in -}ievai. 

41 G It will be inferred, from what we have mid, that we con- 
sider the participle as ultimately identical with the infinitive. In 
usage they are different, and the difference consists in this, that the 
infinitive, originally a participle or verbal noun in the locative case, 
has, in process of time, lost all trace- of its inflexion, and may be con- 
sidered as the most general and crude-form in which the verb can 
appear — yeviKwTaTov Kaflccrro*; twv a\\tov ^/uaruii', as Apollonius says 
(Syntax, III. BftUu): Wl instead of 

being a particular case, the locative or instrumental, of a verbal t 
has received or retained a eel of ii which cons a mixture 

of adjective and verl>. It will be remembered, however, that the 
ticiple beoomefl an adjective only in the sai< ■ which the infini- 

tive, and con-ecjuently the participle itself, when B I to some 

noun, becomes a sub>tantive, namely, by tin ft] contrivance 

which we call prefixing the detinite article (above, § SOO). 

117 Than are adjecthes which hffl ination as 

the active participl \apiei* = ^a^<V»T-c. TkftM l 

however, do not express an action, but a quality, and therefore 
be joined to ft substantive ftft an epithet without an n, as 

we have shown on ft former occasion, 1 all intents and purpoaea 

a substantive. Tims yafkti wSpmmm means dimply "an agreeable 
man;" rtOci* Mpmrot, on the contrary, could not mean "a placing 
man," or "a man who i- in the act of placing," but "a man, wh 
if he is placing," an hypoth. - Bftfl kind 1 _ implied. 

In the ease, however, when the artic 1 . wiplft and 

adjective stand on the same footing: J ^ap/eic av0pa>*o< uVic, 

•"the agreeable BftftB U av&ptairos or 1 And 

in this relation the participle and infinitive are identical: rw n 
and tu TtdevTt equally signify "by the plfttf 

419 It ifl a theory of Grimm's (DtmUtkt Gmmmat'd; I. p. 

foil.), that the Teutonic intiniti\ riginally declinable, tin 

dinar? form in -iin being the accusative, which is also used substan- 



Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 603 

tively as the nominative, and the forms in -annes, -anne, &c., repre- 
senting the genitive and dative respectively. Grimm recognises the 
genitive in the new High German forms meidens, fragens, &c, and the 
dative in the common infinitives meiden, fragen, on the analogy of 
zeichen = signo, and regen = pluvid. He adds (p. 1022) "an unor- 
ganic participle in -nd, declinable like an adjective, and with a pas- 
sive signification, has gradually developed itself out of the old nn 
and the preposition ze prefixed, by an interchange with nd, just as 
niemannes has become niemandes: thus we have ein zu lesender 
(legendus), ein zu gelender (dandus). Perhaps there is still time to 
expel from the language this stiff and unnatural formation." We 
cannot agree with the great philologer in his disapprobation of this 
form, which seems to us to be confirmed by every analogy. Our English 
infinitive is the mutilated form of the dative of such a participle or 
gerund. Thus, in WicklifT's Bible, we have thou that art to comynge, 
which corresponds to the Anglo-Saxon \>u \>e to cumenne eart (see 
Diversions of Pur leg, Vol. I. pp. xxxni. 450, Vol. II. p. 505, Taylor's 
Edition). Rask says that the present infinitive in Anglo-Saxon is 
never used with the particle to as in modern English, though the 
gerund always requires to, whence he concludes that the gerund is 
nothing but the dative of the infinitive {Anglo-Saxon Grammar, 
§ 400). In our opinion, the infinitive was originally the participle in 
-nt, which became -nd in German, while the flexion form of the old 
Saxon, which inserted j before the case-ending, as in slapandjes — 
dormientis, led to the English -nge and -ng. This participle, when 
used as an infinitive, lost its inflexion, and could only be used as a 
gerund or case by means of the auxiliary preposition zu or to. It 
also suffered mutilation, being deprived of its final d in German, and 
reduced to the crude-form of the word in English. The forms in -nn 
are assimilations for which we have many analogies in the Teutonic 
languages. 

419 The Latin and Sanscrit languages, which have no definite 
article, and have therefore retained their inflexions longer than the 
Greek, afford us a direct proof of the view which we have taken of 
this question. The Latin expresses by cases of the lengthened par- 
ticiple in -ndus, and the verbals in -turn, -tu, those relations, which, 
in Greek, are generally conveyed by the infinitive with the definite 
article :— Priscian calls all these cases gerundia : gerundia quoque vel 
participialia, quum participiorum videantur habere obliquos casus, nee 
tempora signijicent, quod alienum est a verbo (legendi, legendo, legendum,, 
tectum, lectu); infinitivi tamen vice funguntur, quod solet apud Gra?cos 



604? THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. [Book IV. 

articulis conjungi (p. 808). They had also an infinitive, which, like 
the Greek, was a mutilated form of the locative of a verbal in -m. but 
as they had no definite article, they could not treat this as the Greeks 
did their infinitive; it remains, therefore, as the mere crude-form, ex- 
pressing the action of the verb, and perfectly equivalent to the verbal 
in -turn. The Sanscrit expresses all the relations of gerund and infini- 
tive by verbal-form- in -feu, _»/,*, -turn. The last of these is equiva- 
lent to the Latin verbal in - jirived of its final letter, it may 
form the first part of a compound word, like any other crude-form ; 
thus we have such WOfdl M jr-tn-kum'i. u de-irons of vanquishing," 
&c. The verbal in -tru is either the instrumental in a. or a remnant of 
the locative in -am : of. (r<nn and -v. The verbal in ->/n, which is only 
formed from roots compounded with prepositions, and has thmf.r 
its case ending, owing to the weight of the form- in which it is found, 
must bo OOOeidarod as the OOOeopOlldmg ca-e <>f ■ -imilar verbal in 
All these three, then. U formed by means of the second pro- 
nominal element, which we have seen of so much m i< 'filiation 
of abstract nouns. The elements -tr<i and -v/ arc combined to form 
the future ending to t /0, which is equivalent in meaning to t 
verbal in -tcV (perhaps rtFuc), an<l to one DM <»f the Latin parti- 
ciple in -/ 

420 The oblique cases «>f j>arti< nscrit, 

are often Died ibtobltelj, that ie, tin y form, in combination with I 
in the same ease, a distinct though subordinate sentence without the 
intervention of any finite verbs. When the third person plan] fi 

stand- by itself we understand it to mean, that an act of pi 

is going on by the instrumental'.- :i-. who are neither 

oursclve- nor thOBO W( When 

the instrumental ease of the participle, we imply hypothetical pb 
of which, however, the agent or instrument is some individual. When 
this individual is expressed in the same understand that a 

supposition is made with regard t«» hi- placing: and thus A<oc*»p« 
riOcrn or Aaofmpov TiOtiro*, toicivt tiTra yiyvon* av t means "that 
as often as lHodorus placed, certain things would ensue by or out of 
that action of his." We endeavoured to -how, when -peaking of the 
adjective (above, § 900), that the participle must always be U 
in this way, when it appears, not as an attributive word or ep 
but as a predicate, that is, when it is unaccompanied by the article. In 
modern German the predicate, whether adjective or participle, i- 
only distinguished by the want o( the article, but also by mutilation in 
its inflexions. And here it must be remarked, that the German 



Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 605 

language possesses a logical advantage over all others ; for it not only 
marks a distinction between the attributive used without the article and 
the attributive preceded by it— as gute-r Mensch, der gute- Mensch,— 
but also between the epithet in this last case and the predicate— as in 
der Mensch is gut (see Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, IV. p. 577). 
This is surely the ultimate refinement of a language in a logical or 
syntactical state. The German and Latin, however, fall short of the 
Greek in one use of the absolute participle. They rarely express the 
whole hypothesis by a single participle, in other words, they do not 
often use the absolute participle or predicate impersonally, but generally 
and as a rule add the subject. " The German and Latin syntax," 
says Grimm (IV. p. 894), "generally requires that the subject should 
be expressed by the side of the absolute participle ; the Greek, which is 
freer and less constrained, allows us to use absolutely the participles 
of impersonal verbs, whose subject is not defined: e.g. vovros ttoA/W 
(not 7ro\\ov\ 'when it was raining hard;' o-aA<7n£bi/To? 'as he was 
sounding the trumpet.' I am not able to adduce a Latin pluente, 
ningente, buccinante, in any such sense ; still less a Gothic rignjandin 
or at rignjandin, haurnjandin, or at haiimjandin, although such abso- 
lute constructions are conceivable. Least of all would it be allowable 
in the dialects, which prefix the indefinite es to their impersonal verbs. 
It was necessary always to subjoin a definite subject to the absolute 
participle ; e. g. in old High German reganontin himile; Gothic at 
rignjandin himina; Latin coelo pluente. It is only by way of excep- 
tion that certain Latin and German formulae allow the omission of the 
subject; e.g. comperto, posito; new High German gesetzt, kaum gesagt, 
anders ausgedriickt." When a participle is used absolutely in San- 
scrit it generally appears connected with some noun in the locative 
case, which is the proper inflexion for this construction ; the genitive 
and ablative cases, which are the most common forms in Greek and 
Latin respectively, seem to owe their employment for this purpose to 
their having superseded the old locative. The following instance is 
given by Wilkins (Sanscrit Grammar, p. 6*32) : 

mrite pitari, te vird, vandd etya sva mandirah, 
na-chirdd eva mdvdnso vede dhanushi-cha a-bhavan, 
" their father being dead (locatives), those heroes, by the having gone 
(verbal in -yd) from the forest to their own abode, after no long time 
even, became skilled in the Veda and in the bow" (we observe, by the 
way, that chira is the modern form ofjira from jara-s, yripas: ajira-s is 
found in the Rig- Veda : see Lassen's Antholog. Sanscritica, p. 97? 1. 10, 
and note 1). It is a remarkable instance of the looseness of the Indian 
syntax, that the indeclinable verbals in -ya and tvd, which are obvi- 



606 THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLE [Book IV. 

ously fragments of cases (above, § 419), may be used absolutely, though 
the nominative case of the sentence is not the noun to which they refer: 
either with an active sense, as in the // . p. 10, 1. 185: M 

uk-tvd, panaih ganair " 4ria dhritah sa panthah 

aehintayat, "when he (the tiger) had thus spoken, and had OOOM up 
to him slowly, slowly, the traveller, caught by the tiger, began to 
reflect," — where uk-tca and va refer t" !iein-tru- 

mental of u pdntk nominative to the verb 

U; — or with a passive sense, as in NmUm, XIV. 17: 
knxl/tul- 1 r Utah kr 

"as I (the serpent) have cursed him in anger, thy preservation has 
been effected by DM unnecessary to dwell upon these Sa; 

forms : the reader who is curious about them will tind acute reasoning 
on the subject, fori □ abandi in a paper by 

W. von Humboldt in s:he Bill 133 foil.: 

A r ol. II. p. 7« foil. 

V2\ PaBAD] 

Haying thus inves 1 the inflexions of person, tense, and 

1, which distinguish the verb in thfl three classical languages of 

the Indi>-( Jt rmanic family, we shall, for the sake oi :nger 

student, laleoJ an mampla 01 paradigm fr-m each of these languages, 
in order that the principle of classit; ropose may be 

more evident Ws shall take the Greek language first, becai; 

BSSSi tlie most oompld f moods and tenses; then the 

Sanscrit, Which fall- >hort of it in this rt>; ;. lastly, the Latin, 

which i- the most dcfeet. 

In the arrangement of the lenses and moods in the following para- 
digms, we have adopted the dk i finite and 

indefinite tenses, and, making the active voice of the Circek verb the 
basis of comparison, we have live definite tenses and as many i: 
nite. The order in which we have taken these tens* 1 -en rather 

from etymological considerations, than fr* ; M the connexion of 

past, present, and future time. We have given not only the forms 
which really occur or might occur in classical Greek or Latin, but 
also those which we infer must have exited in the oldest state of the 
language. The tin ire hate chosen are all analogous in | 

of meaning, and identical etyinologically in the Sanscrit and Latin. 



Chap. 3.] 



THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 



607 



422 I. Greek root i-wir-; pronominal suffix -t-. 

(1) Active voice, or, verb with person-endings in the 
instrumental case. 



(a) 

1st Definite Tense. 
(Present Indicative). 

Existing 
forms. 

(rvTrrcoj 

(tvtttcis) 

(rvTrrei) 



Indicative Mood. 

1st Indefinite Tense. 
(Imperfect). 



Supposed original 
forms. 

TV7T-TO -fit 

TV7T-T€-(ri 

TV7T-Te-TL 





(tvtttctov) 




(tvtttctov) 


TV7r-ro-/xecri 


(rvnTOfiev) 


TV7T-Te-T€(ri 


(ru7rrere) 


TVTT-TO-VTL 


(TVTTTOV(ri(v) 


2nd Definite Tense. 


(Perfect). 


TfTV7T-( A .)a-/it 


(r€Tv(f)a) 


T6-rv<£a-/u 




TSTV<j)a-cn 


(T€TU(f>as) 


Terv<Pa-Ti 


(r€TV(f)ev) 




(reTvcfxiTov) 




(rervcfiaTov) 


T€TV(f)d'fl€(Tt 


(rerv(f)afi€v) 


T€TV<f)d-T6(Tl 


(reTvcfiaTe) 


TiTV(j)a-VTL 


{rervc^acriv) 


3rd Definite Tense. 


(Future). 


Tim-cro-fii 


(rvyj/'a)) 


Tim-cre-cri 


(Tvyjreis) 


TV7T-(T€-TL 


(rCxj/ei) 



TV1T-(TO-}X€(TI. 
TV7T~a€-T€(TL 
TVTT-a-O-VTl 



(tv^T€TOv) 
(tv\Ja€TOv) 

(rvy^ofj.€v) 

(rvyj/eTe) 

(rvtyovo-w) 



Supposed original 
forms. 

€-TV7T-TO-fll, 

€-TV7T-T€-(TL 


Existing 
forms. 

(erviTTOv) 

(ervTrres) 


i-TV7T-T€-Tl 


(ervnTev) 


€-TV7r-TO'fl€(ri 




e-Tvn-Te-Te<ri 

6 'TV7T-TO-VTI 


(eTV7TT€Te) 
(eTV7TT01>) 


2nd Indefinite Tense. 


(Plus 


Perfect). 



e-Teru(f)eya~fAi (ererixfieiv) 

(-T€ru(f>€ya-(ri (ererixpeis) 



(irerixpeiTov) 

(irervcfieiTrjv) 

i-Tervfaya-necri (ireTV(f)€ifX€v) 

€-Terv(peya-T€(n (ereTixpeire) 

€-Terv(fieya-VTi (eT€TV<p6i(rav) 



3rd Indefinite Tense. 
(Aorist). 

(tTvyjfa) 

(eTvyjsas) 

(ervyjfep) 



€-TV7T-<ra-pi 
i-ruTT-aa-cri 

€-TV7T-(T€-Tl 



(ervyfraTov) 
(eTV^a.TT]v) 
e-TV7r-ord'iX€<ri (eTv\f/afX€v) 
i-TV7r-(rd-T€(ri (irvyjsaTe) 
£-TV7T~<ra-i>Tt (ervyfrav) 



608 



THE MOODS AXD PARTICIPLES. 
(Jj) Conjunctive and Optative M 



[Book IV. 



4th Definite Tense. 


(Present Subjunctive, or Present 


Desiderati 


we). 


Supposed original 

forms. 


ting 
forms. 


TVTT-ry-o/zi 


(tvttto)) 


rvn-T-ya-crt 


(tvttttjs) 


Tim-T-ya-Ti 


{TV7TTT]) 




(rvTmjrov) 




[rxTrrriTOv) 


TVTT-T-)/6-fi((ri 


(Tl7TTaifl€v) 


T\.m-T-ya-T«rt. 


(TVnTTJTf) 


T\m-T-yo-vri 


\n TTTbHTIV) 



4th Indefinite Ten»i:. 
(Present Oj>tatlce^ or Past 



I ' 



Supposed original 
faOBfti 



w 



~TXTi-r-yo-px 
,a-<Ti 



(«')-rv»r-r-yt-/ifo*t 
i-Tco-t 
--r-yo-vri 



Existing 

f..nii». 

Tiirroifii) 

TVTTTOlt) 



rvnroiTov) 

rVTTTOlTTJp) 

rvnr< 
riirrouv) 



5tb Definite Tense. 

TV7T-(TJ/(,-fll (tV7T-0*<- ICi)) 



fro. 






5th boa I'iscBB. 

(«)-rvn-on/a-^» (riir-acia) 



And M on through the other ttMM in the later state of the 

langni 

(<*) Imperative. 
Direct Command (iVwini mm). 

Supi>osed original forms. Existing 



t-ru 



i mm | 

(tvttt 



(rtTrrfra)!') 



mr-rt-rfcri 
nTT-ro'-VTo) 



(rf»nwrw-r) 
And so Qfl through the other tenses. 

((/) Ineimtim:. 
The mere state or notion. 



rt7r-rt 
TiTi-aai-s 



(nV- 
And similarly in the other tenses. 



Chap. 3.] 



THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 



609 



(2) Reflexive voice, or verb 

Two of the tenses of the 
principle. 



with person-endings in the locative case. 
indicative will be sufficient to show the 



1st Definite Tense. 


1st Indefinite Tense. 


{Present). 


(Imperfect). 


Supposed original 
forms. 


Existing 
forms. 


Supposed original 
forms. 


Existing 
forms. 


TVTT-TO-fxrjv 


(rxmTofxai) 


€-TVn-TO-fJ.T]V 


(Jtvivto^v) 


rV7T~T€~(TTJV 


(tV7TT€i) 


e-rvn-Te-arju 


(irviTTov) 


Tvn-Te-rrjv 


(TV7TT€Tai) 


e-Tvn-Te-Trjp 


{eTV7TT€To) 




(rvTrTOjieOov) 




{ervnTOfxeOov) 




{rvirT€<r6ov) 




{irvnTeadov) 




(tV1TT€<t6ov) 




{€TV7rTe(rdr)v) 


Tvn-TO-\ii-6r\v 


(rviTToiieBa) 


C-TV7T-TO-fX€-0r}V 


{irvTZTOixeQa) 


Tvn-Te-a-drjv 


(rviTTeaOe) 


€-TV7T-T€-(T-8r]U 


(iTvnTecrOc) 


Txm-TO-vrqv 


\TV7TTOVTai) 


e-Tvn-To-VTTjv 


{irvirrovTo) 



(3) Passive voice, or formations with the element thya, or ya, the 
person-endings being still in the instrumental case. 



1st AORIST 01 


' full form. 


2nd Aorist or 


contracted form, 


e ■ rv(f)-0ya-fii 


(eTV(f)dr)v) 


i-Txm-ya-yLL 


(irvTr-qv) 


t-Tv<p-6ya-at 


(eTi>(f)dr]s) 


e-Ti/ir-ya-ai 


(jTvnrjs) 


e-Ti>(j}-Oi/a-Tt 


\€TV(f)dT]) 


i-Tvn-ya-ri 


(eTVTTT]) 




{irv(f)dTjTOv) 




\iTV7TrjTOv) 




(€TV(J)6t]TT]v) 




(eTV7TT)Tr)v) 


c-rvcfi-Byd-fjLeo-i 


(€TV(f)0T]fl€v) 


i-run-yd-fieo-i 


y€TV7rrjfxev) 


t-rvcfi-dyd-Teo-i 


(cTV(f)dT)Te) 


i-TVTT-yd-T€<n 


(eTV7TT)Te) 


€-ru(f>-dya-VTi 


(erv(f)dt](rav) 


i-Txm-ya-VTi 


{irvirrjcrav) 



From these are formed futures with person-endings in the locative 
case, Tvcpdrja-ofxai, TVTrtja-0/j.ai, like reru^o/mai from TeVu^a, and we have 
recognised the suffix dtj in the infinitive TVTrT€<rdai=TVTTT€(rdiji/ai (§ 411). 
The very complete, and indeed superabundant set of inflexions, 
which this paradigm assigns to the Greek verb, hardly falls to the lot 
of any single verb in the writings which have come down to us. Like 
every other copious language, the Greek has more than one word to 
express our e very-day actions, and thus the verbs of very common 
use generally work together in a sort of co-partnership ; one furnishes 
the aorist, another supplies the future, and so on : the verb signifying 
"to go, or come," for instance, has made up its tenses from four 
different roots: present, ep^o^ai; imperfect, yew or rja; future, elfxi; 

Rr 



610 



THE MOODS AND PARTICIPJ 



[Book IV. 



aorist, riXOov. perfect, qk« and olj^o/xcu. The long li-t of defective 
verbs, which we find in every Greek grammar, is a proof of the rich- 
ness, not of the poverty, of the language. 



423 II. Sanscrit root twl- 






ist Definite Tense. 


Id I.M'I i imti: Tenbe. 


(Prmmi I 




rarasmaipadam. Atmancpadam. 


rarasmaipadam. 


Atmaotpadam. 


tudir\ 


(>>,/, 




la-mi) 




fa,/ 














tuddr\ 








tn.hi-tlflS 


the 


a- (win- tarn 


a-tudS-thdm 


tudartat 












■ -■ 




(mhi-th.i 








-,itl 









2nd Definite Tense 



rarasmaipadam. 

tH-tll'l- 

tu-tii>li-thus 
tii-tu-la-tus 
tii-tui - 
tn-twla(th.\) 
tu-tudus (for tu-tu- 



Attnaru'padam. 

-mi) 
-ti) 

- 
fH-fMcK-H (for tu-tuda-nlt) 



The Pln-- 
Tense, is 

hag. 



3rd Deftniti 

(/•V ifict') wan: 



3rd Indbfiniti T 

/ 



•r <ftut-$a-»i) f 
a-tav and so on 

<i-tuit-tam 

a-Umt-**ma a-tut-*-ti 



Chap. 3.] 



THE MOODS AXD PARTICIPLES. 



611 



It is doubtful whether the Potential, which follows, is the 4th 
Definite Tense, or the 4th Indefinite Tense deprived of its aug- 
ment (above § 399). 



Parasmaipadam. 


Atmanepadam. 


tudS-ya-m 


tude-ya(mS) 


tudi-s 


tudS-thas 


tude-t 


tudt-t'a 


tude-va 


tude-va-hi 


tude-tam 


tudi-yd-thdm 


tude-tdm 


tudS-yd-tdm 


tudi-ma 


tudi-ma-M 


tude-ta 


tudi-dhvam 


tudS-yu-s 


tude-ran 



5th Definite Tense. 
(Desiderative). 

Parasmaipadam. Atmanepadam. 



tot-s-ya-mi 

tot-s-ya-si 

tut-s-ya-ti 

tot-s-ya-vas 

tot-s-ya-thas 

tot-s-ya-tas 

tot-s-ya-mas 

tdt-s-ya-tha 

tot-s-ya-nti 



tot-s-ye (for 

tut-s-ya-me) 
tot-s-ya-se 
tut-s-ya-te 
tot-s-ya-va-hS 
tut-s-ye-the 
tut-s-ye-te 
tot-s-ya-ma-M 
tot-s-ya-dhvt 
tut-s-ya-nte 



5th Indefinite Tense. 
(Aorist Optative). 

Parasmaipadam. Afman^ 

a-tot-s-yam 



a-toi'S-ya-s 

a-tot-s-ya-t 

a-tot-s-ya-va 

a-tot-s-ya-tam 

a-tut-s-ya-tdm 

a-tot-s-ya-ma 

a-tut-s-ya-ta 

a-tot-s-ya-n(ti) 



Atmanepadam. 

a-tot-s-yS (for 

a-tot-s-ya-mS) 
a-tot-s-ya-thas 
a-tot-s-ya-ta 
a-tot-s-ya-va-hi 
a-tot-s-yt-tham 
a-tot-s-yi-tam 
a-tot-s-ya-ma-hi 
a-tot-s-ya-dhvam 
a-tot-s-ya-nta 



Imperative. 



Parasmaipadam. 
tudd-ni 
tuda 
tuda-tu 
tudd-va 
tuda-tam 
tuda-tdm 
tudd-ma 
tuda-ta 
tuda-ntu 



Atamanepadam. 
tudai 
tuda-sva 
tuda-tdm 
tudd-va-hai 
tudi-thdm 
tude-tdm 
tudd-ma-hai 
tuda-dhvam 
tuda-ntdm 



Infinitive and Gerund. 

tuda-tum 
tuda-tvd 

The passive is formed from the Atamanepadam by the 
insertion of ya. 

Rr2 



612 THE MOODS AND PARTICIPL1 [Book IV. 

424 III. Latin root tud- with anuszdra. 

1st Definite Trass. 1st Indefinite T 

(Present Indicative). "Wanting. 

Active. Passive. 

tu-n-do(m) tn-n-<l-or | (n.wlo-mer) 

tu-n-di-s [tu-n-de-re] 

tu-u-di-t (I'-n-'l't-tur 

tu-n-tfi-mus (>'-,,- 

/ii-n-'/i-tis [tu->- 

tU-n-<ln-nt tn-n 

2nd Duimii: Iran [Pmf I 'five). 

Actiu-. Passive. 

tu-tudi (tutmdm 

tti-tif!l-.*ti (tutudf- -ling' 

ftH -?i) 

Hi mdl 

fcH 

hi fmM rmrt 

3rd I > i . i imii: Tram (used under the form -4m, . as Future 

IndiaUivt ; andet the form - 

tu-n-dn-m tu-n-d'i-r (for feMHfaMMr] 

^or -eft'-*) rji (or -d^-r«) 

3rd [MUUIHIU Tllfa (i ^uf/unrtive). 

hi W M- '• -**-m<r) 

M-Hp tu-n-de-ri-ru 

The 4th DuiMll Ti Em would be famed in -n" t >, if it existed iu 
this particular verb. 

I.MiiK.vm i:. 

Act 

tn- [tu-n-dc-re] 

tu-i,- tu-n-ili-tor 

tit- [fu-fi-cfi-mmor] 

tu-n-du-nto M-i - - 

Imimum: AND (iiia.\i>. 
tu-n- tu-n-dc- ri -er 

tun-sum tu-n-th-nduB 



CHAPTER IV. 
THE CONJUGATIONS. 

425 Differences of conjugation due to variety in the forms of the present tense. 426 
The Sanscrit conjugations, doubly classified. 427 Grimm's arrangement of the 
Teutonic conjugations. 428 Analogy between the German strong verbs and the 
principal Sanscrit conjugation. 429 Greek conjugations. Objections to the 
ordinary arrangement. 430 True classification of Greek verbs. 431 I. Primi- 
tive verbs. (1) Reduplication. 432 (2) Addition of ya. 433 (3) Insertion of 
t- or v-. Case of 5ioirTeua>. 434 (4) Forms in 6- and -<r/c. 435 (5) Guna. 
436 II. Derivative verbs. Their terminations. 437 Verbs derived from com- 
pound adjectives. 438 Affections of the root-vowel. 439 (1) The vowel per- 
manent. 440 (2) Alteration of quality. 441 (3) Alteration of quantity. 
442 (4) Guna. 443 List of simple aorists. 

425 FT1HE differences in the verbs of the Indo-Germanic 
JL family, which have induced grammarians to divide 
them into classes called conjugations, are produced entirely by 
the various methods that have been adopted to give greater 
strength to the root in the present tense and those dependent 
upon it. The necessity for this addition to the root has arisen 
in the wish to create an expression of duration, which, as we 
have before remarked, is often effected by reduplication only. 
Other methods of expressing it were brought forward under the 
head of vocalization (§ 223): as, however, the subject of the 
Greek conjugations has never been properly treated, we may 
venture in this place to resume the subject at greater length. 
It will perhaps conduce to the better understanding of the nature 
of those changes on which differences of conjugation depend, if 
we begin by a brief survey of the Sanscrit and German systems. 

426 The Indian grammarians divide their verbal roots into 10 
classes or conjugations. They reckon the whole number of roots at 
2352, to which they add 44 Sautra roots, or those which are taken 
into the Sutrani or grammatical rules for the purpose of deriving some 
few nouns which cannot be traced back to any of the regular verbal 
roots. The number of the distinct roots in actual use is much less 
than that which the grammarians give ; indeed not above 500 are found 
in the existing Sanscrit writings. The distinctions of the 10 conjuga- 
tion classes, which with the exception of the 9th class do not extend 
beyond the present (indicative, imperative, and optative) and imperfect 
(indicative), are of two kinds: first, vowel-changes, guna or anusvdra; 
secondly, pronominal additions, na, nu, or ya. We shall, therefore, 



6U THE CONJUGATIONS. [Book IV. 

give two classifications of the 10 conjugations ; flint, according as they 
have pronominal additions or not; secondly, as they have guna or 



anusvara. 



A. I. No pronominal addition. 

a. Person-endings joined immediately to the root. 
2nd class, 70rooi -ml U I role." 

3rd implication, as d-i-da-m'i B Igj 

7th 24 1 /, as bhi-ini-d-iui M I split" 

(J" 
ft. ined to the root by the vowel <i. 

. 1000 roots — guna of root vowel, as Uuihami 
' (fr.. m hndh) "1 ki. 

( 6th nple root, M twlami (from InQb 

II. Pronound addhi 

a. ya added to tlie root. 

{Mb clan, ISO n» I wx verbs, as naf-yd-mi 

' I 1 li-h." 
10th ••>' causals and d -, as 

m6mm pi an M I honour." 

ft. an added to the root. 

f;.th olaes, 90 roots, ^wna of suffix, as ay an * an "I ob- 
m." 
, Sth 10 root-; all except Jri " to make" end 

net 9 
I ro« ■■<«. 

7 . m added to the root 

<)tli ok »• Of Ooffiz, which U n the 

heavv endings, as mrd ; mrd-na-mi, iu 

\\. a. Both vowels em 

nd 10th I ;v«nl. 

p. First vowel </N/i<j'd. 

2nd and Sid otaanoj dbiae, an%ua; did, aW 

y. Booond vowel em 

54hj oth, Sth, oth classes, ta w i j a l ni ; apndmii 

tuddmi; tandmi; mrdmi 

7th yunajmi (./"". 



Chap. 4.] THE CONJUGATIONS. 615 

427 Grimm divides the verb in all the German dialects into two 
great classes or conjugations distinguished by the form of the preterite. 
The first he calls the strong conjugation; it forms the preterite from 
the root without the addition of any foreign element. The second he 
terms the weak conjugation; it forms its preterite by the insertion of 
the lingual d (in old High German t) between the root and person- 
ending. Now it appears that the strong form is the original one in all 
the German dialects : for all derivative verbs are conjugated according 
to the weak form ; the roots which form the basis of the language are 
confined to the strong verbs; and though a strong verb may in the 
course of time degenerate into a weak one, the converse never takes 
place. Therefore, for the purpose of comparison, we may safely leave 
alone the weak form of conjugation. The strong verbs are divided 
into two classes, each consisting of 6 conjugations ; the first of these 
leading subdivisions contains the verbs with reduplicated preterites, the 
second, those in which the perfect is formed by vocalization only. 
Two of the reduplicated conjugations (the 5th and 6th) adopt both 
methods of forming the preterite ; and as the vowel is the same in the 
singular and plural preterite of the 7th conjugation, and as verbs 
vacillate between this and the reduplicated conjugation, Grimm con- 
cludes (I. p. 838) that the 7th must be supposed to have been origi- 
nally reduplicative with a change of vowel like the 5th and 6th. 
Grimm. (I. p. 840) takes the following instances among others, from 
the Gothic language; he gives the first singular present indicative; 
preterite indicative singular ; preterite indicative plural ; and the par- 
ticiple. 

Reduplicated conjugation. 
I. Salta (salio) ; sdi-salt, sdi-saltum ; saltans. 
II. Haifa (voco) ; hdi-hdit, hdi-hditum ; hditans. 

III. Hldupa (curro) ; hldi-kldup (?), hldi-hldupum ; hldupans, 

IV. Slepa (dormio); sdl-zlep, sdi-zlepum; slepans. 

Reduplicated with change of vowel. 
V. Ldia (irrideo) ; ldi-16, Idi-loum; Idians. 

VI. Greta (ploro) ; gdi-grot, gdi-grotum; gretans. 

Change of vowel without reduplication. 

VII. Fara (projlciscor) ; fir, forum ; farans. 

VIII. Grelpa (rapio) ; grdip, gripum ; gripans. 
IX. Kiusa (eligo) ; kdus, husum ; kusans. 



616 THE CONJUGATIONS. [Book IV. 

X. Giba (do); gab, gebum ; gibans. 

XI. Nima (sumo); nam, nemum ; numans. 

XII. Hilpa (adjuvo); halp, kulpvm; hulpans*. 

428 These strong conjugations include 80 English verb- ; the 
second conjugation, however, has no representative in our language, 
and all our verbs have loot the reduplication. All the primitive verbs 
in the other Teutonic dialects arc also formed according to the strong 
Gothic inflexion. Now if we examine this form of conjugation, which 
comprises 130 verbs out of the -canty remain- of Gothic literature, we 
shall find that it Agrees with the iir-t 5 u. which con- 

tains nearly half of the Sanscrit verbal root few verb- present 

traces of the fourth Sanscrit conjugation; for ; . tenth 

Gothic conjugation, we have r.ths-ja (cretco), rahs-jith (cretcit); 
terite PoVU, ro/isum ; participle f iponding to the old 1 

German and old Saxon >r<ih.<u. middle 1 LAO «mUm, I _ -fi 

:h. Gorman strong 
verbs and the principal Sanscrit conjugation was tir-t pointed out by 

Bopp [VergL Ghramm, p. 115). Thar ■ remarkable 

difference between the si man \erl»- and tic 

jngation, which Bopp DM n^t noticed ; namely, that in tl. 
conjugation, the connecting rowel i- guna'd as well as tl wel, 

whereas, in the German, the comn . Imits of any quan- 

titative modification. Then it yet another point which Wl I 
overlook, if we would mak- 

man and Sanscrit verb. We have seen that th mna 

as well m reduplication, so that it agrees with the fifth an 

conjugations of the German verb. But when the verb-root con*?ist8 of 

a -hort a, between two single consonants, only the first and third 

sons singular of the preterite are reduplicated, all the other persona 
being distinguished by ■ substitution of the diphthong i = m for the long 
</. and the first syllable being thrown off. Thus, firom the root I I 
have preterite first and third p< _ dar BtfaVia, second sin_ 

tinltlhi, dual ttnir<i, nfnafrlMI, ]dural tflfllMij ti'>nm>. nut. 

Bopp thinks this i has arisen from assimilation of the connecting v 

. Gramme star &mntkr < s frna*ou.pp. 

6*). We do not see how this can be the case, for in the second and 



• The English reader will find the law according to which Grimm has arranged 
the last six ooniupitior.s. verv well staled in a paper in the Philological Mnteum 
(\'o\. 11. p. 376 ML). The scheme of I - in all the conjugation- 

and old High German is given b\ ( tsck. Grmmm, 1.887. 



Chap. 4.] THE CONJUGATIONS. 617 

third dual, at all events, the connecting vowel is not i but a. "We 
rather look upon it as a substitution for the reduplication of the same kind 
with that which takes place so commonly in Latin, where reduplica- 
tion is so seldom found : thus, we have capio, cepi ; venio, veni, &c. 
That these are substitutions for a lost reduplication, may be inferred from 
a comparison oipepigi with compegi, of fugi with Tretyevya, &c. With 
regard to the distinction of the first and third singular in the Sanscrit 
preterite from the other persons, Grimm has aptly compared the old 
High German and Anglo-Saxon singular, I. las, II. Idsi, III. las ; 
plural, I. Idsumes, II. lasut, III. Idsun (Deutsche Gramm. I. p. 1056). 
From this we infer that the last six of the German strong conjugations 
were either originally reduplicated like the first six, or that the 
strengthening of the vowel is to be considered as perfectly identical 
with reduplication, as we shall see it is in Greek. 

429 In the ordinary Greek grammars the conjugations of the verbs 
are divided into three classes; (1) those of the barytone verbs, or of 
those which never admit an accent on the ending of the present; 
(2) those of the contracted verbs in -ew, -aw, and -ow ; and (3) those 
of the verbs in -/ju. This classification is not scientific; it is only 
prima facie, and cannot be recognised by the comparative philologer. We 
have before shown that all verbs originally agreed in their person-end- 
ings with those in -/ju, as well from other reasons, as from the fact that 
those which are still so conjugated express the most elementary notions, 
and, therefore, must be considered as the oldest verbs. It is true that 
the Greek verbs in -/ut are distinguished from the other verbs by certain 
peculiarities, but they should be classed according to these peculiari- 
ties, and not be discriminated from the rest of the verbs merely because 
they have their person-endings preserved in a more primitive form. 
The proper method of arranging the Greek verbs is that which is 
adopted in the Sanscrit and Teutonic grammars : namely, according to 
the different modes of strengthening the form of the present and other 
principal tenses. We cannot divide the Greek conjugations into strong 
and weak forms, in the same way as the Gothic : for, in the first place, 
all Greek verbs form the preterite by reduplication, whereas this is 
confined to the strong form in Gothic : and, conversely, all verbs form 
certain tenses by the addition of a foreign element, which is the indi- 
cation of the weak form in Gothic. We may, however, say, that, in 
case the lengthened form of the present is a consequence of its being a 
derivative or secondary verb, it cannot form any of its tenses by an 
alteration of the quality or quantity of the root-vowel, but must have 
recourse either to reduplication, addition, or both ; and in this way it 



618 THE CONJUGATION [Book IV. 

may be said that derivative or secondary verbs in Greek are weaker 
forms. 

430 One of the great mistakes which grammarians have committed 
in this department is, that they have considered the present tense of 
larytonc verbs as the primitive form of the root, and the other tenses 
as derived from it. The consequence of this has been to load our dic- 
tionaries and lists of defective verbs with an infinitude of so-called 
obsolete forms, from which, forsooth, The 
fact is, that tic root 
under some modification or inerease, the genuine i _• in most 

• ti'l aori proceed to cla 

the verbs according U) the various methods by which this OOBoboi 
Of the present u efiected. And let us take (I) the primitive n 
(II) the derivative \crb-. 

431 I. (1) In the amplest and apparently the oldest modification, 
the root is immediately connected v\ith the ending, the III Nil being 

rally ;/////</\l, and the initial oonsonant reduplicated, when 
begins with a oouaonnnl To this fom belong I three 

conjugations of the verbs in - <•. '1 ami in which we find 

reduplication without gunm t a- in mV-rw for in-ir<Tu> : i /una 

without reduplication, I the roots arc join, 

the ending without any eliai _ :ul in some we find 

nuitsnim of the reduplication, a- in *-i-/a-tA»/^j. All these verbs may 
nipared with t . and third Sanscrit conjugations. 

I39 (8) A very large class l | ronominal 

syllable (second element) m /. Thee 

to the fourth and tenth Sanscrit In (.: 

the addition i- absorbed, and r 

milationsj a- is often 

the purpose of forming a comparative The following are the 

transformations under which this adjunct appears in the verb-t 
gat ion. 

a. When the verh-r in a liquid, the « is frequently 

placed before the Squid, by virtue of the fact, before mentioned, that 
the liquid sounds its adjacent vowel inditterently before or after; thus 
from the crude-form nre(pM for <nro 

Or the liquid is doubled ; thu- 
we have \Vu\W for \ like d\\ 

- we have boil • both $>r\ 



Chap. 4.] THE CONJUGATIONS. 619 

(pdetpu), and so forth. Or a short i in the root coalesces with the t 
of the adjunct and becomes long; thus from k/>?-, we have Kp~iv(o = 
Kpivyafxi. 

p. When the root ends in 7, k, ^, or in £, t, 0, this pronominal 
adjunct is represented, as when it appears under the same circum- 
stances in comparatives, by f, era, or tt, of which we conclude that 
J is always the primitive change (above, § 21 6). 

7. The adjunct ya also appears to be contained in most of the 
verbs in -e'w, -aw. With regard to the latter, which often occur as 
verbs in ->;-juj, little need be said, as we have already shown in more 
than one instance that the sound ya is included in r). We have also 
had examples of the substitution of e for y in the middle of a word : 
that this is its use in the case of the verbs in -ea> appears from the 
Boeotian forms dywvodeTiovTos, elXap^iovrtav, QioTrpoiriovTos, -yopaylov- 
t€9, &c. ; for aywvodeTyovTos, or in common Greek dycovodeTovwros, 
Sec. (Bockh, Corpus I?iscript. I. p. 720). There are some verbs in -dw, 
-ew, which must not be considered as containing the adjunct ya : such 
are Spd-w = fya-Fw, which must be connected with dpair-= depenr- (cf. 
SpcnreTrjti) ; icaXeu) = KctXepu) connected with KXepcxs, k\uo>, &c; cf. £e«, 
£Jw, £"i'0os, &c. ; (Spina, (3pe<po<; 9 &c. 

433 (3) Another pronominal adjunct is the element r or v, which, 
we have seen, are identical, the former being added to roots ending in 
/3, 7r, <p, or k, the first and third of which are, of course, in this com- 
bination, changed to tt, and the liquid v being adopted for roots which 
end with the liquid /u, or with the dental t. We sometimes also^nd 
v after -k. Thus from the roots k/ou/3-, tu7t-, /5a</>-, and re*-, we have 
KpvTr-T-us, tuV-t-w, ^aV-Tco, t/k-t-w ; Tajm-, 7reT-, and BctK-, make 
Te/ji-i/-w, 7nT-i/-w, and SaK-i/-w. This v is also added to vowel-roots, as 
in -rri-vta. It appears also under the longer form vrj, as in the 9th San- 
scrit conjugation, in hd/jL-vrj-fxi, &c. ; under the form w 9 as in the 5th 
Sanscrit conjugation, in Qvy-w-m (root £u7-, already strengthened by 
guna), &c, and in this form the v is often doubled, as in <r{3e-v-vu-fxi 9 
Xpui-v-wfM, vKeld-v-wni, (above, §. 220), and sometimes under the 
ordinary short form it is added to a root already strengthened by anus- 
vara, as in Xa-fx-ftd-vco, root Aa/5-, Kr-y-^a'-i/w (also written Kt^ai/w), 
root Kt^-, Xi-n-Trdvu) (also written with a simple guna, as \e«r«o), root 
Xnr-. The change from Udvo) to iK-ve-opai is in accordance with the 
general principle with regard to liquids, already so often mentioned. 

There is one verb, with regard to which it may seem doubtful 
whether there is an insertion of this r- or not. We allude to the 



620 THE CONJUGATION [Book IV. 

Attic ctoTrrevia, in the signification, "to be the c'iottos, or supercar_ 
a ship" — "one who sailed in her as manager," also called the eViV.Xoi*. 
The following are the | in the Grammarians referring to it 

Harpocration : Ciott T€va)v, AtjfMoa-devrjs Iv t<2 eU rijv AciKpirov. Ci'owoc 
Xeyerau i/ewc 6 cieiruyv ku\ itroTrrevtav to Kara rt[v vavv, 6 naff tjuac Xeyd- 
fxevcx: nrivkom. 1 [eSJ <li i u ~ : llOWOt, raL — dclotrov. avapy^ow 

KCti atyvXtiKTov. A!ff^iI\oc, typv^iv. c'm-Koi yap o't Trjs veuK <f>v\ 
yKlius I honv-ius : Itowoi O » -ui-tyvXag wV ivi<TKOirmv avrrjv kci\ ttyopmw 
citto toZ O7TT0). Krot i .in M ! cioTTta, to> rt}<; 1*7 o« iwtfMkfTJ. wapd TO 
8iOirrgl><l>L 'AtT«W| Si rj \§£m KCtiUvtj na\ -wrap* *Api<TTO<pdv€i iv ATTucal? 
X€pe<ri k(i\ trap' AiVyi/Voj §9 ~i<TV(f>tp kcu Li/piwiCi; fV liriro\»rr«f». ! 
quite clear that the B of Item with unro^ai is merely a 1 

of the (.rannnarians. As a pol Sswst is naturally and 

immediately refer* -1 to tieVa>, the use of which is quite in accordance 

with that of it- deriratire, Unit, m ire have fim m lA i fr c;«^, 
two gi n< ctlfl in 1 also in the same play 

(v. 106) aoAsjuwi wvpyabaAcrom fccvev; and Pindar (according to 

Strata, p. S i K n) ^tja'.. 

top err par or. 
Now there is, no doobt, a word hdwrrp or Stswryp, which is 
connected with Atto/mu, and means <( a spy," as in Homer, Iliad X. 

roV frporw 

rwfl Tf ir, pjftfl ci*yni 

when ii<>TTTt}p arparov is a very different person fr«»m <»' ciWot 
rrparcS, and from thifl BOTrawi we have a verb ciovTtJw, "to be a 

spy," as in limn. / \ 

»/ - -ok cwi *» «>r, 

»/7 ('.crrtt.-d-i, f; ixurrifitov woX€pl£mir. 

In SophocL aT»/« •* f»'»T(i 

means simply M to perceive." just as we use tlo 

There would, therefore, be boom ambiguity «• were also formed 

from TTfJiH' in I>emosthen. Lacr \ \ 'Iwwiat 

'A O q n wm O* '.\\iK(ipvacrcr€v<: papTv. YfiXtf<rlov NptflMV 

es Bppeai I or ok and 

H WO«Id bi better, ire think, BO suppose that the t has got 
in. in consequence o( the false etymology which the Grammarians have 
adopted, and therefore to read fou »w W 

\:\\ i 1 tl pronominal insertions -f- and --*-. whid 
have seen performing such important functions in the tenses and voices 



Chap. 4.] THE CONJUGATIONS. 621 

of the verb, also appear as corroborants of the present tense, though 
generally with a distinct meaning; thus from the root eB- we have 
eV-^Z-o), from 0a-, <pd-<rK(o, &c. These additions often affect the final 
consonant of the root, as in TraV^co from irad- = TrevQ-, the k being 
aspirated and the lost in the similar sound of the <r; so also we 
have B/o-zco? from 8uc-; and the word io-m (Odyss. XIX. 203. XXII. 
31), which clearly means "he said" (Buttmann, Lexil. II. p. 83), is 
to be considered as a similar contraction from RV-o-zce = eiTreane, the 
root being ^eir-, Sanscrit vach^ Latin voc- : a converse contraction has 
taken place in cukxttov for evnr-o-Kov : 'icr-^eiv, c^eTi/ from e^ea-Kou are 
more analogous to irda-^uj (see above, §. 219). 

435 (5) The remaining method of strengthening the present indi- 
cative is by simple guna, which, as we have seen, consists in placing e 
before the root-vowel. This method is only applicable to those verbs 
in which the root-vowel is < or v : instances are, however, sufficiently 
numerous; thus, from the root o-ti/3-, we have a-reifta, from <pvy- 9 
(pevyui ; from Ai7r-, AeiVco ; from At^-, Aer^w ; from 7n0-, weWco ; from 
TV X~> T€ ^X f xa ^ a ^ s0 ? with anusvdra and i>- adjunct, Tu-7-^a-i/w; from 
Ai/3-, Xei/3uj ; from irvd- } Trevdofxai, &c. 

436 II. The derivative verbs are formed from their primitives by 
the addition of elements, some of which are used also for the mere 
purpose of strengthening the present tense in the primitives, from which, 
however, they are distinguished by the way in which these endings are 
joined to the crude-form, and by their possessing only those of the second- 
ary tenses which can be constructed by extrinsic addition, namely, first 
aorist active and passive and a perfect active in -<a. The terminations 
are -e'-o), -a'-w, -o-a>, -a'-£co, -*'-£co, -i-<7K0), -AA(o=Auo, -ev-(a, -ai-vw, -v-vca ; 
as <pi\-€-(o from 0<Ao-9, TtjU-ct-to from Ti/J.t], fxia-do-ta from fxio-do-s, o-fceu- 
d-tjti from aicevt], vo/x-i-^oo from vo/jlo-s, yafX-i-<TK(a from yafxo-s, x/z-a-AAco 
from \|/aa», 7raic$-eJ-ci> from 7TCU9 (7ra?3-s), <TY}\x-aUvu> from <r»7/Aa = 
<rt]}X€UT, evd-v-vco from cJflJs; the terminations -e-0w, -u-Ow, seem to be 
appropriated to derivatives from simple verbs, for instance, (pXey-e-Oco 
from (pXeyu), (pdiv-v-du) from (pdlvoi : the v in the latter case is due to 
the w t which seems to be added to the root <pOi- t to form the present 
tense. The terminations -<-<r*-, -u-o-k-, are inserted between the root and 
the strengthening pronominal adjunct v- in the verbs 6<f>\-t-<rK-d-vu 9 
dX-v-o-K-d-vw, dfxf3\i-<TK-a-vo). It is obvious that these terminations 
are of pronominal origin, and we have already discussed most of them. 
The derivative verbs themselves are, for the most part, either causative, 
inchoative, or denominative, and they obtain these meanings from pro- 



622 THE CONJUGATIONS. [Book IV. 

nominal affections of the primitive form?, which seem to be strictly 
analogous to the case-endings of the noun : for example, we cannot 
overlook the resemblance between -aijn, which forms the Sanscrit causa- 
tive verb, and the same syllables, which mark the dative case in that 
language (§ 231). In Greek it is clear that the denominative verbs in 
-£0) = -cT/a-m are built on the foundation of the genuine ablative case, 
which gives rise al-o to the analogous patronymics in -07?, and to 
the adjectives in -oo? (§ 247): and wo arc justified in considerin_ 
verbs in -e'w, -«'co, -Jw, -£v'a>, as similarly formed from the - 
genitive, like the corresponding adjectives: cf. x/n«roc, gen. \pv<roio 
with xpu(Teo<: and xpwoui (above § 298). By the side of verbs in 
-Wo* and -<tku) we have diminutive- in -Am and -*wo*\ thus fiaXXm «■ 
fia-\'i(a M 1 with 9f*KXm I 

fy)oo'c, and ii/-j(t-aKu) is analogous to wtul't cmi. We have ah 
(p. 222 note) adverted to tli • connexion «>t as iroi^iv . 

with the corresponding verbs wo tp ai vm , \ ften happens, 

as in the case of n-^nu m crt]ucv-r- and <rrjfia'tvu, « tW*>, 

tliat the noun of afMM ' under tl. form 

_ur;i< rtftfW T. but 1. I under -otii 

ilfxar-rmp, t v dv *- rtip ; but this will ■ 
that the full form of pi ;md that we have in the verb, as 

well a- in the noun, that combination <-f the first and second 
under the form u + i», which express '.ion as proceeding from 

the subject, and with espSfliaJ reference to its results (j 2."»<»). When 
the object] HiVicult to say what pr >■ 

relation is implied, though WS fcttOW fr< m the parallel case of the nouns 
that there liiibt he MHM refer* : -.lvity (; - 

When we pan from £cFm t id from £V«d to £v-\or, we see the 

instrument in its 1 1 umoi mi-take the same 

Tact IS manifested in (aim and (mM^ by the side of £ovAm and 

^"etTTO^. 

The common verb aJPM merit< particular cn-ih rathm. even after 
what lluttmann has written about it (X ss i f . II. p. 112. foil.). '1 
can be no doubt th.U the -in I of the verb was a7r«, 

chins tell- -\ fVaivwi FXOIB I rmetl 

the substantia ami from it the derivative verb alte-v, and the 

derivative noun aunf = at* 11 rodoC III. 7 l). The primary 
lira of a&w i-. • ttd the meaning I : 

Homer i-, "a Speech" or "narrative." From this came the sense of 
"praise." " commendation," just as the Latin //>/</<//•<• is connected Willi 

. LuJ. That the verb is formed witli the pronominal suffix *-, 
and that its root is .i.-. i- proved by the comparison of a7»« wit:. 



Chap. 4.] THE CONJUGATIONS. 623 

and of ai-o-a with fa-tum, which Buttmann has suggested. We also 
recognise the root in $-/xi " I say," and in the Sanscrit aha " I said." 
In these last two forms the guttural semi- vowel is absorbed; it is 
transposed in cu-, according to the rule, and perhaps represents the 
digamma, the labial element of which appears in (ptj-jni, for, according 
to Thiersch, clIvy\ is a digammated word. As the derivative alvea bears 
the secondary sense of "to praise/' "to extol," we might, perhaps, 
change the accent, and read a'/i/w, cui/e*?, in those passages of iEschylus 
where the general and primary meaning is conveyed: thus, in the 
Agamemnon, 1460, we have: 

t) /jicyav o'ikois TcnorSe 

hai/jtova icai f3apvnt]viv alveTs. 

(pev, (pev ! kokoi/ alvov drrj- 

pa? Tv^a? a.Kopi<TTOv. 

i. e. " you mention a divinity who has exerted great influence upon 
this family, and has manifested his heavy indignation against it — an 
ill-boding mention of misfortunes ever new" (for the force of aKopco-Tos 
see above, p. 519); and in the Choeph. 1000, we have: 
cpdvov Be kj/kk £ui/ ^povto £u/u/?aAAeTCu, 
7ro/\\a? /3a<pd<; (pdeipova-a tov 7roiKtA/ittTos — 
vvv avrov (scil. tov (povov) atVco, vvv a7roi//co£a) Trapiov, 

TCCLTpOKTOVOV 0' V(pa<TfJLCt 7TpOa(p00VC0V ToBe. 

437 In the case of primitive words the terminations are joined 
immediately to some root, even though the contact may absorb the 
final consonant of the root, but in these derivatives the endings are 
always affixed to some crude-form, and therefore, of necessity, a vowel 
is inserted between the root and the termination. This enables us to 
explain, why verbs, including a noun, or the o- privative, or Bu?-, or 
ei), and a verbal root, are generally formed in -e'-w. The fact is, that 
while such verbs as ctTro-otitoiJu, aw-Tpexav, Trapa-\ct[x(3dveiv, &c, are 
strictly separable compounds, as is shown by the frequent tmesis in the 
older writers, all compound nouns, whether made up of prepositions, 
or of nouns, or of o-, Sus,- or ev, and verbal roots, are actually melted 
down into individual words incapable of divulsion, and it is from these 
compound nouns that the verbs in question are formed ; therefore they 
are derivative verbs, and the length of the word would generally induce 
a necessity for the shortest kind of derivation, which is in -e-«. If a 
Greek had wished to express the idea of conferring a benefit on any 
one, or of co-operating with him in a particular action, he would 
say eZ tto^v, vw-epltLv, but if he wished to express habitual bene- 



624 THE CONJUGATION [Book IV. 

faction or habitual co-operation, lie would take the compound nouns 
ev-epy&nj-* and o-i/iz-epyo-c, and make derivative verbs from them — 
ev-epyer-e-w " to be a benefactor," and cw-epy-t-ui "to be a co- 
operator." It will be observed that we have precisely the same pheno- 
menon in Latin: from faccre, an uncontraeted verb, we have the 
compound noun btU-jicus, and from thi- the derivative or contract 
verb hi t\- fir <],-,■ ; from A from ttlM belli" 

<i>rare. With regard to tl I it seems very -t: 

even modem leholaii would talk of da 

perfect of the barytone rerhe, khc roots of which thoj oontiin (see 
Erfdrdt ad Sopk. Ant',./. 5d I /' ially 

af'tcr had, with his usual point ration, d'.- :1k- truth. 

Nemo I foil >>ni* i ni /mull r, mji that great anholar (/ 

p, ni) Lobcck), cuncedety tvayyeWu) frWCMM 6M*. Nam ro ev ku\ tu 
<nept)TiKu fioy f ur cum verbis, ted cum nominilus. 

Itii</ue eidyyiXo* r>'<'f, aVoilMTj unde verbu, { i*, non tvayytXXm 

,jwjd noon. But although : -it of the 

oompomid noun- recommend rm <>f derivation for the 

verb, khan it n<> abaolate reason why one «>f th, :ivc forms 

should not I"- ooaaakmaOj adopted, when mere was any particular 
l) for the preference. Such a reason seems t<» axial mi the ■eenxenu 
tidii of .('r. ,!,,('.•> inrtoail of «ti^'w; for, rttmm being itself a derivative, 
■ nmilai derivative would hardly point: nnctionof 

<it.;kk. The nob occurs in Theognu (<>-l) ia 

by tlie opp eitioa U) rift : 

7T(7c re Of -wtvixpov. 

The word ytprfarravocu i- probably derived from x^P" 1 ^ reared 
aa a simple word, like ^mktwrm from x/aXewm (Buttmann, A mt /m k rL 

which occur- twice in Kuripid« s (Rhe*. 

791, Elsctr. 843), is need only as aa epithet or ■ 

be explained by the metrical impracticability of the legitimate fc 

», though if it had been one vl' the other dramatists (see Miiller, 
Hist Lit. Or. [., p. 366), wc should hai .]. — cvaQnirtm 

for example, — rather than such a violation *-f all analogy; aud in the 

. pur. B63 it is clear that is a raise rea 

probably due to tl liich is found fa 

and we ought to re-tore the gennin -w of which them 

words are an explanation i (rraciocpom* 

actually occurs, and it is not unlikely that an . 
ing by habit that l^aftoiftat was the future of has barba: 

the word into the form in which it appean 



Chap. 4.] THE CONJUGATIONS. 625 

instances in which this rule seems to be violated have been successfully 
corrected by modern scholars. 

438 Having now shown by what increments of addition or inser- 
tion the present may be strengthened, we proceed to point out the 
relation which subsists between the root- vowel and that which appears 
as its locum tenens in the present tense. This subject has been already 
touched on in the chapter on the roots : it will, therefore, be sufficient 
in this place to give instances of the change of vowel in the Greek 
verb according to an arrangement first pointed out by Pott (Etymol. 
Forsck. I. p. 11 foil.). This scholar has divided the Greek verbs into 
four classes according to the affections of the root- vowel in the leading 
tenses ; (1) the root preserves the same vowel throughout all the in- 
flexions ; (2) the quality of the vowel is altered ; (3) its quantity is 
altered, generally by doubling ; (4) it is gundH. The second aorist 
active, middle and passive, generally exhibits the root, and the principal 
changes are those of the second perfect, or noun containing the verbal 
root which agrees with the second perfect, and the present. The 
reason for the change of vowel in (2) (3) (4) is, as we have seen, the 
greater weight of the perfect and present in consequence of the methods 
adopted for strengthening them. The present is generally a heavier 
form than the perfect or derivative noun, and, therefore, has the lighter 
vowel. It will be observed that there are some verbs, placed by Pott 
in the 3rd class, which are examples of guna : to prevent mistakes we 
have always stated the method of corroboration adopted in the par- 
ticular case. 

439 (1) This class is very numerous, as it contains all the 
weak or derivative verbs, many of which have already received a 
vowel modification in their crude-form. Thus from the root -n-ei/-, we 
have 7ro'i/o-9 and from this irove-(a, in which the first vowel remains 
unaltered through all tenses. The most obvious instance of the primi- 
tive verbs of this class is second aorist c-tutt-oi/, second perfect re-ruTr-a, 
verbal substantive k-ti/V-o?, present tutt-t-w. 

440 (2) In this class are included verbs with a primitive a (or 
ap = r Sanscrit) changed into o and e in the strong teDses. It agrees 
with the 11th and 12th of the strong German conjugations, in which 
the root-vowel is followed by a liquid, or a mute and liquid, or pre- 
ceded by a liquid (conj. 11), or followed by a liquid and mute, or 
a double liquid (conj. 12). This class is separated by Pott into four 
subdivisions, the second and third of which we consider identical. 

Ss 



626 



THE CONJUGATIONS. 



[Book IV 



A. Roots ending in a liquid. 



2nd Aorist. 


2nd Perfect or Verbal Noun. 


Present. 


e-<TT<x\-r}v 


o-TO\o-9 




(TTtWu (adjunct »«) 


tfia\-ov 


( fte-ft6\-t]-nai 
\ fto\tj 


} 


/3a\Aa» (id.) 


e-Ta/x-ov \ 

TO/i-UZ-Y J 


TOfio-*: 




-w 'adjunct *) 


KUV-UV 


KOVt] II 




Kulvui (adj. ta) 


i-trrnp-o¥ 


TTTOpO-K 




Trrdp-vv-fiai (adj. n>) 
Ttraip* (adj. to) 


e-<pdup-r)v 


e-<j>6op-a 




(pOdpu) (id.) 


i-a-ird p-tjv 


( t<rTrop-a ) 
\ WWOfti J 




o-rreipaj (id.) 








>-r]v 


Zui - 




. » (id.) 


<pape-Tpa 


Spfto% 




^>«'p« (adj. absorbed), 



15. I in liquid tad mute; the liquid of course may 

idiift i: 

»nd Perfect or Verbal Noun. 
opic-a 
w4 W0fm • 

WTp\<-ir<> 

) 

\ T(Tpa<p-a ) 
rerpoipa 

,-a | t-t-» (adj. t). 



{; 



€-Opan-ov 

-o-^ir/i' 

TpUTT-f>V 

e-Tpa<f>-ov 



W(pC-m 
wepd-rn 

( rparm J 



C. Rooti without li«l': 

Snd Perfect or Verbal Nc 



Sfunsorii had 

'-1TC<T-0¥ 

> f-irt - 

( Buwsr. pat. 

yrjv 






WOT- 



\//o'-yo-« 



(adj. «a) 
-r-a» (adj. T-) 

{vi-TT-» (redupl.) ) 
inr-vim (ad. re) J 



•Ill (3) This (dan oomprohei for their root- 

vowel; this TOWel is pMn r.Uly doubled or >iuna\\ in the perfect and 



Tott considers t.htoi and t>>«it«* ask! ifferent 

thov are the same word, and regard them as but alight 



■lOlltftcHOM rf -.«<?«■. 



Chap. 4.1 



THE CONJUGATIONS. 



,627 



present, so that these verbs agree with the seventh strong German 
conjugation. 



2nd Aorist. 
€-Kpay-ov 

e-tcXay-ov 

e-TTuy-rjv 
e-Xaic-ov 

e-TCLK-OV 

e-Xa\~ov 
€-\a/3-ov 
e-caK-ov 



2nd Perfect. 

Ke-Kpdya (guna) 
( K€-K\t]ya (guna) \ 

\ ne-KXayy a (anusvdra) j 

ire-Trrjya (guna) 

\e~\aica (guna) 

Te-Tt]K-a (guna) 

eiXrj-^a (guna) 

etXrjcpa (guna & affix) 

celr}X a (guna & affix) 
trecprjva (guna) 



Present 
updlja (adj. ta) 

icXa^u) (adj. ta) 

7rt]y-vv/ju (adj. vv) 
XdcrKoo (adj. ate) 
TtJKoo (guna) 
Xay-^dvoi (adj. i/, and 

anusvdra) 
Xajjifidvia (adj. v, and 

anusvdra) 
})d.K-v-(a (adj. v) 
(paiuco (adj. ia), 



Pott subjoins to this class a number of perfects such as TrecpplKct, 
eppiya, fiefipiOa, Terp'tya, &c., aorists such as eOiyov, tcpiKe, Be/ceii/, e»a- 
koi/, &c, but they are, in our opinion, quite different. The v in ireirovO-a 
belongs to the root which is iraQ-^irevQ- (above, § 114). 



442 (4) In the last class we find verbs, which have i or v for 
their root-vowel, and this is guna'd in the present and perfect, the 
guna-vowel being generally changed according to the law observed in 
class 2. This class corresponds, therefore, to the eighth and ninth 
strong German conjugations. 



2nd Aorist. 


2nd Perfect or Verbal Noun. 


Present. 


e-CTT^-oi/ 


<rTO?yo-5 


trTC^O) 


6-XlTT-OV 


XeXoLTra 


Xe'nray 


e-<TTl(3-1]V 


CTTOlfirj 


<TTeij3(o 


Xt/3d-Z- 


Xoi/3tj 


Xe'i{3<o 




olda 


e'lSco 


e-md-ov 


TreTroiOa 


ire'idoa 


e-(pvy-ov 


7T€(p€vya 


<p6vy<a 


e-Qjy-t]v 


(£evyo<; 


Qvywpi (adj. i>i>,as well 
as guna) 
( rvyxdvw (adj. v, and \ 


e-rv^-ov 


Terev^a 


< anusvdra) > 
Ss2 





[Book 


IV. 


Present- 






irevOofxai 




1 
1 


irvvdavofxat 


(adj. vo 


and amiftara) 


<T1T€VCtO 













628 THE CONJUGATIONS. 

2nd Aorist. 2nd Perfect or Verbal Noun. 

e-irvd-o-urju Trevdoo 

Lat. stud-eo a-wovc^ 

Ai/7-00-? \(vy-a-\(-o<: 

443 To idd a li-t of seoond aor 

which the penOD-eodll j im-d immediately to the root without 

even Um intervention of a .-lior: her fulcrum L- 

(/una (see Kuli: 

Roots ending in 

ft Vol 2nd Aorist. 

aAo- »*, »;Aa»f, uKu'itjv (aAw'r/i II / XIV. t2j»0)» 

ti\u), (iKioidt, aAouv. 

/j'u- /':>*-/ ■)<»'<: (piQS. pMl ';", CiripfSao-a*, 

f/3ar, fiultiv. :i composition. 

• 

^ir/v, /^Aiio, /iv»/ra«, pAf/o't'ai, |9XjjpCP0?. 
/3oo- tdi/. 

yt]fnt- ryi iKTC<r<ri, ytpil* (lull.) 

yvo- . yvt* t yvteOi, yvtavai, y»-ov?, o*i 

oa'c. 

('i - 

*tci- tr, KTc*ficv y KTa'/ifrai, ktck, awtKraro, KraaBai. 

KTl- 

\( - | TO. 

Ol/T- 

tt\(i- -tA^kto, «irAr/TO, irAci^iifr, »A^oo, - 

7r\u)- eVAwr, itA«k. 

cifurwro. 

tirptaut}i\ WOi 
rra- e^e^rrj, aVe-wTa, irpooeVrar, wra/ij, ivrapti*, fr.i 

itk\u_ 

ou- (tv'to, o-i'/mewK. 



Chap. 4.] 



THE CONJUGATIONS. 



629 



Roots ending in 
a Vowel. 


2nd Aorist. 


tAoe- 


€t\yiv, erXav, T\aiY\v i tAco, tXtjOi, TXrjvai, TAa'?. 


<p0a- 
<pOi- 


e(pdr]v, (pOalrjv, c/>0<J, (pBrjvai, 00a'?, (pQapevos. 


<pv- 


ecpvv (adj. to), (pvti, (pvw, <pvvat, </)u'c, (povaa (JEoL). 


X v- 


yyvTo^ ^uto, eyvTo. 


Roots ending in 
a Consonant. 


2nd Aorist. 


dp- 


apfxevos, apfxeva. 


aX- 


ccAcro, ccAto, aXfxevos. 


yev- 


eyevTo (ytyvofxai). 


yev- 


yevTo (7 e A co, hintkian, hent). 


* e x- 


ece£o, edeKTOj dveleypeda, Be^arou, le£o, le^Qai, Zty- 




pevos. 


eXeXiK- 


e\e\iKTO. 


™x- 


eVKTO. 


IK- 


*tKfJi€VO^. 


K€V- 


KCVTO (k€A0)). 


Aey- 


eXeyptiv, Ae£o, AeKTO, eXexTo, Xe^dai. 


fuy- 


fXtKTO, e/JllKTO. 


op- 


* 1 tl « ft *t 
top/jLtjv, to^ro, op<ro, opvai^ oppevos. 


iraX- 


ttoiXto. 


irepd- 


Trepdat. 


irrjy- 


KaTCTrrjKTO. 



To these may be added all the verbs which still retain the old 
system of person-endings. Even where a first aorist is commonly 
found in the indicative singular, the second aorist is used in preference 
in the dual and plural indicative, and in the other moods, and the 
participles. This is of course due in some measure to the greater 
weight of the person-endings (above, § 366); and we sometimes observe 
the influence of the same principle in a corresponding adoption of 
certain shorter but less original forms for the plural indicative and for 
the other moods of the perfect. 



CHAPTER V. 
THE USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IX GREEK. 

444 Auxiliaries are generally verbs expressive of will and choice. 445 Difference* 
between the infinitive and participle in relation to the auxiliary. 446 Definition 
of an auxiliary verb rfrww] 448 Of idikta and /t/XX«. 449 Rea- 

sons for examining the Greek verbs which signify will or desir, r.eral 

enumeration of results l.l id* rigntSto " to " to tike," ami. " to OtO.*" 

I Verbs derived from Xa'« bearing the last M \'erbs signifying 

take." 4')4 Proper meaning of /3\aVr«. , X«'«*, Xias, Ac. Idea of 

selection implied in Aaav. Ancient buildings of picked stones. 456 1 1 
ration* from Kdm signifying •• I wUkV -T.7 Digression concerning 

\Xm, dy\ao* t ycXa*. 
ncxion of "light" and " speech." 401 Other analogic* n of 

SA*» and Soo? ologyofe. 

:e forms /J«w\.i<rouat, | 
X»iO»;r, fcc. It;;: The initnsir* prrfix ftov-. 4»;y b The earth 

and the cattle. 17 1 * Platonic i. etymology. Mow. Waa'J*. 

- Jtrioc and 2«rro<rtora t>rt;< : ex- 
planation of a chom aoc and c\ 

applied to colon it applications ot H'ords 

denoting kinglj power. 181 Mooning of the phrase . - 

444 "I T""HEN ■ verb in some finite tense is prefixe d 

T I other verb in the infinr thai the two : 

together form one no: to a 

periphrasis of boom tense, ire say that the finite verb is used as an 
auxiliary. The verbs mo- atly employed in this manner 

arc those expressive of the condition or power of the agei. 

freedom from external bin r moral i 

oal, of hi> thoughts, intentions, will, or d 
ment of auxiliaries original oil in :' tution I : 

contrivances for the etymological is >f the older La 

after these la>t had fallen into disuse or had become less ob\ 
and significant, has been already shown al some length. In i 
of the languages of modern Europe, the system of auxiliaries 
lias superseded all inflexions of mood and tense, and, indeed, of 
voice too, in the common ferbs, In our own language, some of 
the verbs employed for this purpose have lost their . litv 

as independent verbs: that say "to may," or "to 

can," or "to shall," or " to must,* 1 though '• I 
" 1 shall,* 1 " 1 must,* 1 are in oOMtSttf use, as auxiliaries, for tho 
purpose of forming the potential mood, or the future 
expression of obligation. In German, however 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 631 

responding to these, namely, mogen, kdnnen, sollen, mussen, are 
capable of inflexion throughout all their moods and tenses with 
the exception of the participle present. 

445 We have said that the verb, which the auxiliary modifies or 
which forms the pivot of the meaning, is in the infinitive mood. That 
the auxiliary could not he so used with the participle is obvious. 
The infinitive is, indeed, as we have shown in a previous chapter, the 
same sort of word as the participle, but then it is a participle which 
has lost all power of change, being a form, sometimes mutilated, of the 
locative case, so that it expresses the locus of the action to which the 
possibility or will denoted by the auxiliary has immediate reference. 
The participle, on the contrary, being capable of inflexion, expresses an 
hypothesis or some subordinate relation of the verb from which it is 
derived, the subject being the nominative case of the principal verb ; in 
fact, participle and verb are equivalent to two verbs joined by a copu- 
lative conjunction, and there is no more reason why the verb should be 
considered as auxiliary to the participle, than the participle to the verb. 
There are, indeed, some cases where the Attic idiom employs the par- 
ticiple of the verb on which the whole force of the sentence depends, 
while the finite verb plays the part of a qualifying adverb ; as in the 
following instances (given by Buttmann, Griechische Grammatik^ § 144, 
Anm. 8, and § 150); rvy^dvu) : w? he fixdou, hrv^ev ctTnW, "when I 
came, he went away directly" (schoolboys in this country would be 
told to translate this " he happened to go away ;" but Tuy^ai/w implies 
hitting a mark, coincidence, especially in point of time, just as we say 
in lowland Scotch, " I happened upon him," for " I fell in with him," 
and the young student should be taught to translate it " directly," " on 
the spot," " at the moment," or, in some cases, " precisely," as in Iso- 
crates A reopagit. p. 140 c : iyto 2e li avrd tuvto. Tvyxdvia BeBtw?, "it 
is precisely on account of these things," or "on account of these very 
things, that I am afraid"). — Xavddvw : ravra Troitjaas, eXaOev vir€K(pv- 
7<oV, "after he had done these things, he got off" unobserved." — <f>ddvu> ; 
ecpdaa-a avrov -jrapeXdwv, "I came earlier than he did," om ecpdrj^ev 
i\$omt 3 icai i/oVoj? i\rj(p6niJLev, " we no sooner came than we were 
taken ill."— hareXu : ciaTeXeT -jrapwv, " he is always there."—- x at P €lv : 
X ai P ov(Ttu eVawoferct, "they praise gladly" The last word may be 
used in a finite tense with the participle of the verb to which it refers. 
Thus we have not only ov ^a/'ptoi/ eVi ^dyoi(ri Bei/i/aVet? i/xe (Soph. 
Antig. 758), " you shall not abuse me with impunity," but also ovtoi 
XatpfaeTov (Aristoph. Equit. 235), "you shall not escape unpunished." 
It will easily be seen, that in all these cases the verb connected with 



632 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. [Book IV. 

the participle cannot be considered in any intelligible sense as an aux- 
iliary. It might be supposed, however, that the use of e^w with a 
participle of the aorist, of which Valckenaer has given so many ex- 
amples {ad Pkoeniss. 712, p. 310), is a periphrasis for the perfect; and 
indeed, it is used in connexion with the perfect in the line of iEschylus, 
which he quotes : ireTroiKiXwKe, KaVoc^Acoo-a? e^ei. We believe that it 
is not merely equivalent to the perfect (still less, as Valckenaer sug- 
gests, to the aorist), but that it has a stronger sense than the perfect, 
expressing not only a state consequent upon an action, but also a 
continuance in that state; thus, 6avpd<ra<; e^co means "I keep wonder- 
ing," "I continue in a state of wonder." {Gr. Gr. 577-) In this 
same sense €■%<* is used in the participle where we should employ 
an adverb: thus, ri XtipeTs epi/; "why do you talk nonsense con- 
tinually ? n or " why do you keep talking nonsense ?" The only case 
in which a periphrastic tense is really formed by means of the parti- 
ciple is, when the finite verb signifies " existence," that is, when it is 
a substantive verb ; but in that case the difference is not one of tense, 
unless the participle be itself future, but of voice : compare Ich zcerde 
gelobt, " I am praised," with Ich icerde lolen, " I shall praise." In 
French and Italian, the verbs avoir, avere, "to have," form a future 
tense with the infinitive and a perfect with the participle of the verb : 
compare j'aimer-ai, io amer-d (§ 36S) with j'ai almc, io ho amato. 
But it must be recollected that these modern languages do not use the 
participle with such refinement of meaning as the ancient Greek, and 
in this particular case the passive participle is used as an adjective 
agreeing with the object of the verb. In French, the past participle 
and the object are in the same gender and number when the object pre- 
cedes, though the participle is not declined when the object foil 
thus, they say j'ai recu rot re left re, but roici les lettres que j' 
The principle has been fully explained by Du Marsais and other French 
grammarians. In old Italian, the past participle is frequently in con- 
cord with the object of the verb even when it follows : thus, Dante: 
Ed tin cli uvea perduti ambo gli orecchi, 

and Boccacio : Meszer lo yeloso s'area hum almnt in l>occa- 

The future participle may often be translated by the infinitive, but this 
does not make the verb an auxiliary any more than leoatos Mtri qui 
peterent is a periphrastic future. Even in phrases like oirep tja ipwv 
the use of epwv is distinct from that of the infinitive, though we should 
translate it in French or English, ce que fallois dire, or M as I was going 
to Bay." The student who understands why jtaimrat elvai means M it 
appears to be" (ridetur), and (palve-rai o*, u it manifestly is."' i. <\ ■ it 
appears so, and it is so" (apparet), need never feel any difficulty in dis- 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 633 

criminating between the syntactical uses of the participle and infinitive 
mood. 

446 All verbs expressing power, will, &c, are, according to the 
idiom of the Greek language, immediately followed by an infinitive 
mood without any repetition of the subject of the primary verb when 
this is also the subject of the infinitive : to yap (3ovXo/xai (piXoXoyeTv, 
7r poatpov }xai avayiyvioaKeiv ov Beerai t^? irpoo-diaarTeXXovo-r]? dv- 
Ttavvfxia^^ eirei cvva/xei iu avToiradela eyet to t^? crwrdpeoi)*;, eirei toi 
ttolXiv y\v o Aoyo? toiovtos, f3ovXo/xai ifxavTOv irXovTelv, {3ovXop.ai i/xavrou 
7repnraT6?v, tovt€<tti SiaTide/xai ek to irepiiraTeiv^ eU to <7rXovTe7v (Axiol- 
lonius Dyscol. de Syntax. III. 32, p. 285 Bekker). It is not, however, 
to be concluded that every word so used is used as an auxiliary. The 
finite verb is to be considered as an auxiliary, and its combination with 
the infinitive as a periphrastic tense, only when the two together express 
some one notion which might be expressed by an inflexion of the latter 
verb, and when the former is in consequence used with a highly abstract 
meaning, much vaguer than the sense which it bears when uncom- 
pounded. Thus, to take the words expressing power or qualification, in 
Such phrases as oio'e t€ e\jx\ Troieiv tovto, Tavra 7re<pvKev eVl rrjv \^i/y^V 
levai, 7rp€7T(av e<pu$ irpo Ttoi/Be (pwveiv^ TXairj<; xev Mei/eXa'co eirnrpoefxev 
Ta^vv Idv ; the finite verb expresses only the abstract ideas, " I can," — 
"these things are suited," — "you are qualified," — "dare you," — being 
quite subservient to and dependent upon the verb in the infinitive mood ; 
so that these constructions are entirely analogous to the Sanscrit peri- 
phrastic perfects, which, though formed of a finite verb and the infinitive 
mood of another verb, are equivalent to and are written as single words : 
thus, i$am-babhuva is written as a single word, though it is analogous 
in form as it is equivalent in signification to «/>X en/ 7re '0 UKa « 

447 One of the Greek verbs expressing power or possibility is 
deserving of some particular notice, as well from its rareness as from 
its etymological connexion with a very interesting Sanscrit auxiliary. 
We refer to o-wkcw "to be strong," a derivative from o-wkos, which 
appears in Homer, Iliad XX. 72, as an epithet of Hermes : 

Ar]TO? 3' dvreo-Tt] <ra>Ko? epiovvios Epprjs. 
The verb occurs in two passages only; as an independent verb in 
jEschylus, Eumenides^ 36 : where, an old priestess, in great trepida- 
tion, says : 

ri Seivd Xe^ai, heivd £' 6(p6aXp.o7<; iZeTu, 
-n-dXiv fx eTre/xxjsev en hoLnav twi/ Aofiou, 



634 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IX GREEK. [Book IV. 

OK /XtJTC <TU)K€'lU fXtJT€ XX dKT<XlV€lV ftoKTlV^ 

Tpe^o) ce yep<r\v^ ov ttoCwkio. <tk£/\coi/. 
cciaacra yap ypavs ovceu' ai/riVcus jxeu ovv. 

That aoiKw here is equivalent to jjuvwixai is clear from a passage of 
Homer, which JEschylus o (pi\dfxtjpo<: had in his head when he v. 
these lines. In a case, precisely the converse of this, an old woman is 
thus described as running to tell good news [Odyu. XXIII. init.): 
ypt]u<; o* els uVcouT aue/3tf<Taro Kay^aXoaxra^ 
cccnroivf] (peovaa <p't\ov iroaiv evcov eorra' 
yovvara o' tppuxravTo^ toccs virepaKTa'ivotrro. 

(The editions read vrrepiKTalvovTo, an inexplicable word — the emenda- 
tion we have introduced is Supported by Hi -\ chins, and the meaning 
of the passage; see Rnhnken ad Tina inn, p. 80.) It inu?t be clear to 
every one that the third line in the fir.-t of these passages i~ the nega- 
tion of the third line in the MOOnd* I$ut <ru><<* occurs as a mere 
auxiliary in Sophoi >. 1'20: 

fxovvti yap ayetv ovkcti <tuku) 

\vtrt)^ dvTippotrov d^eVc, 
which Porson neatly tran>lat I am DO longer ah! - If to 

draw op the weight of L r rirf which IS in the < | 

this use that we arc |q compare <twk» with the Sanscrit root $<il-, 
which is not only the D 
but also an auxiliary j 
fixed in the pa — ivo bo an active infinitive (the Sanscrit lan_ 

no peeeiTe infinitive), it verb with which it is jo i ned a passive 

signification, as in the Na . XV . n<i dkmrtmn . which is 

as if you WW in Latin tit; 

compare the Latin infinitive fatal inn iri (Bopp, Glotsar. 

■/•it. Ed. I. p. 170- The rod poK is perhaps found ah 

Irish ccac/t-t "'power," and in co-n<i-ri for COC- n<i-ri Glom. 

Ed. II. p. 341). 

448 The verbs i$ikm and fxc-Wo) are and more distinctly as auxi- 
liaries than any others in the Greek I They properly express 
a will or intention, but are employed by the beet authors to form i 
phrastie futures, in which they merely modify the time of the v<.rb 
which accompanies them in the infinitive m ; Thus rflcAi 
in speaking of inanimate objects, as in Plato. Rm»mbl, II. p. S'O §j« 

i\\ci to TTpu- rrjv tow wpaTTOi - itf» ircoifu 

where the sense of will or intention is so entirely lost that the gram- 
marians consider it as equivalent to Svvapai (e rinth. <U 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 635 

Dialect. Attica, § LXVII : 'AttikoY ku\ to OeXet duTi tov hvvarai. o>? 
Tlxdruv. " rd x^P ia °^ v /*' eOeXei Zildaiceiv" {Phoedrus, p. 230 d), 
dvr\ tou IvvaTai); and /xeXAw is so constantly used in forming the 
future tenses of verbs, that 6 }UxXwv ^po'i/o? is the regular name for 
future time, and ra fxeXXovra for future or expected events. 

449 "We purpose to devote the remainder of this chapter to an 
etymological investigation of the most important Greek words denoting 
will or desire. It is a matter of some interest to point out their pri- 
mary meanings and their connexion with one another, and, as it would 
be difficult to do this in a satisfactory manner without the aid of the 
principles, which we have endeavoured to establish and explain in the 
preceding pages, a detailed examination of the question will not perhaps 
form an inappropriate conclusion to this work. 

The words which we shall more particularly examine in this place 
are Acuo, deXio, fiovXofxai, fiau, Ou/jlos, and dpytj, all expressive of will, 
desire, or intention. As the discussion will be long, and encumbered 
with references and remarks upon cognate words, it will be as well, for 
the sake of clearness, to state beforehand some of the general results to 
which the investigation will lead us. 

450 It has been mentioned in a former chapter (above, § 266 sqq.), 
that there are two roots, la- and ra-, corresponding as well etymologi- 
cally as in signification, which may be traced back to an identity with 
the pronominal element na. The primary meaning of these elements, 
in their use as particles or terminations, is — motion in a given direction 
(above, §§ 130, I69, 204, 270, and elsewhere). From this meaning 
results the idea of taking or seizing an object, just as the preposition 
fxe-rd signifies both "following after" and "companionship" (§ 181). 
The meanings " to look at" and " to desire" are also secondary ones, 
which association has attached to the root, but which it could not by 
itself express in any strong or decided manner. We have endeavoured 
to show, on a former occasion (above, § 169), that, if the element -ra is 
subjoined to any pronominal stem, it denotes motion or continuation in 
a line of which the first point is indicated by the particular pronominal 
word. If, then, this element were appended to the first or second pro- 
nominal stems, ma, Fa, it would denote primarily a motion or emana- 
tion from the subject, or from that which is near to the subject. Of 
the former combination we have the following examples. The syno- 
nyms /xe-Aos and ne-pos both express " division," " separation of any 
object into its parts." Now, if we resolve the sentiment or notion of 
division into its ultimate elements, we shall find that it is reducible to 
the idea of a line proceeding from the divider and cutting another line, 



636 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. [Book IV. 

the position of which is fixed. It is for this reason that the adjective 
signifying " middle" is formed by the adjunct ya from mat, the abla- 
tive of the first personal pronoun, which case of itself denotes emanation, 
or proceeding from (§ 24?). This adjective is in Sanscrit 9%ad-Aya, in 
Latin med-iu8. That the Greek /j^Vo-ck wa- originally /.ie'<r-«<K fur 
ios, we have shown above, from the analogy of fc-io<; ($ 166); to which 
we may now add, that the form p£&w* at least i- presumed in the 
derivative neaWrj^ (see above. J J.V»). The primary meaning of 
iu8, &c, is "the quality of that wliieh proceeds from the me." 6 
times the preposition c<a, which signifies penetration or division into 
two part-, ia prefixed n<»t only toth re /*e'<r<ro*, muiitn, i 

rjiuarv, (In n't <l'ii(s (above. § 1 66), but also to the substantive uepo<:, as in 
ij/xepo*: (above, § 150), in order I JtrOOgly t! 

"bipaitition" or u a passage;" d t. For further 

coincidences in meaning bet* may compare /«A- 

Af<i/, /ifXc'-Tf;, ii€fu-fn<i, iulp-- np-tQiv, mc-m with 

medi ia which th.- M 

"thinking about, oi proriding for any thing" predominates. Nor o 

the connexion of r the 

meaning of fwy-rw*, me-mor, &c, we may compar* 

ti7,t0ui, which mean- literally u to divide," but :i the 

signification u to commemorate" oi "make mention of," m in £sohylns 

[flpud Pl(id>u. in It* ]'i(l>l. II. </</ Jiti.) : rov A*oAA« - u tck c'ac 

eviratBiaf (abo^ If we now torn 1 ad pionomina] 

ment we shall observe the (bDowh m pronoun, in it- oldest 

element, is Ft, or it coi tttnral and labial, artie 

course, by means of a short voweL In combination wish the si 
oi /'. it always bears a meaning derivable from one anal that 

of the similar formation with the first element: marymeai 

of Fa-rn is "motion from the meat* as i from 

the hen? It will be seen at once that t 

sent many points of contact. We have pointed out. in a former efaa] 

the many coincidences of the root9 X a "P- Se*Seril ///■/, and Fa-p- S 
BOlit rn (abov, here). The i in, on which 

we are about to enter, will render it probable that they are, after all, 
only by-forms of the same root F</, the former representing the guttural, 
the latter the labial element of the initial digamma. We have already 
discussed so thoroughly the secondary meal ft, that it 

will only be requisite in this place to collect the forms in which they 



" The Ftt/m. ^F. q •muvts putprvt directlj 
etSoJs- p. 8. WW npare 

the Latin vuvii-ftstus. 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 637 

occur. With meanings intimately connected the guttural element 
appears in x e ' l P-> X^-p^-i K «/°~ 7ro S alp-eTv, eX-eTu, grei-fan, yev-eiu, can-is, 
hin-than, hand; the labial in vin-star, fan-gen, Jln-ger, mip.-'ue, pan- 
chan,five; and both elements in gvan, span, kvwv, hun-d. In the sense 
of seeing and taking, borne by la by itself, and occasionally with an 
additional Fa subjoined, we have fi-Xe-irta, fi-Xd-Tr-Tw, y-Xav-Kos, y-Xtj- 
vrj, &c. In the sense of willing or wishing, also borne by -la, we have, 
from the guttural element, de-X-eiv for eXeTv, as QdXacra-a from crdXaa-aa = 
aXao-a-a, &c. And here the compound of -la, -ra, with the second 
root, presents a most remarkable contact to the same combination with 
the first ; for as we have yev-To, han-d, &c, in connexion with eXeiv, 
so we have 6ev-ap, " the hollow of the hand," in connexion with 0eA-w, 
and manus, " the hand," in connexion with \xdpn = -^eip (Sckol. Venet. 
Iliad "X.V. 37, whence ev-fxaptj^^eu-^eptj^) ; and the words depot, depl^w, 
express the idea of " smoothness," " cutting down that which is sticking 
up" (namely, standing corn), just as these same ideas are conveyed by 
the more general words txav-pds, a-jua-Ao'?, and d-fxd-<o (above, § 218). 
Finally, it will appear that as the root la or ra by itself, or with the 
suffix Fa, expresses motion in general, and particularly the emotion of 
desire, so the first and second elements under the forms ma, and sa or 
tha, with or without the suffix Fa, express the very same ideas — 
motion in general, and desire in particular; as will appear from an 
examination of the verbs fxdta and 9vco ; and thus it will be seen, that 
the ideas of will or desire, when expressed by verbs (with the exception 
of fiovXo/jLat, which is a totally different case), are resolvable into pro- 
nominal elements or words significant of position, just as we have 
shown in the case of va$as and «a (§ 275). 

451 We begin with Aa'w, which means not only "to wish," but 
also " to take," and " to see." How xdio can signify both " to have," 
and "to want," has been already explained on general principles 
(§ 53), and the analogies of capio and cupio, havere and habere, gestire 
and gerere, are also so many illustrations of it in this particular case ; 
it will be recollected too that irXeoveKT^, -irXeoveKrew, irXeove^la, imply 
not only having more, but covetousness or desire to possess more (see 
Herodot. VII. 149, 158, VIII. 112). The two meanings, "take" and 
" see" will cause no difficulty to any one who recollects that the German 
tragen, " to carry," and trachten, " to look at," are by-forms of the 
same root, and that percipere, "perceive," is formed from capio, "take." 
The connexion of "looking at," and "longing for," is obvious, and the 
German word sehnsucht, which expresses an earnest desire, is an in- 
stance of it. These meanings, " see," " take," and " wish," run through 
a large class of words containing some modification of the root Xa-, by 



038 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IX GREEK. [Book IV. 

a series of transitions perfectly similar to those we have remarked in 
the words belonging to the root x a -p~-> an( l tne transitions may be ex- 
plained in precisely the same way by a reference to the principle of the 
association of ideas. This class is indeed a very numerous and in 
tant one, for it contains all the old ( I aing with Aa-, 

Ac-, or A(-. In the verb Aa'a> it- of mean; 

conceive, first, simply "to see," then "to take," and thirdly, "to \\\A\." 
In Homer it U doubtful if it bean any meaning but the first. In the 
Hymn to IfflVOBIJ (v. 36()), where W6 have cucto<; ofu \dmv y it 
dently m nig." The word occurs twice in the description of 

the cloak of Ulyw win re it it rath< r unccnain 

whether it muni ''to hold," or "to look would 

suit the context; Passow takflfl the latt<r; we incline t<> ti 

The word.- ar< M faUon - : 

€v irpoTfpouri -KOLiaai ki'ujv e%e ire. \ov 

dairatpovra \dtav to ct davfid^tencov airavre* 
<*k 01 ^pv(T€oi owes, d fxcv Acre vtftpdw dirdy^rnVf 
(ivt iKiiaw? rjairaip* wdc€<r<riu. 

"We think the Ltd two word- favour Um tOTTUBl in: *J M r 

fi\€ tov veSpov € v 7rpoTtpoi<Ti tr 6c e <t at, Actuw ~-rraipovT<x y 

d 3e v(/Spo<: t'airaipev iv W&\ 

of this \ lew k famished by the r 

her symbolical monument : Pane. II. j. i : - i iaira 

twiBtffUM ea-Tt K0409 fVOVCfl ti- too? ir por€ pots irocr. 

459 The WOfdi c onn e ct d with W\ in the sen»e of "seeing," are 
-id, Afu<r<r», y-\t}vtiy y-\av<r<rw, \aftwp&, and *€»«©*. II- -\ 

quotes A«i'<rt( (/SXeV frti) apparently ea the future of Aa'« in 

this hr>t KnMj wc might conclude that it is merely a mi-tak 
\ev<r<rei, because in the next article he explains Aci/o-ctc by dpciT(, 
trere ; but it appears from the Scholiast on Hb— J, that Aristarchu* 
considered it a future (see Albert rms dwo- 

AaJ-to) = aVo-\ i; -to, and \cv<r<r* y we are inclined to infer 

tfaal the root was generally strengthened by the elen at F . 
say, mere ■ ■ moonelarj this root and the suffix 

Fa), which enters into the word- <F« bears the 

same relation to taMwtt, that \opat, another word of the same family, 
bears to Wc its synonym, and : «< just as F 

related to the Latin toynt. The same mn\ 
•7r^>o?, and \t i i 

459 The suffix F r also accounts for the labials which so often ap- 
pear in words oi' this family bearing the second signinent ike," 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 639 

Thus we have Xa-p.-Bdvta (where the n is an euphonic insertion by way 
of anusvdra, as in Xa-fx-Trpos), Aa7r-a£co, Aa0-vVo-£o, Aau'-oa, Xafivpivdos, 
and diroXavu. We regard Ae'7-w, " to pick up/' " select," " take one 
by one,'' " utter articulate and continuous words/' and its derivative 
Ae X° 9 (P ro P er ly> " a bed made up of gathered or picked leaves") ; the 
by-form Aeo-^, "a speaking place," for Xey-*Kti (above, § 219), AaV™, 
Aa/cco, "to speak," a'3oAe<r^9, "a great speaker;" also Aa-7-^-aW, "to 
receive by lot/' and its substantive Actios; and xd^ofxai, "to take hold 
of," as containing the same root differently modified. 

454 A word more nearly connected with Aa'Fw, Aa-/*-/3-ai/w, 
though we are not accustomed to view it in that light, on account of 
the ft which is prefixed, is ft-Xdima, with its derivatives ft-Xaftrj, &c, 
which are perfectly analogous to Xaftrj, &c. Another reason for our 
disregarding the connexion between ft-Xdirreiv, Aa'Fw, and Xctfxftdvio, 
is, that we attend only to the derived sense of the former word, and 
disregard its proper and original meaning. The word /3-AaV-Tw does 
unquestionably imply, in many cases, a certain degree of harm or mis- 
chief, but even where it bears this sense, it is a sort of hinderance or 
accidental harm, some mere pain or loss, that is denoted, and never an 
injury of that kind which can cause resentment (see Butler's VHIth 
Sermon). In fact, this distinction is frequently pointed out in the best 
Greek writers. In the following passage of Thucydides, for instance 
(I. 71), where the Corinthian ambassador says to the Spartans: oleoQe 
Tt)v tjcrvylau ov toi/toi? twu avdpanrwv etti 7rXel<TTOv apKeiv, 01 au Trj 
fxev 7rapa<TK€vtj h'ucaia irpda-a-wcn, rr} he yvoopiri, tfv dhiKwvrai, drjXoi wtn 
jj.t] e7riTpe'\//oi/T£9, aAA' eVj tu fxrj Au7re?i/ re aAAou? kou avroi afxvvo- 
fxevoi jxr] ftXarrTea-dat to "crov vefxere — the distinction between dliKeivQai 
and ftXanreadai is clearly shown by the opposition of lUaia irpdcaeiv 
to the one, and fxr] XvireTv to the other. This passage is considered a 
difficult one, and has been misinterpreted, we think, by all the com- 
mentators. The meaning is : " it is not your opinion that those persons 
enjoy peace the longest who, while they act justly, show that they 
have made up their minds not to submit to injury; but you observe 
the rule of non-interference, i. e. you are strictly neutral or impartial, on 
the principle of not hurting others and of avoiding the inconveniences 
to which reprisals would subject you." For the fxtj ftxdirreadat we 
may compare iEschylus, Suppl 577: vi& &' dptjyeiv ovk exw ftXaftrj*: 
di-ep. The preposition eV< here implies a principle or condition of 
action — as in Demosthen. Philipp. II. p. 68: nyeiT oZv, el fxev J/xa? 
eXoiro (plXov^ eVi to?? Galois alpe?<rdai. The phrase to "ktov veLiere, 
means " to act fairly or impartially to both of two parties." Thucyd. 



640 SB OF AUXILIARY VERB & [Book IV. 

VJ. 1 G : wo-rrcp lv<TTV^ovi>Te<: ov irpocrayopevo/ieda, tv Ttf opo'i* ti? 
dvcvea-Oto ku\ vttu Ttsiv (virpayuvvTuiv vncptppovovfievos, if Ta icra yfiiww 
to. 6fxo7a duTugiovTw — u if a man treats hi- inf. ri.rs as equal 
■ riiflit to chum tli itmcnt from bit superior-." II' r I t. VX 

11, and 109! ^wc tci "icra veu6vTu>v, " if the gods remain neutral." 
Ajittotle ( /.'//-'. I. in. ]). I36S, Better), ~» as 

purpose that 

ft\a*rru$ • red to imply an injury or anything 

than mere pain <>r loss oct r by an inanimate 

;. ll<--:t\ SrT« >rr<* rap 

I well known that the acaning of the ww 

'• lay bold 
lowing i>:i— a_" -. 

\ I. 38: 

7-mrta ya , u> wfCtiHO 

o\jm cVi tiXac .ptm'unf— , "caught in." 

I 

p liim from bit journey." Ob irn l tathius remarks: /3xaV- 

; ta. 

\u d friiuj rum \ . ' , . \ I 

- Delia tuu-Ia Deei fugacei l.yncaa et oenroa co Ai bm t u ar 'sia- 

dum eoi I iii). 

S 

" Win m \ bvl runner cannot get 

tk t'ewr 

<i<r«xorn. 
M [f any one of tin l! 

Wo <U> not ooMfciai the -w - mention' 

llesyehiu- ^ hich 

certainly ii ee-7 b*ke it in soud, I anected m root 

M lhittmann has remarked, is connect i .>ittw, just at 

is with wmXsam -rm is di I m uaprj = \c«\ and the 
same root ii fond in 

jvrhaps, as A .poses, a cor* 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 641 

ruption for ndp*™. We do not look upon /3-pa/3ev<s as connected with 
fipay\,m : it is derived, as we have elsewhere surmised, from the pdj3Sos, 
which was the umpire's mark of distinction. 

455 In the word Xeia, "a booty/' "that which is taken/' also Atfk, 
Dor. Acu9, the connexion with Aaw need hardly be pointed out : Xtairvi and 
\«r<Tt) are by-forms (see Hesychius). The common name for the lion, 
Ae'Fwi/, " the seizing animal," clearly belongs to this second class of the 
family of words into which the root AaF- enters. The digamma in this 
name is preserved in the German Lowe, old German Lev. We have 
stated above (§ 282), that x<*P<» v is another name for the lion, and that 
it means " the roaring beast." That the lion should have two names is 
not at all wonderful. " Of every thing in nature," says Bopp {Annals 
of Oriental Literature, p. 26), " of every animal, of every plant, speech 
can seize only one quality, in order to express the whole by it. The 
elephant ifl called in Sanscrit dantin (nominative danti) from its teeth, 
or dcirada (endued with two teeth), or from his trunk serving him as 
a hand, lie is called /matin or karin (nominative hasti, kari) ; from his 
habit of taking water in his trunk and then drinking when he pleases, 
he is called deij>a (twice drinking)- Were the Sanscrit to express all 
these qualities of the elephant by one word, it would be obliged to join 
all those mentioned together, and to add a great number of others. 
The serpent is called from his motion sarpa or pannaga, going not 
with feet (from pad foot, na not, and ga going); or uraga, going upon 
the breast. Besides many other names, the serpent has also in Sanscrit 
that of fMMMidpMM, wind-eating." In a passage of the Nalus (XX. 
clok. 1), khc-c/tarah, "going in the air," is used as a name for "a bird," 
but the etymology is indicated in the comparison : achiren'a aticha- 
krdtna, khe-charah khe charann iva, "he passed by Qthe rivers &c] 
rapidly, like an air-farer faring in the air" Besides this it may be 
mentioned that cercus is nothing but nepeFos, "the horned animal," that 
lobster, cl ulster, or clubstart (=clultail), is the English name, not merely 
for a thick-tailed shell-fish, but also for the stoat, an animal with a tuft 
on his tail (Quarterly Rev. Vol. LVII. p. 90), just as alXovpos = aloXov- 
pos and <TKtovpo<: refer to the striped (a'/oAos Ipdnwv conveys the same 
idea; see above, § 97) or thick tails of the cat and squirrel, that 
aAwTTf/f appears from the Sanscrit word lopaca to signify " the carrion- 
eater" (the other Sanscrit name for the fox, lomaca, means "hairy"), 
that the dog is called " the taker," canis, hund, &c, in all languages 
of the Indo-Germanic family (above, § 269), and so on (see Varron. 
p. 11G). In AdFas, lapis, the idea of taking up is clearly implied, for 
the idea of "a stone" is that it is something detached and moveable, 

Tt 



642 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN' GREEK. [Book IV. 

and, if we are right in supposing that \ejm also belongs to this root, it 
is an encouragement to the supposition that XaFa* belongs to it also, 
when we find Aeyco, Xoydctju, &c., especially applied to the picking and 
placing of stones. This etymology is much confirmed by the fact that 
the Sanskrit c'dd fern. " a stone," is manifestly of the same origin as 
fila to "glean," and $llam neut. M a gleanin. of corn." 

The oldest walls in Greece, especially IboM which are ca. pian, 

were formed of picked bioh wtn adju-ted together without 

cement as they happened to fit, th<- ini tween th- x:ks 

being filled up with -mailer st<<n — . II;.. the idea of selection, of 
placing the small with the Q K identified with that of a stone, 

and it frai -peak proverbially of -uch arrangement-, with- 

out alluding to the word Ai'rV. Thus Sophocles says (Ajax y 158): 

xai Tot trniKpvi ptyd\uv X^P 1 * 
<r<pa\epov irvpyov pvpa wfKotrrai' 
perd yap pcyd\tov /Jaio? dpt<rT txv 
*a< fi<'j >oT€pt*v. 

ci\\ M itiar.u- r..i : <- dvorjTOVK 
tovtuv yvtona'; - iv. 

The last line BOO* ing a proverb, like the 

Italian : 

Dvro con dmro 

fa bom 011. 

It is v, ry ;r.ii_ t: ial all the commentators have failed to per 
thi> obnoof imteipretatioa, whirl, mad by a passage in Plato, 

i»: ov mi;: <TTpaTtjy< \o*d- 

pois ic) WOktTl .< Ta»r TOtov-rmi \iapU rmv 

•« Km aptKpiv nrvWu -,dp aKv crimp** - 

c^uitm' ol < >f the change of the 

1 in Wtt»/, \i<r<rti, and .mples in 

the third Bet of words from this r 



" U we might adopt the quaint stvle o( the sixteenth centurr, the proverbial ton* 
of the whole passage n on thus: 

ut small 
Make a bad wall; 

I the great 
kes the little go straight, 
And the nobles endure 

the aid of the poor. 
But wisdom ma j preach — 

These maxims of good 
To the nii:ul« of the I 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 643 

456 Of xdia, in the sense of "to wish," we have the following 
forms, Aw, Xrjs, Xfj, Awi/Tt, and the optative Aew/xt (Hesycli.), also the 
reduplicated forms Xi-Xalecrdai (=eVt0i;/xeTi/, dpeyecrdai. a-irevheiu. Hesych.) 
and Xi-Xe? (= (pdoveT, eViflu^e?. Hesych.) ; Xla-a-ofxai and Xirofxai likewise 
belong to this root ; for their form compare the words Xto-ai? and xWos. 
Another form is KiyaCei (= eiridv/jie'i Hesych.), with which may be com- 
pared y-\ixoixai. To these we may add Xitttco, AeAtjUjuei/os, and Xl\!s 
(=e7ridvfxia Hesych.), which appears to have the same origin with the 
Latin lihet and libido. "We do not consider the quantity of the first 
syllable as any objection to our classing A</uo? and Xnraprj<; in this set of 
w r ords. We have seen all through the words derived from AaF- in all 
three significations an indiscriminate use of the vowels a, e, i. This 
has taken place on account of the connecting vowel being short, and 
the root being terminated by a digamma, which has been represented 
in the derived words by a great variety of substitutes. The length- 
ening of the syllables At7r- and At- may perhaps be indicative of a lost 
guna in the words Xnraprj? and A^o'c At all events, this is a more 
satisfactory account of Xnrapt]<: than the old explanation diro tov Xiav 
irapeTuai, or than connecting it with \nrap6s, as Passow has done. It 
must be allowed, however, that Passow's explanation is defensible : the 
connexion, which he points out, between the meanings of Xnrapds and 
\nraptj<; is sufficient to establish a relationship between the words, and 
A<7ra/>o? (which is often applied to bright, shining substances) may very 
well be derived from Aa'Fw in its first sense, just like AeuKo?. If this is 
the case, we must suppose the difference of quantity to have arisen 
from one of those accidents in language which cannot be properly 
accounted for by any causes known to us. 

457 Before we proceed to consider 6e\u> and fiovXopai, it will be 
necessary to investigate the words aiy\rj, dyXads, and dyaXXw, which 
Passow assigns to this root. A careful investigation will show us 
how far this is the case. The first of these words has excited some 
interest from an ingenious attempt which was made some years since 
to give a new meaning to it in the Philoctetes of Sophocles (v. 816). 
The passage runs as follows : 

"Yttv 6Zvi>a<; dhaw, "Yttv€ £' dXyewv, 

evarjs tjfxTu eXdois 

evaitov, eva'itav wua^' 

o/Ji/jLaat S' ai/Te^;ot? raVS' aiyXav 

a T6TO.T ai Tavvu. 
In the Rhemisches Museum (for 1828, p. 125, translated in the Philo- 

Tt2 



614 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. [Book IV. 

logical Museum, I. p. 468), "Welcker has endeavoured to prove from 
Bekker's Anecdota (p. 351), from Ilesychius, and from Pollux, that, 
in the passage of Sophocles just quoted, aTyXjf signifies a band which 
Sleep was begged to continue holding before the eyes of the slumbering 
hero. In a subsequent paper [Mkemi for 1833, p. 454, note 3) 

he made some additional remarks on I subject, of which it may 

be as well to give a translation. ; " It had been overlooked that in 
Epicharmus and in Sophocles himeelf a'iy\t) ngnifiee a glittering band 
to adorn the arm <»r leg; why then -hould it not signify an ornamental 
band in general, and, in poetic language, the band which sleep lays 
upon our eye- ■ An it is settled that .-nines a band, we need 

no confirmation from work- of art, and i n de e d there are none, to ju 
the simple, but beautiful and figurative DOB of the word by Soph' 
Otherwise Grftbe too bai -curdy and unpoctically 

when lie saya in hi- Fault : 

Irrthum, las las der Aug en Band, 

1 1>! 

and in the second | 

Lelte bitt du nur um/angen, 

■ . \cirf tie xceg. 
' I.iul || detain thee ca 

s ■ l.lin.ifoUl ; ra>t it off:' 

Even the expr »' utpdaX^uy, f3\(<papa, leads us at once to 

image. Then Pindar wfaiol i the fiat 

time to its propef beauty by the explanation which I I 

pointed out. He axpreeeea (Pyth. III. 73) his wish to land in Sicily, 

and bring Iliero, at the eUM time, health and t : 9\m 

WvOiiav alyXav PTCe)aMMf. In anotlier pa-- ... 

victory it-elf as ■ wreath (P>/th. XII. .'-) ; here, however, he DU 

up as a Tenia in the wreath obtained by Iliir 

not indeed Avdiav fxlrpav ko '■ .-. VIII. 1 \ • 

but as a golden band, beeau-e tl. I Doric. 1 

remarkably various and piffling image-, which Pindar 0008 when 

speaking of hifl odea, we shall hardly give up the view above mentioned 

in exchange for the prevalent idea, especially since in other • 

calls the Bong oi' victory a ] . IX. 14 . tfl DO of many 
colours (Jr, me, 6*7), Nay. we moat rath r that in the 

similar pafl "'/■• IX. IS) the same i I by the « 

kov/aok, (h\ the Tania\ BOO Anuali <l t l Jnstit. .1 ! in. IV. 

p. 881." It appears to us, that though Wekker*s bterpretation oi 
passage in Sophocles i- characterized by his usual ingenuity, tha 

serious objections to it, and that he d nothing 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 645 

aljXrj may signify a glittering band, just as it might describe any 
other brilliant and splendid decoration. One great objection to the 
application of this sense of alyXrj to the line of the Philoctetes, is, that 
in the other two passages in Sophocles where this word occurs it mani- 
festly bears a different signification. In the (Ed. Tyr. 207 : 
Tot? re TTvpocpopovs 
A^rejUtBo? alyXas, £vv cus 
Avki opea hia<Tcr€i—~ 
the word refers to the two torches with which Artemis is represented 
on ancient coins. In the Antigone, 610: 

dytjpca Be yjpovta Bizi/ao-ras Kare'^ets 'OXv/jlttov 

fxap/jLapoeaa-av alyXav, 
the epithet shows clearly enough that aiyXrj implies nothing but the 
splendour and brightness of the abode of the gods. It might be 
thought that this last passage is a sort of confirmation of Welcker's 
opinion, and that fxapfxapoea-a-av alyXrjv refers to the band of snow 
witli which Olympus is capped; but this cannot be: fxapfxapo? was 
not used in Sophocles' time to signify a white stone more than any 
other bright, polished stone. The word fxopoei^, which, as Doderlein 
justly remarks [Lat. Syn. und Etym. II. p. 81 note), is connected 
with fxap/xaipu), is used as an epithet to earrings in Iliad XIV. 183. 
Od. XVIII. 298, and it is certainly not hinted in either passage that 
the stones in the earrings were white. Besides, a poet, so full of 
taste and art as Sophocles, would never have expressed such an allusion 
in so frigid a manner. Our chief objection to Welcker's interpretation 
of the Philoctetes, is this, and we think it is decisive : we can gather 
from the context that Sophocles intended to use the word in its 
primitive sense. The chorus says afterwards (847) in a parenthetical 
way — aXe^ vttvos io-dXo? "sleep in the sunshine is good for our 
purpose," i. e. because it is very sound. If this was a common opinion, 
it was natural enough for the chorus to pray that sleep would keep 
before the eyes of Philoctetes the light of the sun (alyXrj) which was 
spread over them and prevented him from waking. That a'lyXri refers 
to the brilliant light of the sun in particular may be gathered from 
the hints of the lexicographers. Anecd. Bekkeri, p. 354 : kcu j dvaia 
Be tj v-rrep rov Ka-raKXva-fjLov eh AeX(povs aTrayoLievr] aiyXrj UaXeiTO 
(it will be recollected that the Delphian god was also the god of the sun) 
dxxd ko.\ t] (reXtjvrj. Hesychius has the following articles : AlyXatjp. 
6 'AiTKXtjTnos (because he was the son of Apollo). AlyXtis XdptTes. 
nriBavtas iyeveaXoyrjaav to? Xdpiras, A'lyXt^s koi Hxiov, eVei t« 
XdptTus XaiJLTrpds elvai Be?, and AlyXrjriju. eiriderov 'AiroMwvos, 
where Toup quotes Apollon. Rhod. IV. 171 6: 



646 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS ES* GREEK. [Book IV. 

alyXrjrrjv fxev evcrKOTrov e'l'venev aiyXtjs 
Qotftov k€k\oijl€uou 

Let us add a remark which we think is also of some importance. It 
cannot have escaped any one that all writers are apt to plagiarize 
from themselves. Now, although we are told that Sophocles pub- 
lished the Philoctetes 31 years after the Antigone, it cannot be be- 
lieved that he never read the latter again : the beautiful chorus, from 
which we have just quoted (1. .383 foil), must have been constantly 
in his mind, and we have no doubt v. I to hU memory when 

he wrote the lines in the PhilocUtm which we have been <1 
A line or two before fiapuapoeaaav alyXav the following passage occurs 
(600): 

VVV "/CIO £(TV«Ta? VTTfp 

j'n'Oi^ u rcraro tyao* e» Oi&firou Soport k. -r \. 
It will readily be understood what train of thought led bin I 

tute for o tI-uto <pdo<; in I i nymous 

cuyXdv a -rirarai whicli we fad in th- 1 how the cuyXtj, which 

occurs so shortly after in the AnU L jnn>\ became mixed up in the - 
sentence in the Pi 

458 To return, however, from thk little to 

do with the etymology of aly^ (and that 
discuss), we agree with Lobeck (./ i 

.; among the derivatives from &t, -'mull be written, Fn'F». 

The labials may bemoof /*, and perhaj - 

in £«•©«« oVaTot-FaFo*: compare the Banseri -eH with p»'s 

<pmr<k (above, i fc&T). The ;- in rij>->r at well M cases of a 

similar insertion Which he mention- (note 14] 0«'«, 

OaVw; p&OC, p*kw\ nc'tpw. 

^a'w, cajno ; rpim, • Injwmet; are al, » 

we think, to be explained in the same way. The other words con- 
nected like «v-.\>/ witt 
a70«, «:tW<ru.. astes, 

(genitive oT-yot), and aJytt. In all of these we find the cognate ideas of 
blowing, fiaming, ihining, flickering, moving rapidly. T 

ideas are related to one another and to I "the 

motion of the air," and ^ w Bght" or M brightness," is clear ft 

parison "•< » °* fr"*" wit!l . 

§ 152); of \ci-k.w with /er-/>; from the various met 

a li^ht . ;" and from the tw B Pindar (PjfCft. IT. 

83. V. 11). We have shown above that the si - V '-F-. "hich 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 647 

enters into words bearing all these meanings, primarily signifies only 
motion in general. 

459 To this class of words then, we agree with Lobeck in referring 
the first syllable of al-y-Xr}, " the light of the sun ;" and we entertain 
no doubt that dyaXXw and ayAaos are derived from it : that ayAaos, at 
least, is, appears from the fact that 'AyXair], one of the Graces, was 
called by Hesiod by the same name as her mother A'lyXt} (Senec. de 
Benefic. L. III.). We consider the ending to be a formation of the 
pronominal root Fa, under the form ga, with the element -la, which we 
have discussed above, and we proceed to show that whether it appears 
as ye-xdw, <re-Aac, l-Af}, or d-y-Xa-os, it conveys the same general notion 
of light or brightness. In Latin the ideas of " shining" and " laughter" 
are mixed up with one another : renideo " to throw back light/' a by- 
form of niteo, is connected in meaning, perhaps in origin, with video, 
as is proved by the following passages (quoted by Doderlein, Lat. Syn. 
und Etym. II. p. 73). Catullus XXXIX. 15 : 

Renidere usquequaque te nollem 
Nam risu inepto res ineptior nulla est. 

Tacitus, Annal. IV. 60: Tiberius torvus aut falsum renidens 
vultu, and Acron ad ffor. Carm. II. 18, 2: Nidor a nimio odore dic- 
tum, seu risu, unde et renideo. That the much spoken of irovricav 
KujuaVwi/ dvtipidfxov yeXaa-fxa of iEschylus {Prom. 90) refers to the infini- 
tude of glittering spangles which one may observe on the sea when a 
gentle breeze is passing over it in sunny weather, must, we think, have 
struck every reader of taste. It is well known too, that in modern 
French the epithet riant or " smiling" is constantly used in speaking of 
landscapes, &c, and the phrases "a cheerful prospect," &c, are not un- 
common among ourselves. The following glosses from Hesychius are 
conclusive in favour of the opinion that the ideas of merriment and 
brightness are included in the word yeXaw. TeXav. avyiju jxiov. Te- 
Xe7v. xdfx-rreiu, dvdeTu. There is no occasion to read here FeXav, as Toup 
proposes (Vol. III. pp. 400, 473), any more than in BeXa. rjXio? ku\ 
avy^ vtto Aczkwvuu, or in "Ea»?. nXlov avXala tj avyn (Timseus) ; the 
7, (3, and aspirate in these words represent the digamma, as does also 
the o- in o-eAas, veXtjvn. In the word yaXrjvrj the leading idea is that 
of the sunshine or brightness which invariably accompanies fine weather 
in the East; the same idea of brightness accounts for the other meaning 
given to this word by Hesychius : TaXtjvr]. to eWo'Aafoi/ ev <rj/ /xeraA- 
Xela tov dpyvpov X u>vev 0l xevov. The idea of shining whiteness is con- 
veyed also by the word ydxa "milk," and by the Sicilian word yeXa 



6±8 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IX GREEK. [Book IV. 

(Lat. gelus, gelu) u frost," which according to Lennep (ad Pkal 
Ep. 106. p. 508) is alluded to in the following gloss of Hesychius : 
KitWr}. (peyyos, avyij, (pws, ird-^vrj^ o/xi^\tj y where Ruhnken (ad Tim. 
p. 96) reads /3ei\r]. The Reviewer of Niebuhr's History of Rome 
(quoted by Goller, de Situ et Origine Syraaisarum, p. 1 50) supposes 
that the Sicilian river Gela was so called from its coolness. "We enter- 
tain a different opinion. When we remember that the city Gela was 
founded by the Rhodians (Thucyd. VI. 4), who were near enough to 
the Triopian promontory to be influenced by the Triopian religion; 
that the Triopian rites were at an early period introduced into 
that city (Herod. VII. 153); that one of the Triopian deities 
Apollo (Herod. I. 144); that an ancestor of Gelon, one Telines of the 
island of Telos, was Hierophant of the Triopian rites (Herod. VIII. 
153), and that this office remained in the family (Bockh, 
Pindar* p. 311); finally, that the Athenian priest-tribe was called 
YeXeovTes* (Arnold's Thucydide-. Vol. I. ]». 659), and that the patron 
god of the old Athenian! • ^»» t r rpyot, considered as the 

SUIl-^od ((/>a<xi Tii't? AeifMUOVC avTo^0oya<: <pZvai na\ tovtw yoveas fVfii» 
TJJV Ka\ 'll\ior, at 6 OVTtK itrriv WiroWiavt ; Sc/toli" >'/(>/- 

<l,in. ]>. 869 Bekker)j WB cannot doubt that the city and ri 
as well as the two kings Gelo and lliem, owed their names to their 
connexion with the Triopian worehip of the bright aim-god. < >n the 
whole, then, d'i-y-\tj = fd-y-\t] or <pa-yt-\t} (for the change of place in 
the semivowel B66 above. § ll(i and elsewhere' i< I word 
expressive of bright, shining light, and is particularly employed to 
signify the sun. 

4(>0 It is worthy of remark, that, as the latter of the two elements 
which go to make up <i'i-y\t], refers not only to "light." but also to the 
sense of "seeing," as in Kam and f 3-\<TTw ; so the first part of the v. 
expresses not only " light" or M brightness," but also " speaking" (v-m, 
cu-vw), and by association "hearing" (eu»; above, p. 80). The con- 
nexion between "light" and the faculty of " .friciently 
obvious: without </>u><? there could be no 0^1? (Plato, BmpubL VX 
p. 507 d). The ideas of *• speaking" and "light" both belong to the 
more general one of manifestation. The etymological connexion of the 
words expressing them has been shown by A. W. Schlegel (in an article 
in the Induck* BiUiotMc, Vol II. p. S mpan tht 
bka "to shine" with the Latin and Greek y." The 



* Those who read TcXfarrct, must roniember tin losychitis, Y 

Tc\ta. 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 649 

inflexions of the latter verb, in its Doric form, are perfectly identical 
with those of the Sanscrit bhd : thus we have 



bhd-mi 


(pa-fxt 


bkd-si 


<pa-<y'i 


bhd-ti 


(pa-ri 


bhd-mas 


<pa-fX6<; 


bhd-tha 


(pa-re 


bhd-nti 


(ba-vTi. 



The Greek <pai-vu "to shine" bears the same relation to 0o-/*«, that 
eu-i/co does to the Latin aio or the Greek 4/u. In the sense " light" we 
have the Sanscrit bhds and the Greek <£ao9. Although the root bhd 
itself never signifies " to speak," we have with that signification the 
root bhdsh, which bears the same relation to it that hrisk does to hri 
(above, § 288). Thus, we have bhdshate = loquitur ; bhdsha = loquela, 
dialectus ; bhdshitam = sermo ; bhdshyam = commentarius ; dvi-bkdshin 
= bilinguis, interpres ; abhi-bhdsha = allocutio ; abhi-bhdshin = alloqui 
solitus, &c. A writer in Blackwood 's Mag. Feb. 1840. p. 208, com- 
pares the following cognate words, which signify "light" and "sound" 
respectively : 

clarus kXco? 

dim dumb 

swart surdus* 

lauter. loud. 

461 In the dualism of the Greek mythology the Goddess of the 
Moon appears as the sister of Phoebus. Her name in connexion with 
this worship is ae-Xtj-vr], which is in fact only another form of y-Xti-vrj. 
Compare Trpov<re\eiv, irpovyeXeiv^ and their probably original form 
TTjooo-FeAeTi/ (Buttmann, Lexilogus, II. p. 159)^ In the Latin language 
we have the shorter form which contains only the element Ae-F- : com- 
pare Lu-na, lu-c-s, with a-e-Xtjvtj, Acu-ko?. We find a similar abbre- 
viation in the Latin lac-t- " milk," i. e. " white liquid," compared with 
the Greek yd-Xa(- K -r) (above, § 212). Whenever in cognate lan- 
guages synonymous words exhibit the same root, sometimes with and 
sometimes without a prefix, we may generally conclude that the longer 
form is of later introduction, the additional syllable, which is generally 
of pronominal origin (§ 213), being prefixed for the sake of greater 
emphasis or distinctness. There can be no doubt, therefore, that the 
words /3-AeV-w, y-Aau-«o'?, which exhibit the labial and guttural ele- 



* In Pliny, H. N. XXXVII. 5, we find surdus color for " faint," " dull :" with which 
we may compare the meaning claimed for a>/3Aus, above, § 218. 



650 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IX GREEK. [Book IV. 

merits respectively of the pronominal prefix Fa-, are more recent than 
the simpler derivatives from the root Ae- or AcF-. To return, then, to 
this shorter form, we have the three meanings " to see," " to take," and 
" to wish," expressed hy one word AdFo). At a subsequent period the 
root Fa was prefixed to that word, and different modifications of it 
were employed to express the same three different meanings. For the 
first sense " to see," we have /3-AeV-a>, y-\av-<r<ru), and fur the cognate 
idea of light, we have fie\a, yiket, o-eAac, and e\»/. For the second 
meaning " to take," we have ft-Xdir-nc, yev-ro (Hind VIII. iSj XIII. 
241, XVIII. 476), ikew, and for the cognate word "hand" we have 
Qev-ap (for the v compare Alcman's xii'-ro for ttikerml Enatath. p. 
29). And for the third meanii iah," W* haw the common 

word 6e\-u), whicli, with the Oev-ap jnat mentioned] been the - 
relation to rcAov, c-UTr, that the equally OOmmon Od\aa<ra does to the 
older form ad\aaaa (K5n <!■ r. p. 300), and to iroXot, o-aAci-w, 

<mAao-<ru>, aA s &c, etfl] need by the best writers. We think loXfl 
as the name <>f an island, is also connected with Oa\da<ra\ so 

(TaXurraoiUCcor ill Alcllian"- I '.-.'.■ 

'Ii'to *, dv dtrd fxaa-duv 

piTTTCv (pans 7«\«<x»;re rav. 

ea emended by Poreon ~ • The labial 

element of the original digamma u still 1 ntin rdlo. 

\(V2 Before we proceed to in v es ti g ate the origin of fiov\o 
will be proper to inquire how far. in it- actual ate by the beet wi 
it agrees with or differs from (\\uk or rai 

written by the Epic poets, by Pindar, and, with the ex- 
phrases like • by the proee-writ eraL 

•1(>;> Bnttmann says v "while ecY\«, which is 

beyond all comparison of more frequent occurrence, is the most general 
expression for will in<j ( Woll**), but especially expresses that kind of 
willing in which a purpose (T - itulude.l, and therefore the 

willing which it is, or ap] 

j3ov\ouai y on the other hand, is altogether limited to that kind of willing 
in which the wish and the disposition are other alone, or at least 

especially signified. Hence, it expresses the I lling 

(Bereitwillufkrit) to do ■ thing which does not depend on oneself: 
example, ///</./ XXI V. 

re&vauevai Trapd M»j 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 651 

Similarly it is used of a woman who can only act according to the will 
of others; Od. XV. 21 : kc'ivov fiovXeTai oIkov ScpeXXeiv o? Kev oirvioi 
and of a mere wish, Iliad XV. 51 : toi el fxdXa fiovXerai uXXrj. It 
is remarkable, therefore, that while the active wish, which strives after 
its accomplishment as soon as possible, is in every other case expressed 
by ede\eiv (Iliad VII. 364>: w«W ide\m hopcvai. IX. 120: a\£ ideXa 
dpeo-at, &c); ftuvXoixai is used in this very sense of the gods only, 
for example, Iliad I. 67 : at Kev 7ra)<? — BovXerai dvridvas tjfxiv diro 
Xoiyov dfxvvai : and frequently thus : "Ek-to^i efiovXero Kvhos 6pe£ai^ 
Tpwea-ai he ftovXeTo MKff*, and so forth (11. VII. 21, XII. 174, XXIV. 
39. Od. IV. 275; see also Iliad XI. 319, where the older editions 
had edeXei : see Heyne). There is obviously somewhat of respect im- 
plied in this expression, because, in speaking of the higher powers in 
close connexion with the dead, we remark and mention the inclination, 
the condescension, the free-gift, which, with them, contains the comple- 
tion in itself/' He adds, that (3ovXo/jl<xi is used by Homer in the sense 
of " to prefer f but never eOeXoi. We have quoted this passage from 
Buttmann on account both of his authority and of the general adoption 
of this opinion of his, though we are certain that his distinction will not 
hold any where but in Homer, and do not believe that it obtains even 
there. He is quite right in his general statement that edeXeiv means 
"to be willing," and fiovXeo-dai "to wish;" that is the distinction 
which prevails throughout the Greek writers : in his application, how- 
ever, he is not only w r rong, but inconsistent. Let us turn to the 
first passage which he quotes from Homer ; it is taken from Priam's 
answer to Hecuba, w 7 hen she tries to dissuade him from going to ransom 
the dead body of Hector. At the very beginning of his speech (v. 217), 
he says : fxtj fx ideXovr levai Karepvuave, which means " do not detain 
me, for I will go," and in the passage quoted by Buttmann, he says, 
" if it be destined that I die by the ships of the Greeks, I am not 
merely willing, it is my wish : 

nvriKa yap fxe naraKTetveiev A%iXXev<: 

dyKa\ eXovT Z/jlov vlov, emjv ydov e'£ epov elrjV 

for I wish that Achilles would slay me, after I have taken my son in 
my arms and wept my full." In the passage from the Odyssee it is not 
true that SovXerat implies a mere acquiescence in the will of others ; 
the wise goddess Athena tells Telemachus, that it is a peculiarity of a 
woman to feel a strong attachment to her husband, whoever he may be, 
and that it is her earnest desire to further his interests as much as 
possible. Why the third passage was quoted we cannot see, for it so 
obviously means an active though fruitless desire, and has nothing to 



652 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IX GREEK. [Book IT. 

do with the Bereittcillu/keit — "the being ready and willing" — which 
he says is implied in ftovXofxai. It certainly is somewhat remarkable 
that ftovXojiai should be used by Homer in speaking of the gods, con- 
trary to the sense of the word, and the on of all other writers. One 
would think that will, rather than tfefi re , would naturally be attributed 
to a superior being. "We must recollect, however, that Homer's gods 
were very second-rate personages, who might und< r certain circum- 
stances receive wounds from mortal men; s<» that WO need not wonder 
if we find desire, and all other human attributed to them. In 

Demoftb 0«ei MfXp, "if it I a common 

phrase (see for example, PAilipp. I. 18, an 1 Herald, Amimmh, II. 5); 
and in Oh/uth. I. 8&, be put- tV«'u., M applied to the gods, and fiov- 
Xonai, as applied to man, in direct oppos i tion ! oo«e< 8* t/uuyt, m a 

AQt]v(uot, cc'tfcctv owe th fiaupdv, av oT t€ 6co\ 0cA«t<n xa\ i t)(r6f. 

And so we have in Pl.c VII. p. 799 n: «• nd in 

. III. p. <)SS i n are three pannages, <>ne in 

Euripides, and two in Plato, in which §$4Km an mo so 

directly Opposed, tliat WO OtBDOl mi-take tlie distUS tliem 

if we would. In the / 

Agamemnon : 

n pnyr opytf% tiro 

aVoT0ff**OV ~i't\t]0 iTOTfrw Xtav (yti. 

otffff ot ((tt, ?\ €tv AnrdiCat* irpos "I\tor, 

tb tontTp mi • 'i \ \ •'('*•'. - tur, 

r. \. 

The two passages from I'lat«» are M faO ' ; 3 B: 

f;t'(in]V...( r , )<niu'...7rpaTTfii' o t'i irfft av ai 'ivy. 

RmpuhttcOi IV. p. 437 I*: tI afcj -retri}* Ka\ 

( '>\«>v ra\ i ai m »"<' i'ai, ov iravra 

TttUTGt el? 6KCUMX 7T>/ OV 0€Oft TO Cldlf TO W.M r a«i 

Tf/V Toy iwtOvfiovrro* v' .-i\»;r mJj ou ov av 

ewtBvfim^ t) frao<ra<yc*6Vu t*n rat o/ *. t 

Ktt6 MW t('i\t( Ti <>;' VOacaftfWOlj t myfi/f «f toi/to wptK avTrjv, mvirtp 

timk cpirramK, swopeyopem yeveaea*; In all these three 

passages it ifl abundantly elear tli vr to the 

desire or wishing for a thing, while ed\ the mere will 

or willingness. In regard to Oikm no\m m the passage from E 
pides, it is evident from the perfectly similar sentence in T 
PoUticw (p. 899 n)i that the mere willingness or acquiescence in the 
office is implied : "pretending to have no desire for the office, but in 
real wishes, in regard to his ambition, being perfectly willing to under- 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 653 

take it." The words of Plato are: ovkoZv o y ZdeXui, K a\ i K uv i„ 
to?? toiovtois apxeiv ciKaioTar av 6tiovv Travel K a\ cIttot'ivoi; where 
the meaning is, " he who, willingly and of his own accord, &<$.," as in 
the Protagoras (p. 335 a): Srt ovk ideXtjaoi ckuv elpai diroKpivo- 
txevos diaXeyevdai—" will not be willing as far as he is concerned. 5 ' 
"We do not recollect one instance in the good Greek writers in which 
fiouXo/xai and ide\u) are confused; they are as distinct in meaning and 
origin as the German correlatives wiinschen, which answers to the 
former, and wollen, which translates the latter. 

464 It is a common opinion (see Doderlein, Syn. und Etym. V. 
56, and Passow, s.v. fleAw), that /3ov\opai, another form of which 
is 06\ofxai 9 bears the same relation to 6e\io, that volo, volt, volebam, 
volent, do to velle, velim, and vis for velis, and that the ft and 
are interchanged like (p and 6 in (prjp and Btjp, and v and 6 in venari 
and 6t]pav; it is also suggested that the change from e or o to ov 
is explained by the transition from the Italian volere to the French 
vouloir. It is of course easy to add a comparison of the Teutonic roots, 
which really correspond to FeA-, but which have generally been traced 
to a nearer relationship with fiov\ofxai; such are the Gothic viljan, 
A. S. vilnian, 0. S. tciU'um, 0. H. G. wellan, N. H. G. wollen, 
Engl. will. If we had no other means of proving it, this word fiov\o- 
/jiai alone in its relations to 0e\w, might serve to convince us of the 
uselessness of confining the functions of comparative philology to a 
mere juxtaposition of prima facie resemblances*. On all sides, 6e\a 



* The comparison of fiouXofiai with these Teutonic roots and with volo, and the 
reference of 0eAu> to a forced Sanscrit affinity, which we find in Benfey's voluminous 
work (Wurzellexicon, Berlin, 1839-42. I. 320, II. 350, 328), remind us that we have 
not as yet noticed this laborious attempt to illustrate the Greek language, which made 
its appearance soon after the first publication of the present work. The fact is, that 
having looked into Benfey's book in 1844, we so convinced ourselves of its want of any 
thing like a real insight into the structure of language, that we have not even opened 
it since that time. It is not to be denied that his industry has been very great, and 
that he has collected an enormous mass of crude materials; we hear too, from our 
German friends, that he is a very good Sanscrit scholar ; but he exhibits no acquaint- 
ance with the higher departments of classical learning, and he deals with Greek words 
as if there were no means of distinguishing between the root and the formative affix. 
To take one example; the interesting word vctKivdos is referred to the root u = "to 
bring forth," and the last part confidently is identified withaV0os ("derletzte Theil des 
Wortes ist ohne alien Zweifel avOos :" I. p. 413). Now there are many purely Greek 
words ending in -iz/0os, which is merely a formative affix of pronominal origin (above, 
§ 263). The first part of the word is therefore uatc- as in the Latin vac-cinium ; and 
we recognise this in the root of v<ur-tg« (=ue-rt£a>, Hesych.), and in a number of Teutonic 
roots signifying softness or pliability, e. g. icciche, A. S. wake, &c. We are sure, as in 
the case of the cognate Iris, that the plant derives its name from the mythological 



654 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. [Book TV. 

presents correspondences of signification to words containing the root 
FeA.-, with which, we have seen, it has an obvious etymological con- 
nexion; whereas /3ov\-ofj.ai, with its two labials and heavier vowel o, 
is no less distinct etymologically from the root Fe\-, than it is differ- 
ent in signification from the verb 9ikm. And first, let us consider the 
lengthened form iOeXw. It H I well-known fact, that, in the Greek 
language, the oldest fdhfl WOT very frequently reduplicated forms of 
those in common ase. Now, it oibtttred, that a number of 

verbs, which in the oldest state of the language were digammated, 
also in the old language appeal with an initial c in the present tense 
(for example, iektofuu, ecAva/uu, ctpyw, tetcontvo*;, firsts j Buttmann's 

■<hrl. Sprl. ; i aiefa ■ nerelj a mntilai 

plication (Buttmann, § 82, 3 note). To laXasn* 

cFfAat, and consider it, on tlie principle mentioned j . 
lag for tlie reduplicated form FcfcXw. Tlie only difference, in 
between ilV.\u> and digamma, 

and etXeofiai hai lost both; th- '.ion of the one digamma in 

i h dna, iinon occurrence of the l 

from the earlie-t tin 

in, no one can donbl tsew are connected. 

That mob i> the case is obnoni from a ooaaperison el the gloeaea 
.m, riXa4j I • \ ('w i\ T<\\o)i' (Hetjchiue); and the Latin rwilo 
(all whicb beai the seam of I taw), with the common uses of i 
The oonneadon ofeAsesi with »j\hkuV»/ is acknowledged 
who baa read Bnttman <rpo* (com}>ar 

T»7/)ts Phanias, Hesychins has the foil sees: 

-tves (on the 
part sea Tonp, Emmdmtionm, IV. p. 10(3); rfXytm, wiV»/. <rwd$rt. 
KovpaXta. From these we infer that then 

with weaving and spinning also d-. ri\v 1 from ! Ucsj : f»r the change of the 

K into 7 is hardly worth we have tin 

mon word OtXyw, the primary s iguifiq 



personage. V>w Benfey himself has seen that F •* means primarily the cumd 

lliihnH 11. m . ■ i M ■ equally certain to us that iu the old elementary religion 
Of Dm I from which tlie legend of Hyacintkus is derived (see Muller, 1> 

p. 57 J. who however derives the name from the Bower), the beautiful jouth slain by 
the dl Do is men Ij "bos* tender Bowers are wet 

with the moisture of hea\en. and wMoh falls I :e powerful orb of the sun- 

god. Ba that the Ml or "niabow" and the Hyacinth** or "watery flower" are 
equally symbolical of the triumphs vi the great God of day. 1 : -relation ■ 

correct, and it" the explanatu ■ a is a fair specimen of the trarsaBaneoa, (and 

we think that it b ' show that classical scholar. 

ship is still the best and safest basis of operations for tlie general philologer? 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 655 

" to act upon by charms." That in this sense it was nothing more than 
a synonym for eXxm appears from the following considerations. The 
principal instrument in magic among the Greeks, especially for love- 
charms, was the wry -neck, ivyf, a little bird which, when fastened to a 
metal wheel and turned round like an aTpaKTos, was thought to have a 
Ivvaixis i\KTiKtj. Thus Pindar says (Nem. IY. 35): 'Ivyyi 3' eXxopai 
r\Top vovprjvta diyepev, and Theocritus, II. 17 : "/yf, eX«6 tv ttjvov epdv 
ttoti Zwfxa tov avlpa. Conversely, we find cXkciv 'Ivyya eVt tiw, and 
the word eXuetv is sometimes used absolutely for " to entice," just like 
deXyw. Thus we have in Philostratus, Imagg. I. 4, p. 769 : oo-TrafeTai 
tov ddvarov KaXw ku\ t]6e7 T(p oppaTi KCti olov vttvov cAkovti. This pas- 
sage is quoted by Jacobs, Anth. Pal. III. p. 664, in a note on the 
words of Philippus: 

ok eTwrepKa^eis piapa rpi^iy vvv (piXov cAkwi/, 
Tt]u KaXdfxrjv tcoprj, 5ou<? irepois to depos. 

He also cites Lysias, de Eratosth. Ccede, p. 191 Bekker, where eTxne<; 
bears a different meaning, i. e. that of the Latin vellicare. We have 
the verb IXk« in connexion with ireldw in Plato, JResp.Y. p. 458 d, and 
with this verb and KoXaicevto in VII. p. 583 d : ovkovv kcu aXXa ivavTia 
tovtcov iiriTt]CevpLa.Ta t;Boj/a? eyovTa, a KoXanevei piv ijpwv Tt]v yj/v^tiv 
koi eXxei €</>' eavTci, neidei B' ov tou? kcl\ ottyjovv psTpiovs. That this 
primary notion of BeXyta and eXuco was connected with the idea of 
eXeTi/j Xafielv, is shown by the tJ <rj/ Xtj(p9evT€<; 'ivyyi of Aristophanes 
(Lysistr. 1110), where Pindar would have written eXKopevoi. The 
relation between deXyeiv and eXicciv is farther shown by a comparison of 
the forms OeXytjTpov and eXKtjdpov, deXnTiKos and cXictiicos, deXnTrjp 
and eXKtjTtjp. 

465 We must also say something of the adjective 0e\e/xos, which 
occurs only in the following passage of iEschylus (Suppl. 1006) : 
iroTapovi h\ o? Zid X°^P ag 
deXepiov irttipa ykovaiv, 
•jroXvTenvoi, XiirapoTs X ev ~ 
fxao-t ya'ias 
t6&6 pieiXicro-ovTes ovCas, 

where the Chorus is not speaking of the Nile (as Passow supposes), but 
of the rivers of Argolis, in opposition to the rivers of Egypt. The 
glosses of Hesychius are (l) deXepou. oIkt P 6u. rj<rvx<>i>. (2) OeXefxw^. 
1l*vx*S. otKrpSs. (3) QeXepov. 0€Xkt6v, ko.\ to OeXyov tu oppaTa eVl 
KOKcoVe*. In the first two, we must substitute <piXu>v, <j>i\la><i, for olnTpdv, 
oiKT-poK, just as deXtjTpov ("errore pro QeXnTpov," Pors. not. MS.) is 
afterwards rendered (piXrpov. The third gloss is also corrupt : we 



656 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. [Book IV. 

must read, OeXnTpov, OcXictou, &c. The other meaning, rj<rv^oy, is 
clearly that borne by QeXe^ov in the passage of JEschylus; this sense 
has been derived from deXw in much the same way a- that of eKtjXos 
from ckouV, which we pointed out before (above, § 273) : the word 
can hardly be compared with 717 ideXov<ra and ro r>i, quoted 

from Xenophon {(Econ. v. 12) and Virgil (Georg. II. 500) by Toup 
(Emciul. ut S„'„L I. p. 285). 

\(U) We believe, then, that (3ov\ofxai has no etymological con- 
nexion with ide\u). This at hast we COT -tain, whatever may 
be thought of the derivation \v ;t to piOPOn f<>r the former 
word. livery stud, nt that tie ll in the 
_ wlii. h Km gin with the syllable fim . In most of these 
word- it i> nnstftmSTJ to explain this | DO a gloss in II 
Bo J. to fitya mi woX» o/W. AastmN. Thus ftam\tjt»a is translated 
M violent hunger," (Iov-kchs "a big boy. W n mark, in the hr-t place, 
that llesychius SMifllH thi- ptl &1 ribute no 
weight to the etymologied jHMSS wwl >>( Tlutarch (Sympos.Vl. 8): to 
/mcv ovv ftovXtfii -a* dwo<Tt .-. uaXurra wap 
Rjfftftj to?9 Au>,\ti»rTj uVtj tou /^ t« x y^pm^ilvoi^- 
WOV\iflO¥ olov troXvXifioi 

had BOOM L r,,,, d ISSSOl f<»r attributii ■_ * I 

what this rSSSQfl was we will endeavour to MOW. The Spartan y 

wen divided into cl 10008, which hove the same names m 
and herds, that i-. wen oelltd after the tir>t objects <»f classification in a 
primitive state. The larger dirisioae wen- ten , a word gene- 

rally applied t the smaQsf .An.. ■ word ■ its ordinary 

acceptation denoting a I horse. There are two analogous 

edverbe coiTeeponxling t<> these two words, » and 7Aac<»». both 

and bj tety old writ in that in Sparta the ■ 

WSJ called f^ova (imayfai wmSU II sych.); and its chief was ter 
fjovdyop (» ayt&aoyift, ci ilp^m* w it, II ~ych.). 

From the form whioh h farad in Laconian ii 

is disposed to infer that the ' 

l e p nse nte the initial digamma of the terinii rpus Jntc 

VoL I. p. 618), It a] from the form fSoSa, that the 

digamma must have belonged t-> the tir?t pari und. 

There are two other words USUI I i lift immediately to tliis political divi- 
sion : BoVOO, <i~ : t\t; — ou fio\KT€> 
Eti/m. Mihjn.. according to the admirable emendation of Hemster: 
and <r r u o\ M . u 1? t T. iVt. ;> . 1: wifl it be 
denied that the syllable o\u- in these 1 lie ele ment of t SoC<. If 
so, the name given in Sparta I M literal!; 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 657 

same as that borne by a herd of oxen. The connexion of /3oF^ "the 
war-shout/' with f3ovs and /3«Fts has been mentioned above. We have 
here a transition from agricultural to political ideas, just as the step in 
that case was from agriculture to war. We have endeavoured to show 
on a former occasion that military arrangements were the basis of all 
the organization of a Doric state, so that the transition is the same 
in both cases. It might be asked whether the word <rvfx/3ovaleT means 
" to shout together," from the one meaning, or " to herd together," 
from the other ; from whichever of the two meanings it is derived, it 
is evidently a synonym for fioqdel, and as such is a striking confirma- 
tion of the supposition, that the digamma appeared in /3oR/. We 
recognise the same meaning in fiovyaios = fiofy — 7 aVo<?, " delighting 
in battle." That the first syllable of j3ov/3pua-TK and /3ovirpri<rTii 
refers to cattle is generally acknowledged. A /3ovirai? was a boy 
of the fioda, or " of the herd." Now when we reflect that the iEolian 
form of ftovXri was fioXXr] (t^9 (3ov\t]<i vtto AloXeiav ftoXXas Trpo<rayop€vo- 
fxevrj^, Plutarch, Qucest. Rom. p. 288), when we call to mind that we 
have in old Latin both boo and bovo, both boarius and bovarius, both 
boatim and bovatim, and that there were two old towns on the Appian 
way, i.e. in the midst of the old Pelasgian population of Italy, one 
called Boloj the other Bocillce, and that bovile is the old Latin for an 
ox-stall, we can hardly refuse to adopt an explanation of fiovXr], which, 
while it accounts for f3oXoftat as well as fiovXofxai, is consistent and 
intelligible in every other respect. Only suppose that fiouXr] means an 
assembly, that it is another form of fioZa, which we have seen applied 
to men, and we have every point about fiovXofxai satisfactorily explained. 
It may be asked, how can a word which means an assembly come to 
signify "a desire of the mind?" We might just as well ask, why 
oytav, the primary meaning of which is a place of assembly (for 
example, Iliad VII. 298), afterwards came to signify not only the 
assembly itself, but the object of a particular kind of assembly (public 
games) ; also a fit and proper time for anything (see Valckenaer ad 
Phceniss. 591) ; and, finally, the violent emotions of an agitated mind 
(Thucyd. VII. 71); or, to take a case exactly in point, it might as 
well be asked, why consilium, which originally meant nothing but a 
coming together, just as exsilium means a going out, should not 
merely signify an assembly of men who have come together to deli- 
berate, but also bear every other sense of fiovXij. This derivation 
explains a great many peculiarities about the word fiovXonai. In the 
first place, it shows us why it is a deponent verb, why it has no active 
form. We think it scarcely necessary to mention, that fiovXr\ is ante- 
cedent to the verb : fiovXofxai, therefore, is properly " I am one of a 

Uu 



658 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IX GREEK. [Book IV. 

ftovXtj" i. e. fiovXeuw, save that fiovXevu always expresses a more de- 
cided, deliberate purpose than /3oi/Ao/iai, which, in its original - 
perhaps bore the same relation to ftovXevta, that the deponent consilior 
does to the active consulo. 

467 From such a noun as ftnvXrj one would expect to have a verb 
ftovXdo), as from rip*', rtpmm, and indeed, we find traces of sucli a verb 
in all the tenses but the present ; — thus, we have fiovXtja-ofjiai, fie t 3ov- 
Xtjfxat, tjfiovXtjdriv. The rt of expectation is entertained and 

justified with regard to stftAa, the oldest form of which (as we have 
rendered probable), i- FcAeo : for we have ttVJUJfftt, tjdeXtjaa. We be- 
lieve the loss of the derivation syllable to have been occasioned by the 
very common use of tl of Loth ver tense 

alone that is employed u ■ mere auxiliary. With regard to the pecu- 
liarity in the augment of the a think Buttmann's 
explanation U satisfactory. II 

that, in \ . :iirication, ffB find anal B 

irregularities of form: thus, we have th opw and 

iriopai, the futurrs famed by the tlijdith ■ verbs in r«, as 

pevaoty ^€u<ro», MM '&ai, and 

ylrijv; thus al-o tl lovXopai, im, which lie 

remark- (AusfitAr N St. 8, note), have something ana- 

logous in tli.ir signification, make - tjcviKt^rf^ 

tjcwtjOtjv, t/u(.\\oi- md he conjecture- that the augment may have 

and of fjOt \o»-, which is also connected with them in 

meaning. 

l(>o Hm i -. M an inteni 

that of i ff "j in tCTOftJMt/MKOfj 'crriroficipa&poVy iVwotreAiror, iVvoTv^ia, 
'fmrovopvo^. The same idea of Weight or strength U I by 

the word /Sow in the | .>y«r M yXto<rcrtj, as indeed a];, 

clearly from the WOldfl ^a-repM voc\ in Theognis (SI 3), and the 
epithet peya*, which is joined to it in i imtmnoti I 

l(!ji That the word fto w NH WJ gs and mutual one, appears 

from the explanation which Herodotus IV nks pro] 

o( it. and, indeed, from the express statement of Phrvnichu- 
Lobeok). Herodotus oonsid Cyrenssan word: t^* r*cp$aAm*+ 

aictuu > n. Valckenaer thinks (ad 

. [V. 158), that it was taken by the Dorians to Sicily, 
learned there by .T'sehylus, but from the manner in which i: 
duoed by this poet v s wi \o\) we have do doubt that be oonai I 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 659 

it an African word, and used it as such, because his chorus consisted of 
African damsels. The passage, which is almost hopelessly corrupt, 
stands thus in the MSS. : IXeo^ai fxev 'Aniav /3ovviv, K apf3dva S' auodv 
evya kovuk ttoWcikiV efXTriTvw %vv XclkiIi. As we cannot believe that 
the second person of a verb would be inserted in the adversative clause 
to l\eofxai fxev, and before e/***™, which is the legitimate antithesis, 
and as the last two syllables of TroX-XaKih' seem to be suggested by the 
XaKidi which follows, to say nothing of the feebleness of such a par- 
ticle as Tro\\d>cL<; in a sentence expressing the visible act of the sup- 
pliants, we would read and arrange the passage as follows : 

tXeofxai p.ev Airlav fiovviv, 

Kappdva o' avhdv evdnoov 

els iroXiv yeovcr e/XTrnvta £uv Xanlhi 

XlVOKTtV t] ^ICOVIOL KaXvTTTOa. 

In inscriptions we find evtjKoos as an epithet of protecting deities 
(Bockh, C. I- II. p. 422). For the phrase ^cova avcdv, we may com- 
pare Sept. c. Theb. 73 : (pdoyyov ^eoixmi/. SuppL 626: ev/CTOua ^eouo-a?, 
and for els iroXtv ^eovaa, we have Agam. 230 : els irelov -^eovcra ; 
and the whole passage, thus altered, will be strictly parallel to Pers. 
120: ixr} ttoXis Trvdr]Tai xa\ to Kio-crtvov tt6Xi<t}x dvTilovirov ecro-eTai, 
da, tout' tiros Qhis napfiava avlav y i. e. ool\ yvvaiKOTrXrjdtjs o/jliXos 
dirvcov, /jva-alvois o' ev vreTrXois irecrri AokIs. But though the Cyre- 
na?ans may have been remarkable for their use of the word fiovvis, 
it was rightly referred to a Greek origin by the old grammarians. 
Thus, we find in the Etymologicum Magnum: Bovvis na\ /3oui/?tx?, 
V 7*7' e'lptjTai ce 7rapd tovs fiovvovs' {3ovvo\ Be elaiv ol v\j/t]Xoi kcu 
opcooeis na\ yewXocpoi tottoi. irapd to j3alveiv dvca. Though we take 
the liberty of setting aside this etymology, we still think that the 
origin of this word is to be sought in the Greek language. If it means, 
as appears from all the grammarians, an elevation, it may be com- 
pared with the German Buhne. We are inclined to believe that its 
real origin may be derived from a comparison of the following glosses 
inHesychius; (1) Bowls, yij. AtV^uXo?. (2) Bowos. o-Tifids. Ki/- 
irpioi. (3) B ovvoi. fiwfxot. (4) BovXaica. (3oXov ovo/jia (read (3(aXov 
with Toup, Emendat. VI. p. 30 and 274). (5) Bw/aw. obWias tj 
Mdxpis uuo/jid^eTo. (6) B w e IV, dfuXeTv. porjdew. (7) B toXag. {3wXos. 
yrj. (8) BiaXovai. ol fxev noXcovas. ol ce\ to KiXXaiov duoi/ovai, 
lid to dvaKexuo-Oai, irapd 2o<£oK\e?. (9) BwXot. yfj. (10) BwXw- 

p»X a ' "HI* *™ V ' AaKMW?. (11) B(ajX€VOl. ol TT6p\ TOVS fiblfXOVS, XoCpOVS 

KaXovpevovs, KaroiKovvres. (12) Buv. fiovv. oirXov. (13) Buvlras. tovs 
ev dypw, ol le /3ovk6Xovs, tj dypoUovs. (14) B oivrjfxa. eiptjp.a. [1. epvp.a^] 

Uu2 



660 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. [Book IV. 

AaKcoves. (15) Bcoco/mai. fiotjcrofxat. eTriKaXecrofjai. (16) B u> (rrr/pec. 
vofxeTs. (17) "Buxtt peTu. ftoav. kclXuv. eiriKaXeTtrdai. From (l) we 
learn that fiow\<; denotes " the earth " in general ; from (2) that ftowo* 
means a heap of straw, for instance, litter for an ox ; from (7), (9) and 
(10), that /3o)Ao<? is a synonym for ftovvm in the sense of yij. particu- 
larly among the Laconians (10) ; from a comparison of (1) with (13), 
(1 4), and of (4) with (7), we see that fiaowk may be written m w*, and 
conversely /3«\\af may be written (3ovXa£ ; from (3) we see that iSo^ui 
is a synonym from f3owo<; ; from (8) and (11) we infer that /3w\o<r and 
{3u)}x6<; may be translated, the one koXwvtj, the other \6<po>; • now it so 
happens that both theOO WOrdl are need by EosUthi« [mi 
p. 880) to explain /SowtK; | f ce KoXuvtj xa\ \6<po<; av X«- 

yotro kcl\ fiovvos, oirtp 'llpucoTO* fiev \tfivwv Xtgiv clva't 0»/<ni», A7a.«k 
ce AuWMTiOf Ae'-/t< uti ^iXrfuwv e7rj<rK»'irT€i to ovo\ia •»'? fidpfiapo¥ t 
Xo<pov yap KuXovoi ; from (.">) it appears th.it the i-land of Kuboea, 
which is signified by r/' Mc(«fci t5), was called B«/i»: 

now we know that the I w, either 

on account of ill Doetniei or from the myth iboeri U>: -<i\-a c' »<r*-€p 

Boo% (iv \tj Xeycrai t< uv-rpov iv rtj ir . »» T€rpa^fj(ftj ira- 

l i>7Tl)V Tt]V "1(0 T(KC?|/ <pCl(TtV "LlTCK, »/ Fr/tTCK OWO T^C 

(tJ-rr/c oItick (irvf tomto Towroput (StrabOj p. 145); from (12) (lo) 
we obeerre that fim i- ■ form I we see that /$»- 

9f?» 111a v iteikd M well f»r ^SovaSctfc • from 

(6), (15) and (17), H r that t could coi; 

pot]- into /3C0-. 

170 We think that, after tlii- comparison, no doubt ought to 
remain upon our minds as to the < 

connexion wit 1 athnity with tow^o* and /5a 

We would, in addition, ]>oint out that the OOU ween the land 

and the cattle, which are used for tilling it. M immediate. IV 
indeed 10*000 to believe that in the oM 

(iermanie family, the names o( the OOW and the Karth are OOflfteaul 
the latter being derived from the former, which was the -yinbol of 
fruitfulness and agriculture. (See the Ituliscl .11. | 

and Boppi Ohm* i >-it. p. 109, <*</. titer.) The Sea 

nominath. v inasculine and femin: "a bull" or 

"a cow." In the feminine it also denotes "the earth." 
another Sanscrit word, Mel f , which is confined to the latter 
Now it is singular, that while the Sanscrit f6\ lVr-ian km, Franki>h 

chuo, and Anglo-Saxon C*\ all meaning ■ agree with 01 

the Sanscrit names for "the earth," the (ir and the Latin bfo, 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 661 

perfectly coincide with the other. Thus, to take the cases which cor- 
respond in the three languages, we have 

Nom. bhus ftovs Ids 

Gen. bkuvas /3oF6<: bovis 

Dative and ) bhuve /3ofi bovi 

Locative J bhuvi abl. bote 

Accus. bhuvam ftoZv (for f36Fav) bovem 

It is also remarkable that 71/, Doric 7a, the common name for " the 
earth," coincides with the other Sanscrit name for the earth, which also 
signifies " a cow." As the nominative of the latter word is gaus, we 
should expect gavam in the accusative ; whereas we have gam or gah, 
which is identical with the Doric accusative yav. The Greek student 
will recollect that there is a longer as well as a shorter form of the 
Greek word for " the earth," namely, jaTa as well as yfj. Lastly, it 
should also be mentioned, that the Germans have Gau "country" by 
the side of Kuh "cow," and that our Saxon ancestors spoke of a ''''hide 
of land." 

471 The word Ovpos is particularly interesting from its use in the 
Republic of Plato. It will be recollected that Plato, and Hooker, after 
him, consider the mind as performing the three distinct functions, rea- 
soning, willing, and desiring ; Plato divides the mind into three indepen- 
dent faculties, by which these functions are performed, namely, Ao'70? 
or \071ayA0?, Qvfxos, and eiriSvixla (Respubl. IV. p. 439 D )> the first 
belonging to the to Ao7«tt<koV, or rational part of the soul, the last two 
to the to a\oyov, or irrational part. The 6v/jl6<; or to dvfxoeiles, how- 
ever, is not identical with the iiridvpla, though it is classed with it 
under the same general head, for it often contradicts it, and assists the 
reason in governing its unruly attempts to lead man into the wrong 
path : ovkovu kcu aWoOi, e<prju, iroWa^ov alaOavo/xeOa, orav fiidtyvTai 
Tiva irapd tou Xoyicrpidu iiridv/jiiai, \0160povvTCt t€ avTov kcu 6vjXovp.evov 
too fiia^pfxevu ev auVto, kcu wairep ZvoTv aTa<ria^puTOiv ^vfxp.a-^ov tco 
A07CO yiyuofxevov tou Ov/jlou tov toiovtov (Plat. U. S. p. 440 a); — tco 
OvfxoeiBe? 7rpo<rt]K€i vtttjkom elucu KCt\ ^v/jL/j-d^ca toutou (tou Ao7(ctt<kov) 
(Ibid. p. 441 e). We translate the word 0u/xo<? "the will," because 
this term conveys to our minds the idea which, in this passage, Plato 
evidently attached to the word he made use of; Hooker, too, trans- 
lates it "will," and Hemsterhuis, the younger, la velleite (See also 
Heber, Bampton Lectures, p. 178). It seems, indeed, that Plato 
thought he was using the word in a somewhat unusual signification ; 
the first of the passages we have just quoted implies that, in his 



662 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. [Book IV. 

opinion, "anger" was the primary meaning of the word, as indeed is 
evident from his etymology in the Cratylus (p. 419 e) : 0«/ao« o™ *W» 
6u<r€(a$ nai %je<t€0)<; t^ \//u^>;<j e^oi at/ tovto to ouo/xa ; and from the 
Timceus (p. 70 b) : ore ^e'cre/e to tou dv/iov fxevo<; : he also uses the 
word to signify disposition in general, M appear* from Legg. V. p. 731 b: 
touto uvev Qu/xov yevva'iov ^/v^rj ttugu dcuvaTos cpav, and such is the 
usual and oldest meaning borne by Ov/ios. The meaning "apger," though 
certainly often conveyed by 0u/jkk, and always by . appears 

to be quite a secondary one, and we can only explain Plato's addition 
of the participles Xoicopovura and fcfiovpcvor, 1 of 0i//ao'c, 

by supposing that, in hifl abstract way of cooaderil ._ 
stantivi-, he got into a habit of with the belief that 

the former necessarily preceded the latter, and that Apof actuall- 
rived its primary meaning from ftyiovjpai. This was far from : 
case; indeed Bvfto* WM ■ most propel WOfd fol hifl purpose, and, if it 

had been nndemtood accordo _ idition to 

qualify it fof the signification of v ' will," with which we find : 

the Republic. That this im it- meaning in II see from the 

phra-' uiu)-,tt, • . like 

f (Herod. V. I ; and ind tot is 

sufficiently dear from the word «'-.tV.o<i, which l'l 

position to it: hnA ad upon a thi 

u directing on to it," quite in ec old sense 

Of Ov/JLOS. 

•17- We may settle tt gy of this word without 

cultv: at the same time WC will SodeaYOUI to dead .blesome 

questions which have been tA Is of the same 

family with cYiuk. That the ideas of placing and being placed, of set- 
ti// : / and s\ui, and asflVntj are intimately c on nec t e d , wfll 

oonreej be at once conceded; and we hope that re inclined 

to adopt what has I about the influence of suggestion l^y 

trast on the formation of words, will be willing to allow t: 
Significant oi' remaining and moving may ha\ 1 : if 

instances are required we may oompare pem, iwejew, «*'»*>*, metis, tnaneo, 

With jiia(o = Mn , -(u, /ut f /uaa=/ueitoic; . 

affinity Of these forms is clear from i-j € » ofty, jcyaa, and jf-yova 
(above, j U4). The relation between W m and *e\-\m (for u t \- v «,) 
18 the same as that which SUDSM KcVno and rc\- 

tweeo yeV-ro and ! Thai *e*-m 

yui-M in expressing an expectation o\\ or a mental im] 

any object, as well as the meaning of tixity or continuance, which it 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 663 

generally bears, will appear from the following passages. Homer, 
Iliad XV. 599 : 

to jap fxeve fxtjriera Zeus 
1/7709 Kaioixevrj'i aeXas otpBaX/jLoTcri IhecrBat. 

Sophocles, Philoct. 511: 

eyco fj.ev 

»' a * * 

evvairep eirifxefxovev 

en evcrToXov Ta^eias veoos Tropei/a-aip? av e? hdfxovs. 

And the idea of remaining or abiding may be conveyed by forms which 
have lost all traces of the original suffix v- \ as in jEschylus, Choeph. 464 : 

Ito Zvo-KaTOLTrava-TOv aXjos 

h<tifxa<riv e/x/JLOTOv. 

In the general sense of thinking or caring about any thing, fxev-<a, 
fxe\-\(o, and the impersonal fxeXet, may be compared with the Gothic 
munan, German meinen, old Nordish man (Grimm, I. p. 926). The 
same idea of thinking about a thing enters into the subjective negation 
M (above, p. 331). All these words, as we have said more than once, 
are connected with the root of the first personal pronoun, and a feeling 
of subjectivity or self lies at the root of them all : compare, for instance, 
the very similar form ixov-os (above, p. 254). To return to the question 
before us : the root Be- means " to place" (ti-0i/-/ui), 6a- or Bo- means 
"to sit" (Qa-daau, Ow-kos), and 0o- or 6e- means "to run" (Bd-os, 
0eo>), and these are ultimately identical. Modern scholars have not ob- 
served this fact, and have therefore got into great difficulties about some 
words of this class. The word which has caused them most doubt is 
Boa^w. That this word may signify " to move quickly," whether in a 
transitive or intransitive sense, appears from the following passages of 
Euripides: (1) Transitively: Bacchw, 65: Bod^eiv irdvov. Iph. T. 
1142: Bod^eiv -jrTepvyas. Orest. 355: Bod^cov ae tov fxeXeov. Her. F. 
382: eOoajjou KaBaiua <rrra jevvai. (2) Intransitively ; Bacch. 21 6 : 
K \o(o — jvvaTKas Bod^eiv Atdvv<rou. Troad. 349) 507 : ^aivd<s Bod£ov<ra— 
Bod^ei levpo Zpd/juo. Orest. 1542 : Bod\\av a'iBepos dvo) Kairvos. Phoe- 
niss. 800: 'nnrelatai BodQis. And its connexion with Bods is indis- 
putable. At the same time it is equally clear that in ^Eschylus, 

Suppl. 610: 

V7T apyas ovrivos voa(jav 

to fxeTov Kpeurcrovuv Kparvvei. 
ovtivos dvusBev tj/mevov crefiei Kara. 

and in Soph. (Ed. Tyr. 2 : 

T<Vas 7TO0' ebpa<z rd<rhe fxot 0oa£eT€— 



664> USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. [Book IV. 

the meaning of the word is "sit:" and, indeed, Plutarch (de Audicndis 
Poetis, p. 22 e) and the Etymologicum Magnum (v. 0(J«o<r, p. 460, 10) 
acknowledge this meaning in Sophocles. But modern scholars, from 
not perceiving that the same root may convey contrasted ideas, have 
gone wrong about this word; for while Buttmann, on the one hand 
(in his Lexilogus, II. p. 105), thinks it nee -uppose that Bodty 

"to move violently" is derived from Bods, and that Ood^u) "t<> 
comes from Ct'w, riftf/ci; Hermann, on the contrary I pkodis /o- 

cutn) t denies the existence of the latter signification, and twistfl 
passages of JEechylns and Sophocles to a very forced and unnatural 
meaning. The glees in Hesychius eh poses, 

that be was puzzled by the wi.nl, but that it possessed a 
range of meaning8: Ood^er T^e^o, palverat, <TKipra y tcreivei (read 
€KT€ii/ei), tnrevcet, TCtpaTTCi, KuOt;T<u, xopevei, aYi/ej, ^fcerai, tcAc?, 
TrAarrcf, 0o/3e?Tai, wXavara^ Oco<poptWai. That most of these mcan- 
iiiLT^ are directly, or by implication, conveyed by the word rW£cd, 
might easily be shown by a more minute examination of the whole 
family to which it is related. 

-17 ; * The root Oct-, d(- y or •©-, whieh we are now disc 
curs in another, perhaps an old- r form, as <ra-, <rt-, or <ro— I 
many indication! in tie words, into whieh one or other form 

of this root inter-, it i- probable that the syllable was generally closed 

by a F. We an- d isp osed t<> believe that the pound moaning of the 

root is "place" or M make," with whieh the second meaning, "be 
placed" or "seated," i> intimately connected. T rtant 

word into whieh the root enters with this meaning is e\oc, ami 
form was <tuk, whieh f by the Laceds BftOoianfl to the latest 

time, and to whieh fffotj a- has I <ars the same 

relation that 0aXac<ra does to <ra',\a<ro-a, and c\\a) to <xe\ac. In I 

pounds, the Laconians pfonoonc van called 

for eSo-iec, ju>t SS they said *oitja't for iruitjaiu, and 
fiovroa (Etymol Magn* p. ;:oi\ It may be i: sow that 

there are in the Sanserit language rej r :h of <no> and 

To the latter the common word . 

the name, indeed, of a particular god in the Hindu myth god 

of tire (Bohlen, dot altc Indiiti. 1. p. 206), but still only a general name 
for the Deity (Bohlen, I. pp. 148, 806), as appears from t: 
noun cinun, which means '* happiness," *• prosperity," the lot of the 
gods (Afjmni R r, V. IjO. 1 words and the Latin <! 

if, as we have no doubt is the case, they are identical with the Greek 

<rioc, would incline us to suppose that the digamma had slipped 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 665 

out in their Greek synonyms. In attempts to represent directly in 
Greek characters the Sanscrit and Persian names for the Divinity, 
this digamma sound is represented by the u, or a lengthening of the 
root-syllable. Thus Hesychius : Aeu'a<?. rov? dxaKovs deovs. Mdyot 
(where Reland proposes to read aVaKa? scil. tou? Aioo-Kovpovs) ; and 

Athena?US, I. p. 27 D : oti nap' 'I1/B0I9 rifjidrai lai/jLoov, a>? (pt]<ri Xdpr}<; 
6 Mu-nAf7i/ct?o?, o<? KaXeiTai *Zopodhew epfxrjveveTai le 'EUa% (pcavij 
oluoiroio';, where he is evidently alluding to Surya-devas, "the sun- 
god," who was, as we have elsewhere shown, the same as the god 
of wine. The Indians had, properly speaking, no wine-god (Schle- 
gel's Indische Bibliotkek, I. p. 250). If we may be allowed to hazard 
such a conjecture, the epithets in iEschylus, Persce, 86 : *2vpiov dpfxa 
SiojKtoi/, and in the oracle quoted by Herodotus, VII. 140: ILv peeves 
dpfxa liwKwv, where Xerxes, or the Persian war-god, is spoken of, 
refer to the sacred chariot (to dpfxa to lpdv 9 Herod. VII. 55), which 
always attended the Persian armies on their march, and which, though 
called the chariot of Jove by Herodotus (VII. 40), may have been 
identical with the chariot of the sun, 'Hxlov dpfxa Xevudv, which 
Xenophon represents as following it (Cyrop. VIII. 3. § 11); for it 
was drawn by white horses, which were consecrated to the sun (Herod. 
I. 189- VII. 113), and a remarkably beautiful horse, sacred to that 
god, was led behind it (Q. Curtius, III. 3. § 13). The decision of 
Darius' claim to the throne by his horse's neighing at sun-rise (Herod. 
III. 84) seems to have reference to the same symbolical connexion 
of the horse with the sun. The epithet o-vptriyeves appears to be 
quite equivalent to the Sanscrit surya-ja or a sun-born." It is likely 
that the Greeks would have heard of the Persian name for this 
chariot, and that this name would be explicable from the Sanscrit 
is consistent with all that we know of the old language of the Per- 
sians. If this interpretation is not correct, we shall find it difficult 
to explain why the Syrian chariot should be so specially mentioned in 
connexion with the army of Xerxes. Still less shall we be able to 
explain the distich, quoted from a Spanish MS. by Blomfield on the 
passage of the Persce, in which it is assigned to an Indian : 

"\vho<i ot? dvrjp Tootrj ^.vpiov ap^xa bicoKoov 
riou/\u3a/ia<? Keifxat i/expos em iraTpici. 

The supposition that the root we are discussing was 0eF- is farther con- 
firmed by the future 6ev<ro/jLai = fleFo-ojuai, from 6eia = 0e'F<o, by the 
forms daPdo-o-ia (for in words of this kind we may presume that there 
was once a digamma), 6aj3aKou (= daFaxdv), which Gregor. Corinth, 
(p. 354) quotes as the Doric form of danov, o-e-/3-w = <re'Fw = o*ei/<o = o-e<w 



666 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IX GREEK. [Book IV. 

= aal-vo), a-ovfxat = aopo/xai (which occurs in Apollonius Rhodius), <ro- 
fieiv = cropeTv, and ZeJ<? = cyeF?. Herodotus tells us (II. 52) that the 
name deos was Pelasgian, and was derived from -ri-dtj-fxi : edvov ce 
iravTa irpoTC-pov o't Yle\a<ryo\ deoTcri eirev^oiievoi^ 10'? eyia kv Acocaji-r; 
oica aKovcra^^ eTrwvu/xitjv ce owe ovvofxa eiroievirro ovcevi avrutv' ov yap 
ciKrjKOCcrciu kw, 0eoJ? ce Trpcxriovu/xaaciv crc/>€a? diro toioJtou, oti nocrtxuo 
fleWec to ircivra mpY\y\xaTa koi 7ra<ra? vopa\ elyov. Plato derives the 
w T ord from 0<fe<i/, from the apparent motion of the heavenly bodies 
which were the objects of worship in an elementary religion (Cratt/lus, 
p. 897 0. !>)• Tli Mn (p. 645, 42) gives both 

etymologic-. Clemens of Alexandria (8tt Hero- 

dotn- flcos mapd Ttjv &e<rtv nai tu^iv na\ rt)v ciaKoa-fxrjtriy, and 

Eustathins too says (ad Iliad, p. 1118) that &*o\ is 6 warn ticVk ko.\ 
iroiOtv. We agree with this etymology, as well from its obviousness, 
■a because the analogy b.-tw 

- of Bceotia, and VTM identical with . one «-f the Cabiri 

(Midler's 0rckommo9 l p. 2 i<»), end meae/co*, 

"I, would at once lead us to 
it. It is not impossible that th >t may lurk in the hitherto 

unexplained word ( that 

the etymology which would . ,d," and _ >od, w 

i- en -re lihwk }Cu-><L Feb. 1840, p. 205) : and we think that 

while tlu> latter i- nl.i m root 70$- or y»;' 

the former OOOl so that tlic compound 

na\mmdy*$o\ actually unites the substan: with the adj* 

If khifi is the ea- mean "the creator;" in im- 

mediate oonsexioa with which we tun lace," 

M (OUIII ther with Amp, " BBfiriJ 

ship.'' The last word but one often cxpr nt motion, but we 

do not think, with PaSBOW, that this meaning i> due t >n of 

flaming, biasing, «\c. derived from a - The 

meaning of motion became attach* n gto 

the principle oi n from contrast, and II class of words 

in which the meanings are more mixed up together than in this. With 
regard to the form, Km bean the same relation to 0tF», 
that fDpvio and lo to f3pi<pos y £v« 1 

and Book, the most prominent meaning is that of motion. The 
latter is used in tl; f " terril ■'. ilful." wheu applied as 

an epithet to w>£ \ but the id ftness seems to l>e included in the 

word even in this application el it, for most pet BOPS, whose reason has 
not the full command over their other faculties, are accustomed to look 
upon that which is sudden and warding, as also alarming and terrible. 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 667 

Compare the use of Kan-aa-Trepxw (Thucyd. IY. 126), &c. Buttmann 
has clearly shown (Lexilogus, II. p. 6*0) that 6o6s has also the meaning 
"sharp," " pointed," as a synonym for of w: lie appears, however, to 
be wrong in supposing that this was the primary signification, and that 
dtjyeiv, daa-arov, ra^w, contain older forms and meanings of the word 
than dew : a comparison of the terms "sharp" and "quick" in English, 
the use of the word " set," as applied to sharpening a knife, the resem- 
blance of a>Ki/? and o'fu'?, and the English word "fast," which means 
both "fixed" and "rapid," will show us that the ideas of fixedness, 
rapidity, and sharpness, are frequently interchanged (see also above, 
§ 218). There can be little doubt that, as Buttmann supposes, the 
6^re? or lowest division of the subjects of Athens were so called from 
their being the oldest inhabitants, the Sassen or Insassen (inhabitants), 
and similarly we may recognise the root «e- (fcct/iou, &c.) in ci-vis, Osc. 
keus ( Varron. p. 95). The word floa'fio bears most of the significations 
of this root, as indeed we see from Hesychius, and the passages which 
we quoted before. The use of iiridodtyt in ^Eschylus (Choeph. 853) 
and in Euripides (Medea ad finem) is to be explained from the meaning 
of "sitting as a suppliant," just as irpoa-rpeTreadai, "to turn oneself 
towards," and 7roocriKi/e?o-0ai, " to go to," came to signify absolutely 
" to supplicate," and especially a begging for purification on the part of 
a polluted person. The word Qvfxos conveys the idea of an eager motion 
towards any thing, an impulse ; and in this sense it agrees pretty well 
with the second meaning of 6vw, from which also the idea of anger may 
easily be derived: the idea of "motion towards" is implied in anger as 
well as in desire, and hence we have such phrases as dvfxovadai ere ti, 
« to be angry with a thing," as in Herod. III. 52 : h to J? -roKea? ku\ 
€<? tou5 KpeVaoi/as -redvfxwa-dai. The phrase e* ke'pa? dv^ova-Bai is of 
a different origin (above, p. 288). 

474 It has been mentioned above, that the initial syllable of a 
number of words, such as 0e'?-<£aTo<?, 0eW\os, Bis-™, &c, is merely 
a mutilation of deo* (§ 310). This explanation is not applicable to 
Qe*-^, which is a simple derivative from the root 0e- now under dis- 
cussion, the a- being an euphonical insertion, as in Bco-po'?, from oeo> 
(above, § 253). For 0eoy*ot we have the by-form red-fios; very 
often appears instead of <r before the termination .pot, and vice versa 1 ;— 
thus we have not only pvd-fio^ faA, but /W-po* was also used in 
the sense of <x X n^ by Democritus (Aristot. Metaphys. p. 1042, Bek- 
ker);— and T60-/xo« is written for 060-pot, just as we have MOtjv for 
idedrju. A question may be raised, whether we should connect he<r- 
iroVut with Seco, like cU- t xo h or with rifliwii. That the latter part of 



668 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IX GREEK. [Book IV. 

the word is connected with the Sanscrit pat-is, "a lord" or "hus- 
band," Latin pot-ens, pot-ior, &c, is sufficiently obvious. For the 
feminine we have not only ce'cr-7roii>a, but also trorvia, corresponding to 
the Sanscrit patni, and iron/a. We have irorvta with a genitive case, 
as an epithet, like the Diva potens Cypri of Horace : thus Homer, 11. 
XXI. 470: worn* Orjpwv. Pind. Pyth. IV. 213 = 380: TroVvia 6£vrd- 
tidv fteXwv. Now the name for a master of a house in Latin is hot-pet 
(hos-pit-s), and it appears from a comparison of the Latin hos-tis, hos- 
tia, Gothic Gasts, Polish GW/Jttfar or Ifns-pul.ir. New High German 
yc-gesscn, and the Sanscrit root gha$, 4i to cat," that hos-pit-s means 
< l the master of the feast." If, then, we remember how oftu. 
used in speaking of a meal (comp. irape&tjKe Tpu-ncQiv, &c), and that 
the word Oi>l v>i, togethei with OuaOtu and rWa<xc\tj, which are quoted 
from JEecbyhu m lynonymfl fol evw^(7<r0ai, are manifestly connected 
With the root 6e- (com]). ffwcot, fire.), we mutt conclude that ce<r- 
TroTt]^ ia a -ynoiiym of the Lat -v. and that t! lable 

contains the root e\- by I change from ke that whieh we have 

pointed out in the inflexions {) 249) an«l terminations (§ 262) of the 
noun. Whethei ciw-\i><; \< connected with Mm, Of bear- Um 
lation to the San-erit ildsa-s, "a slave" (from t 1 

that cav\iU does to lam (Pott. I. p. 190), we do 

not venture to decide. 

47«") The common adjective from t t m w oi ft is It m uo mv wt . We 

liave, however, another form cmttto'o-joc, in ^Eechylus, Supplies!^ 848 : 
leairocrlio £i>V vfipct, where Turnebu- eOTrcviy, and Stephens 

eeo-TTon-iM^. We think the word i< genuine, and that it i< confirmed 
by the name farvomoiNMrryc, given by tlie Lacedamonians to the h 
who were emancipated and sent on ship-board. M 

ffOrUfn, p. 271 p) sav»: »©XAaucw t)\ev6ef>u)<Tav Aanecaifiovioi tovXovs, 
kci\ ovs pen a</>tTa9 CKaAetrai', DOT N act o-itJtoi'9, owe Vf"** 

Sjta-woirtoravTat £e a&Aovc, ow eh tui ■<■ KaTtracro-ov. It 

will be recollected, that in the passage under consideration, a herald is 
endeavouring to force the Dana'i'des and their father to go on board a 
ship; ami .T'schylus, who had often served in tin 1 same rlevt witli the 
Laeedamonians, might very well have understood thai I t<riro<r«o* 

with which it was applied to the "hImci MJlme" We conceive that 
the heo-jToo-unavTai were so called, not l^cause they were AeriHam 
narium imioistri, as Casaubon renders the compound, but because I 
were still liable to the Itir wo wm m ti. 11 board ship, 

though free from the other liabilities of helot ism — in fact they 
the same footing as the M pressed bakers." who are described by Thu- 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 669 

cydides (VI. 22) as o-itottoiovs Ik twi/ jivXdvuiv Trpos fxepos qvayKaa-- 
/xe'i/ou? ifxfxladovs, i. e. " hired bakers procured from the mills by a 
compulsory levy" (Bockh, Staatshaush. Bk. II. c. xxii. p. 286. Engl. 
Tr.). In accordance with this technical expression, iEschylus makes 
the Danaides describe the insolence of the herald as similar to that to 
which the pressed or helot sailors were exposed. As the whole passage 
has hitherto defied the efforts of criticism, we shall make no apology 
for attempting to correct and explain it in a work which professes to 
contribute to the more accurate knowledge of the Greek language. We 
think that the antistrophic portion does not begin until v. 843, ed. Din- 
dorf. The preceding line should be read, with Dobree, <rovc6e, <roi/o-0' 
6\6ix€vat oXofxeu ecp' a\lala 9 and then the strophes will proceed as 
follows : 

X000S. 1 *elv ava iroXvpvrov &Tp. a. 

2 dx^tjevra wopou 

3 Ze<riro(Ti(a £uY vfipei^ 

4 yop.(pod€TU) he hopet foiooXov, 
KrjpvP. 5 ai'fxov *e<TU) <r 67rt *f3dptv. 

6 *r\ <rv *3ou7re?<? *ct7rvTa ; 

7 KcXevut fiia fxedecrdai. 
Xojoo'c. 8 *'tKTap *(ppevos *aTct, 

9 la* lov. 

Kr}pv£. 10 Xetf edpava, kV e<? lopv 
1 1 drier *dp.iraXiv evo-efiwv. 

Aa'i/aoc. 1 fxtjirore iraXiv fihotpi avTi<TTp. a. 

2 aX(pecrij3oiov ithcop, 

3 evdev de^op-evov 

4 FuxbvTOV alfxa ftporolcri daXXet. 

5 *dyvo<s eyia (3adv)£aTo<;, 

6 *yepov, *dvd£io<; */3<a?. 
Kfjpvg. 7 <™ htj vau vat (iatrei 

8 ra^a deXeos a'OeAeoc, 

9 F<? /%• 

10 j3d6l TrpOKCtKCL +[7TyoV] "TTadeTv 

11 foXopeva iraXapai^ *[V/i a " s ]' 

Xupds. 1 ata?, cucu, <TT p' P • 

2 Ka\ yap Bu(T7ra\a/xw? 0X010 

3 S<' aXippvrov aXtros 

4 Kara ^apirrjhoviov 

5 X®l xa T'oXvyJsaiJifXov dXa6e\s 



670 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. [Book IV. 

6 "fevpeiaia-tv avpais 
* * * * 

OpOS. 1 Ot Ol Ol Ot U.VTKJT, 

2 *\vfia<;' *a/3poTa *ydp *<rv XaVicfir 

3 Trepl-^pi/XTTTa [3pva(£ct<;. 

4- o *Tropev<ra<; *<r, 6 fieya.*; 

5 NeTAo?, v/dpi^ovTci <j d-rroTpe- 

6 \l/Ci€v d'iarov vj3piv. 



Xopds. 1 ol ol irdrep + f 3peTe*i> trpoK a- crp. y 

it ayej, 

3 upaj(i>o<; u 

4 ovap ovap * fi aypav. 



-ov* o^>k utrrtirrp. y. 

% •[('iiDf 0* C\.io»'Tmt 
3 i\ <u<: ti^ i/ 

J. *Cukoc own 

Although the con n our own 

con j ec tu ral 01 borrowed Grom other scholars*, u 

believe tliat they are all in a with the rules of criti- 

cism, and tin y are confirmed by thai] —the re-toration of the 

anti-trophic metre* and of a ample nuanini: to the ino-t confused pas- 
sage in the whole I 

violent order t ird ship, am '. " W 

yon had perished at sea — with J uce and j 

nail-fastened ship P Pot the peculiar apptioabih*ty of the epithet 

For the wish of the I>ai .33 — 36. 

The herald replies, M I will set yon blesdmg on board my bark. V. 
are yon busting your breast, baw: I'o which 

the chorus an-- r my heart." With regard to the 

phraseology, the future i-u doea sot oecor, 



• Wo are acquainted a ith those h are recorded in the edition* 

of Bate (Onto lorf^Ox*>r s*r« 
the necwity of repeated reference we hare designated all the nroomletfons which we 

have introduced for the first time bj an eetevfak *), and hare placed an obelus i+) 

before those which had boon mggi h regard to the emendations 

of Hothe and Barges, we subscribe to \ k : std kttc ris*i sunt cmivis 

id no. 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 671 

el<ra in the same sense as here in Hom. 77. IX. 200: eurep B' eV 
K\i<rfAoT<Ti. XIII. 657: « licppov dveo-avTes. Od.I. 36l : k dadfuvdov 
ea-aa-a. For the emphatic question $ o-u we may compare Agam. 
1523: v <xC t6o eofcu rkfop; k. t. X. cf. Prom. 745: <xv S' aJ kc'k- 
/jaya? ; The verb ZovweTu is particularly applied to express the planctus, 
which was a necessary part of female lamentation. Thus we have 
in Eurip. Alcest. 103: ovle voXala Souttc? veto ywaiKwu: in Soph. 
Aj. 633: ^epoirXrjKTOi 3' ev crTepvouri irea-ovvrai Sou7rot, ko.\ TruXias 
dfxvyp.a ^aiVa? : and in iEschyl. Pers. 120, we have : ko.\ to Klo-o-ivov 
iroXicrfx avTidovTrov ecrcrcraj, oa^ tout e7ro<? yvvaiKOTrXi]6i]<; bp.iXo<; 
uttvwv, where the ideas of "beating" and "crying" are placed toge- 
ther, as in the passage before us, if we have rightly introduced airvra. 
With regard to this latter word, which is an Homeric epithet for a 
herald, there does not appear to be any reason why it should not be a 
general term for loud and clamorous speaking, and Quintus Smyr- 
nasus uses it as an epithet for the feminine noun o-vpiyg, just as we 
have tj^era TCTTjf in Hesiod. The phrase (3ia fxeQeadcu is Homeric ; 
thus, rp\t ce fxedtjue flip (II. XXI. 177, Od. XXI. 125); and the 
quasi-preposition 'Urap occurs with the genitive case in iEschyl. Ag. 114. 
Eumenxd. 1000; and as an adverb in Plato, Resp. IX. p. 575 c. The 
last two lines of the strophe are addressed to Danaus, to whom we 
also assign the first six lines of the antistrophe. We conceive that 
afxiraXiv is justified by the paj-rroTe iraXiv which follows, just as 
waXdfian (oW. o. 11) suggests the following SoairaXdncos. The mean- 
ing is, " leave these Greek shrines, and go back to Egypt, revering 
once more what you have dishonoured," to which Danaus replies: 
" May I never see the Nile again !" We have extracted the new read- 
ing of dvnarp. d. 5, 6. from the corrupt words of the Scholiast : iyio 
tj[o ?] (3aQv^ouo<; dva^'ia [aVa'^io? T\ toi't»j? Ttjs fi^adpej^ia*;, yepov. 
According to our view, Danaus signifies to the herald that he is dyvd<s, 
i. e. religiously pure in his worship of the foreign gods, (so he is called 
dvtjp ayi/o?, in v. 358), for that he is an old noble in Argos, and 
therefore undeserving of violence on the part of an Egyptian. The 
herald then turns to the Danaides, as appears from the change of 
gender in oXofxeva. Here we have omitted the superfluous words, 
under the guidance of the metre. It seems to us that /% iroXXa 
was a marginal gloss on (3ia fiia, and (ppovla, which is not found else- 
where in iEschylus, is an explanation of @ddi. The necessary par- 
ticle irp\v might easily slip out in a sentence which contained ttoo-, 
but fur, which is found in the Medicean MS., might take its place 
with an allowable construction. We have added ep.ax in 1. 11 ; it is 
merely a repetition of the end of iraxdfiais, by which it was probably 



672 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS Us' GREEK. [Book IV. 

absorbed. "With one slight alteration <rrp. /?'. seems to be correct, 
and guides us through the otherwise inextricable difficulties of the 
dvTi(TTpo(prj. "We consider Xu'/jta? a genitive dependent on the inter- 
jection, according to the well-known construction. The words which 
follow stajld thus in the MSS. : tjirpoyaavXao-Keis or virpoya<rv\a<TKei<;. 
The sense and metre together show us that we must read a/lpo- 
[TA]rAQp] <*v Aao-KtK, for tj and a are constantly confused; *Grf 
is very like ~a/> ; and Ilesychius gi iftporor d-7rdv6puirov y 

so that we need not think of the glow: d-rrpoTov*: tovk Kara avppop'tav 
KciKovpyov<; (Bekker. Anted, HI . We are willing to believe that 
irepiy^pifxina ftpvdQt*, though DOi very led by irtpi- 

TrepLTTTa duoo-nc* (A</. 87) j compare . (Ed> T. 192: <f>\eyci 

fxe Trcpif3driTo<! dvTidQav. It most • nt and bois- 

terous manner in which the herald stsHred round the group of sup- 
pliants, continually dmwing neanr to them : tie 

implied in the apajpoi w< fiuctjv (arp. y. 3\ and paipa ircAas 
(aYr. y. 1), which follow. In lint- A of the a: it is manifest 

that on ifmra\ mm rapt: the clause is quite unintelligible. It 

i clou to oi that then vrorda rein it. the river 

Nile. If we most keej lets is the hooks, 

mad o rapmi . "he who inundates the land." The • 

vapdm bsi ithority than HesyohioJ .«. r., and Lyc<«phron, 

who writi 

to. virrtjv KrjpvXov, cid <rri 

tu<\u)vo<; ota-ci ':p°* 

<nr\uiv ptra^v ^oipaCwv crapoviuvov. 
But that there mu-t have been a very old use of the verb aapdt 
or trd/m in tie from the name of the Z.f^u 

icoAvet, the -"/'wi.i'tc vcrpcu, and the Salvia Apns/u*. Afl I 
e\or in many ancient MS& <r€f>« would be written in much the seme 
way as Vopev, we prefer reeding 6 iropcvaa* <t\ i. ,-. "may the m_ 
Nils, who ssnt you hither, prevent you from committing this mtol I 
(cf. Soph. Phil. .''17 ) In the two Ifessil vie have been 

guided chieily by the requirements of the nut re. The Scholiast sa 
the former: t} rwi- pie /iXciV-rfi pc ; the old editions I 

u in v. 1: and the Bohefisst Ni by m\ti t m rnm a ; it is 

clear therefore that the true reading is that given above, with this 
meaning: "the supposed security of the altar has deceived me 1 
spider's web, and is leading me into captivity, Sfc 
empty dream." In the antistrophe the supplement Qemw oi tppor- 
is suggested by the words oi the herald : . mm tok 

t'jt\ut. The other emendai. ain themselves. As xtra- 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 673 

ordinary scholium on v. 875 : eh v\ep twi/ Alyvirriajv irpeo-favoi, we 
can only suppose that unless it belongs to something suggested by 
V. 905 : 7roAAoi)? ai/aKTa? 7ra?3a? Alyvirrov Ta^a o\^eo-0f, it must have 
arisen from the corruption eh irpo yds vXda-Koi, suggested by Xvfxaa-- 
[> r\ 7rpoya<TvXaa K er\. In V. 950, we ought to read : e'(rrai too' rjhrj 
TroXcfxov aipeadai veov. With regard to the whole passage, it may 
truly be said that any thing is better than the present state of the text; 
and the old physicians' maxim— -fiat periculum in corpore mli — may 
be applied here without the slightest risk of injury to the patient. 

476 With regurd to Ovpos and QvpLeXri, the quantity of the first 
syllable is no reason against concluding that they are connected with 
6v«o, as the similarity of meaning, especially of the latter word, would 
induce us to suppose. The quantity of the u in words from this root is 
continually varying, why we know not, any more than we can explain 
why we should have both A77rao»7<? and Xtirapos. Why, for instance, 
should we have 0J<o, du/xa^ OvXaKOS, and Oovpos, but dvdw, Ovala, 
dvo-avos, and 6vtj\r] ? The word dvfxos seems to have derived its mean- 
ing from the use of thyme in fumigations, or because the brushwood of 
the tree was employed for fuel in sacrifices : its resemblance to the 
Sanscrit dkuma-s, Latin fumus, is obvious, in spite of the difference of 
quantity ; the word thymus was, of course, borrowed from the Greek. 
We do not find any reference to dv/xos in the article of Hesychius on 
dvfxos, which gives the following meanings : ^u%»/ $ irpoa.lpe<ri<s, ofimy?. 
Trvevfxa. eTTiOvfjiia. op-yt]. Aoyto-juo?. Most of these we have already con- 
sidered : that 6v/xo\ might signify irvevfxa in its physical sense, a com- 
parison of QveXXa forbids us to doubt ; but of course the lexicographer 
refers to the moral or mental application. It is curious that Hesychius 
includes among the meanings of dvfxos the very two words which Plato 
opposes to it, eiridvixla and Xoyia-fxos. The sense of anger is implied in 
of Jt»79, not in opytj. The word irpoaipeais, meaning a deliberate choice, 
is well known to the readers of Aristotle's Ethics. 

477 That 6-pyri is immediately connected with 6-peyw appears 
from a comparison of 6p6yvia (Pindar, Pyth. IV. 406) with opyvia, of 
dXeyui with aXyos, &c. The mental or moral meaning of 6pyn is clearly 
seen in the common use of 6-peyofxai, " I reach out my hands eagerly 
to take ;" so that we have here again a reference to two of the meanings 
of Xdu. How intimately these ideas are connected may be seen even in 
the later writers, who revert to the old usages of language, without any 
feeling for the etymology. Thus Juvenal says (X. 139) : ad Jicec se 
endoperator erexit, where we have the sense of Speyeadai twos. The 

Xx 



674 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. [Book IV. 

words o-pytj, o-peyu are made up of the elements ra + Fa with the 
vowel prefix o; compare rego, &c. (above, p. 363). The same com- 
pound root appears in pep-a) (fut. pev-crw), p€v-pa, peir-a, pe-fi-ft-ta, 
p'nr-TO), pi-p-cpa, &c. ; in all of which the idea of accelerated veloci* 
conveyed, as also in the cognate Latin words rap-io, rap-idus, &c We 
have it also with a dental prefix (p. 364) in the secondary formation 
cpctK-, " I take" (cf. c^aVo-oj, cpa-^n^ &c. ; above, p. 296), in ce-pn-, u I 
see," and in the Sanscrit termination slri^as, Greek Jb m , which imply 
the sense of seeing. That this is only a secondary meaning is clear, 
the primary one being that of motion just menti- 

478 That this idea of motion, the common meaning of peat, is 
implied in the Greek Botioi &c., appears from such 

phra8e8 as ?tti XP^ a < ^' 7ro Pf >0, 1 o-^tip.druv (PI and 

from the (I reck conception of 1 kind of ophthalmia, ea 

by an ctllux Off emanation of particle* from th lylus 

m 4 1 I .- 

irddta 6* vir€pyroi~ 

<pd<rpa i uav avd<r<T(iv. 

'(TWV 

dpfxdrtav ffJfcBN 

after the abduction of Helen, her image wonM leeni to be mistress 

of the hoOSe : but M would tal 

beautiful and in the want I ' 

rather they wen- cold and ineiiicaciou>) all love would vanUh (SO 

imitation in Euripi '5: 

nK'i c i r apy t f* ;S\€<pdptav Tfup* >ou 

vvp<pa<;, 
where the two genitive* would !. unless t 3\(<pdpmi> 

7/xepo<: are to be taken together in D (see Julius Pollux. II. 

sj (K> : KsyOUTT \dfAirovT€<:, k. r. \., MM to aw avrmv 

d-rropptov 7pepos). Euripidc-. 

fDftK, ^)«f, oc kot' OU/.UITWK 

1 r h. Aul 

o< rat r.Xtia? iv aVrwVcx >oic 

tf UT OX tl'UMK, 

riato, Phcedrus, p. Jol 1;: it^a/nsw njff diroppot]. 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 675 

twi/ ofXfxarwu.. Aristot. Eth. N. IX. 12: to?? epan to opoi; dyairr]- 
TOTCtTov €<tti. Herod. Y. 1 8 : duTias Y^eadai yvvcuicas, d\ 7v Zova<; <r(j>t 
o<p6a\fx£v. Wesseling ad 1.: " Isaei Rhetoris "— qui rogitanti Ardui, 
el rj helva aura) KaXrj (paivoiTO, modestissime (fxaXa (rooQpdvios) respondit 
ireiravfxai ScpdaXfuwv." Plut. Alex. 21 ; Longin. IV. 12; Ovid, Heroid. 
XII. 36 : abstulerant oculi lumina nostra tui. It is possible that the 
sense of hearing conveyed by the cognate words k-Au'-w, Xv-pa, Sanscrit 
*>rw-, &c, may have a similar origin. There is also some trace of an 
implication of the sense of seeing in the root 6aF-, the primary mean- 
ing of which is motion or impulse. Thus, the words expressing 
astonishment, Bav-^a, -re-QriiT-a-, 8a'-/i-/5o?, &c, are clearly connected 
with daw, davw, and dedofxai, " I gaze at." 

479 Hesychius gives 0^7*7 the three following significations : Tp6- 
7To?. fxavia. dvfxds, the order of which should, however, be reversed; 
for 0i//jio? is the word which contains the primitive meaning of dpyr\. 
The ground-idea in both is the same, "an impulse," or "moving in 
any direction." The analogy between 0v/*oe and dpyrj is farther ob- 
servable in the application of the roots of both to the designation , of 
sacred rites : that duta and its derivatives are so applied, we have 
already seen, and the same may be said of opyia, dpyetav, dpytd^w. 
This meaning appears to be derived from the custom of holding out the 
hands or parts of the offerings to heaven, (comp. e^ero -yap opeywv 
e's ovpavou da-repdevra, with duplices tendens ad sidera palmas, and 
<Tir\dy^v(av uoTpav ope^ov with porrigit exta bovis), just as adoro de- 
rives its meaning from the custom of turning the face to the sky. "When 
dpydu is applied to vegetable productions, it refers to their " sprout- 
ing," " rising above ground," " moving upwards," and from this is de- 
duced the sense of " ripe," " soft," which is found in opydty, (compare 
the passages in Ruhnken's Timams, under the words fxerpiw^ wpya<rp.evo<;, 
and dpyd). That this was the transition appears from the conjunction 
of 7re7rcui/€TCu with 0^70 in Herodotus (IV. 199)* o ev Trj KaTvirepraT^ 
Trj<: yrjs ireiraiveTal -re koli Spy a. We do not agree with Passow in 
supposing that acppiydu, and a-irapydu, which are used as synonyms 
for Spydio, are etymologically connected with this word, but would 
rather connect them with <r(papaye<o, dcnrdpayos, (Attice datydpayos), 
and the German Spargel, Sprosse, and spriessen. 

We have already adverted to the fact that as opytj, Spydu, which 
imply ripeness and fulness, are connected in meaning with Ko'pos, so 
dpeyu is connected through rego, rex, Sanscrit rajas, with the political 
signification of the cognate Kvpios (above, p. 521) ; and we have traced 
some of the trains of thought which are suggested by the names sig- 

Xx2 



676 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IX GREEK. [Book IV. 

nificant of rank, power, and royalty (§§ 333, 336 — 338). The root 
reg- in this application suggests some further comparisons of a very 
interesting nature. If reg-num and reg-ius immediately ret 
it is equally clear that reg-io and recta reg'xo, or regio otarann, point 
to the primary meaning of rcg-ere, i. e. " to make a straight line," in 
which sense, as we have elsewhere suggested (Gr. Or. p. 144), the root 
O-PET, O-PX, or E-PX appears in e-p-^-ofiat, " I make a straight line 
for myself," " I go forward ;" so that r<\r, after all, corresponds ] I 
nearly in origin and meaning to the Homeric op-^afio*: dvcpup. The 
idea of dividing by rotes and roads is connected with that of passage 
and direct progression; and in this sense we find the words o/j^oc, 
o^a-roc, and dpxeofiai. Although t rally 

rendered ipUn look opoo this as a secondary meaning; for the 

word /v//V = --//'/. . clearly point- to the primitive and 

nification of op\- ana * r ' x " u h:i< uecn ■■do above (vj I 

of the connexion bo twO OB Um Son O Hll fenti ian of the military 

" Zend ksnt/mi, and oM IVr-ian khsfuh/ath'v/a, u O king." The 
sixtli chapter of Major Rawli:.- H*| Ifomoil (As. Soc XI. p. 115 sqq.)» 
wliicli has come into ooi hand- ntly to the printing of the 

greater part of this volume, contain- a full di- 

and WO miht return to them with the In dp of the additional illustrations 
which have been furui-hed by his r. -earcle -. II.- randf the feU 

words in the Poirinn enneifoni h im = corona.v. im- 

)>,riinn; kktl ■ i/h-jt ; kfaktfSnkt ■» Htp£lfC, ArUi-khsha- 

^;<r ; and kfu I »n the authority of He- 

rodotus we have concluded above (p. 264) that ^- 

oorrnption of htkati r Rowu bo see 

that this remark is true in regard to the oompound 'Ai'-cfi^V. which 
stands for the Portion Ar!ikL<> i'i\':, but that Sfffq nine 

transcript of the original ks/iaj/ars/ni. We refer all tie - 
lost root fcs/tii = k<i-ra, which we regard as ultimately identical with 
hrt M to make," as well as with Ul **to rule" (pres. ktA m yimi ) 

s.ui'ct'i'with um faioy (Booon, //./- F< la Speevm. p. \i and thus 
k/is/ta-tnnn may signify ;w-m///i, kktki 

rtgionu dbmtnm (above, pp. 

raja-purus/nt, fcOjAoy ;v.r, IktkJf m HiftfO for Mis/iat/-ant/nt/<i = r> 

ynft'ntj and khshaij-a rs/ia = trx MMOfltf, like the Sanscrit r<{i-arsAi= 

;v.r MMOfMti Now we have shown above the connexion in meani: g 
/•</-;•(* and M-fW, and how the latter bore a 1. 

u to pass over," &0. Q 178), and how man) 

We mav therefore understand how kski may - 

"to make a straight line through a country," but r. with a 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 677 

causative affix, perdere, &c. (Bopp, Gloss, p. 93, Ed. alt.). In the 
Semitic languages, the two principal words denoting sovranty are 
t\7D and 7>7H . Fuerst is inclined to explain the former in the same 
way as Sanscrit scholars illustrate the root raj-, namely, by a reference 
to the idea of light and splendour : " Radix hujus verbi compositi est 
=uj *? (^?^) y i splendendi; vis autem splendoris et excellentiae ad 
regnum transfertur" {Concord, p. 635). It appears to us that the 
word is more truly referred to the root of K^B, ttXcV, ttoA-J?, "full," 
which, through pol-leo, connects itself with val-eo, validus, and the 
Sanscrit bala — vis, robur, and, like fie\-T'uav, mel-ior, expresses personal 
superiority. In the Tyrian language it seems to have dispensed with 
the affix ^- which distinguishes the word in Hebrew and Arabic : 
at least it is easy to explain Me\-l-Kapdo<; "the king of the city," 
RFnj?yp, m * ne same wa y as Ab-i-melek (above, p. 243), and in the 
Maltese Inscription we have JTIjypp (Gesenius, Ling. Ph. Mon. p. 96), 
where even the connecting vowel is omitted, and the same is the case 
in the well-known proper names Ha-mil-car, Bo-mil-car, &c. We do 
not connect with this root the other word /^^, which is sufficiently 
distinguished from ^ft in the Inscription just mentioned, where we 
have the three quasi-synonyms in one address : J^HJ7?u? ^3"^? 
"lk b^4 "to our Lord, to the city-king, the superior of Tyre." It 
seems to us that /V"4 is merely a prepositional compound indicating 
superiority in place, so that it corresponds to ai/a-£ from dud: we 
have a perfectly analogous form in 7%-D . iEschylus, no doubt, when 
he makes the Persian Chorus address their king as fiaXJv (Pers. 663), 
was thinking of this word byZ , which he had heard from Phoenician 
sailors. In the Scholiast, we must of course read Tvptiau for Oouplasv, 
though the word seems to have taken root in Phrygia also. The 
etymology of the Egyptian word Pharaoh is fully discussed in the 
Quarterly Review, No. CLV. p. 168. 

480 The meaning of opyt], when it denotes an emotion of the 
mind, is easily deduced from that of the verb S-piyuj. In all cases it 
indicates " an upward striving," " a tendency to the surface," " an im- 
pulse," " a fancy," " a first impression," " a prominent desire." Hence 
we understand such phrases as opyds evfi&efc Ka-racrxedeTv (Soph. 
Antig. 1166), "to keep down their angry impulses, and so to make 
them gentle :" and we have the same idea in another passage of So- 
phocles, which has given the greatest trouble to the commentators. 



678 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. [Book IV. 

Electra is excusing herself for the irrepressible outbreak of joy with 
which she welcomes her long-lost brother : she was silent, she - 
when the false message of his death reached her, but she cannot con- 
tain herself now. The true reading and arrangement of the pa- 
(Soph. Electr. 1281 sqq.) appear to us to be the following: 

u> (p'i\ai ^jav'iK~^ IkXvov 
* . - - - - •> 

au €'/(*) ovc civ tj\7ri(T civcav, 

t<r-^ov opydv ui/cn 

ovee <tvv ftoa n\vova, 

a Ta.\a. *X U <r€ ' 

We think that aW lias been ah ilarity to the 

ms syllables (f>i\[aiCK]\vov, and with this insertion, tli 
further difficulty in 

The tense of " ' B issigns to opytj when be 

renders it quite ■ secondary on ; the tiansitaoq ■ the sea 

\n$pfio*. The third meaning, rpowe y old appl I this 

word (11< Wh t n of 

will and oharacter, which i some 

transi t i o n to the meanir_ milar to that which produced the 

words ,k humour" and M temperament/" we cannot pretend to say. There 
li i smgul ir passagi f Thucydid. ~ (VII I. BJ in which the word i 
in the plural muni rwp rt ^Amricj^m -i0«'porr« 

i of this 
phrase ("humouring," "supplying or mi as a 

man likes, >W tli.it b I the 

liast, who Bays: -rd rr^pew »f7V» W T ? X a t nP" 

p€~V i '/*" Ttl* ^lOP- 

a-iKtji' an <rm<Ppo<Tt. 

Cratinus, oompared with the words of Thucydides, assures 
us that the interpretation of the S 

ohange of number from o/>ya* to opyqv entirely alters the meaning of 

the phrase; at leaf iTi expression (Ii.n,. 111. 

iTTupepwv t»/i' •',•'*, ■';'»■. must, like that which is qu< I 

the eff&cts of 
■nam (it in both passages); and with regard to the terms 

cY.Tt\u and <rvyxt»pc?*, it seems clear that the tr.. 
tTTitpepetv opyas could r. to bring 

that of another. It must mean, rather, to su ggest some hum 
dispositions or habits o( mind to another, lik Plato 

Ju\*pu!-IL\i. X. p. 6lS n\ to. Compare also the common plirases cVh 

ill of whieh imply an importation 



Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 679 

of something from without. From these considerations, we conceive 
that Hanovius (Exercit. in Com. Gr. Hal. 1830, I. p.^6o) and Meineke 
{Fragm. Com. Gr. II. p. 157) have given to the phrase Uicpepeiv Spyd? 
a meaning which could only have been extracted from the middle voice. 
The former, who renders the phrase in much the same way as Dr Arnold 
— voluntatem accommodare, i. e. obsequ% — remarks " quoniam Spyr\ vel 
Spyal in cujusque animo cernuntur, moveri et excitari possunt ab alio 
vel alia quadam re, afferri non possunt ; quod si esset, extrinsecus Spyal 
petendas forent" — which seems to us to imply a misconception respecting 
the meaning of the term Spyij ; and Meineke, who makes the fragment 
mean : musicam impense favere hominibus moderatis, appears to have 
overlooked the obvious force of the passage, in which a\6pe<jTo<; " rest- 
less," "changeable" (above, p. 519), is opposed to cdcppfnv, "sober," 
" contented." Cratinus says, that music puts restless whims into the 
heads of sober-minded people: and Thucydides, that Astyochus was 
charged with suggesting caprices, or putting crotchets into the head of 
Tissaphernes : that he induced those whims which prevented the satrap 
from discharging his duty to the confederacy. That Spya\ may be used 
in the plural after such a verb as eiricpepeiv, appears from Lysias {de 
Ccede EratOSth. p. 94") '• Spyas to?? <xkovov(tl Trapao-Kevatyvai : and that 
it implies, when thus used, " habits of thought," or, " a turn of mind," 
may be seen from Soph. Antig. 354: ao-rwonov? 007a?, and from 
Thucyd. III. 82 : S iroXeixos 7roo? to irdpovra to? opyds twi/ 7roXXoov 
S/jloio?. In the same way, dupoi is used in the plural when the temper 
of one man only is spoken of; Sophocl. Aj. 716: 

evre 7' e£ aeXiniav 
At'cc? /jL€Taveyvt0<rdri 
OvfjLwu 'AToeiBats p.eyaX(av re veiKewv. 

Heracleides, Allegor. Homer; 19 : eTriaKorovfxevov tov Kara ty\v K€(paXrjv 
Koyia-fxov to?<; 7rep\ ra arrepva dufxo??. Id. 59' at irpwrai Trjs iKCowae 
<pwva\ roJ? aoo-ei/a? avrov dvpLovs e^eQriXwav. These two passages are 
quoted by Lobeck {ad Soph. Aj. 1. c. p. 488). 



I. INDEX. 

PASSAGES FROM GREEK AUTHORS, ILLUSTRATED, EMENDED, 
OR EXPLAINED. 

[Unless it is otherwise specified, the numbers refer to the sections.] 
Emendations are marked *. 



jEschines : 
*c. Ctes. 543 



JEschylus : 

Agamem. 36 

114 

118 

237 

414 

444 

722 , 

•741 foil. 

972 

1010 

1077 

1198 

1200 

1304 

1460 

1461 



. 95 
.454 
.284 
.478 
.174 
.297 
.355 
.335 
.323 
.174 
.310 
.397 
..335 
,.436 
..335 



Cho'eph. 464 472 

•489 305 

630 174 

641 310 

853 473 

1000 436 

Eumen. 12—14 150 

36 447 

113 198 

*229 218 

270 218 

*340 362 

451 218 

910 176 

Persa, 44 433 

86 473 

120 469,475 

180 164 



SBC. 

Persa, 239 280 

269.. ..p. 455 note. 

321 242 

343 273 

428 315 

815 287 

Prom. 90 459 

265 273 

327 174 

Sept.c.Theb.38 394 

209 305,325 

232 394 

394 325 

578 450 

Suppl. init 318 

*101 foil 469 

577 454 

610 472 

672 297 

796 280 

*848 foil 475 

«950 475 

976 280 

1006 465 



AretjEUS : 
p. 34 



.174 



Arrian : 
Anab. ii. 11 315 



v. 16 



.178 



Aristophanes : 

Achar. 253 303 

835 175 

Aves, 1018 184 

1263 184 

Equit. 707 175 



SEC. 

EquiL2b3 331 

890 154 

969 330 

Nub. Am 395 

Pax, 123 175 

559 164 

Plut.545 198 

*Thesm.372 2/1 

Aristotle : 

Anima, n. 1 340 

Categor. 1—5 125 

Eth.Nic.i.7,%U 342 

v.4, §9 290 

5, §6 290 

Hist. Anim. i. 1 174 

Interpret. 1 — 5 125 

Metaphys. vm. 6 341 

Poet, c.4 305 

Polit.i.Q 174 

8 278 

iv.8 327 

v.4 174 

Rhet. 1. 10 454 

CORINNA : 

Fr. 21 133 

Athen^eus : 
p. 271 475 

Demosthenes : 

Callicl. p. 1274 174 

*Lacrit. p. 929 433 

Euripides : 

JEol.frag 218 

Alcest. 49 187 



682 



I. INDEX OF GREEK AUTHORS. 



SEC. 

Alcest. 252 2<)?, 

305 175 

495 174 

605 

Bacch. 340 

690 990 

701 919 

749 17') 

Electr. 712 

Helen.'W 

170 

llrrr.J 

J I, ),]»>!. U 

Ion, 939 170 

I 

Ipk.Aul.SM 

Ipk.Tmmr.9* in 

M,>i. mi ... 
Pk 

Tr, 

HsmoDO i 

i. no 
ii. M 

in. I 
119 

•v. n 
im 179 

v. 9. 

K»l 

VI. 11 

vn. BO 

no 

; 

vm. M 

HSSTCBl 

1 II 

HoMKR*. 

"Emend, var. fct, 

p. 193 »qq. 194 



Iliad i. 31 174 

ii. 879 

iv. 323 297 

v. 893 154 

Iliad vi. 38 AM 

L4 

xi. 336 

xni. 359 174 

499 

Odyss. 1.140 

191 

v. 17 17-' 

m 

xii. m 171 

xv. 
xvi ; i;»; 

xix. no «'.i 

■ ; 



i sis : 



900 



I 

1 . //<W. 11 
vR: 

b«. i. a 

in. 7 

I I 

t. vn. 90 186 

0/y«p. II. 99 
vn. 14 

VIM - 

990 

iti. ii 
iv. 90 

170 

v.'" - ■■ 

loi 306 

vi. 19 
vn. .. 
vin. 21 toll. 

\ . ■ . 994 



SEC. 

Pyth.JL. 81 281 

xi. 32 310 

Plato: 
Cratyl. p. 

Oi 

Euthyd. 500 174 

Gor 

114 . 

Ley... ; 

863 

- 

174 

I 
JV 

Protag. 90 

< 
in 174 

174 

999 

.194 

•Syr/., 139 

140 396 

fl* I 

33 



m. 99. 



141 



149 . 

990 
511 



BJ 



190 

199 



I. INDEX OF GREEK AUTHORS. 



683 



SEC. 

Ajax, 550 187 

•572 305 

594 303 

620 291 

693 57 

700 317 

727 184 

890 178 

938 323 

955 303 

1024 266 

1096 326 

Antig. 29 279 

57 174 

109 174 

114 298 

145 174 

237 277 

251 281 

292 290 

360 306 

478 218 

505 175 

569 281 

594 306 

600 218,457 

610 457 

634 154 

662 290 

686 187 

795 298,478 

857 .167 

1050 277 

1166 480 

1281 200 

Elect. 43 395 

120 447 



SEC. 

Elect. 696 454 

934 192 

*1281 480 

(Ed. Col. 71 218 

120 335 

718 304 

(Ed. Tyr. 2 472 

107 149 

207 457 

316 306 

328 394 

526 301 

874 335 

1395 310 

1502 281 

(Enom.fr 139 

Philoct. 180 322 

511 472 

554 271 

688 322 

816 457 

1155 279 

Track. 568 176 

831 foil 57 

936 303 



Theocritus : 

vn. 5 

xin. 15 



.371 
.258 



Thucydides: 

1.22 

3G 

41 

44 

71 

76 



.187 
.306 
• 174 
174 
.454 
.184 



SEC. 

1.84 325 

123 184 

ii. 41 187 

65 306 

70 174 

101 175 

in. 21 302 

23 303 

36 200 

67 291 

iv. 26 218 

28 273 

85,86 305 

95 395 

108 180 

v. 46 254 

*111 124 

vi. 3 371 

16 454 

22 475 

89 192 

vii. 71 306 

vin. 83 480 

85 174 

*92 271 

Xenophon : 

Anab. i. 9, § 17 258 

iv. 8, § 15 229 

Cyrop. ii. 2, § 26 290 

in. 2, §23 174 

v. 1, §15 279 

vii. 5, §21 395 

De re Equest.vn.il. ..174 

Hellen. n. 4, § 31 271 

Mem. in. 14, § 2 175 

8,§1 174 



II. INDEX. 



GREEK WORDS ILLUSTRATED OR EXPLAINED. 



a intensive, 185 

afrw** -1- 

("jlo\os. 
ttfiporott 17." 
dya66u 
ityapai, 823 
tiyav, 203 
ayavp6s y 383 
aypos, aypios, I 
11 1 
iiy\iarot, 284 
udfX(/>of, 181, 286 
i\8p€nl{io\oSi 305 
dfyxfc, 33G 
at ly tytnjt, I 
dcVaor. 

atyXr;, 
at yX 71-77 s, 
ai&us, 

■fet, 

atjT/iu's-, 

■Mb) 228 

atXoqpofi 655 * 

aj/io<rrayrjjr, 

UU'u), 

/UoXtZti 

. 868 

ai<ra, 486 

cmr^hi>\ 324 

diu>, .">13. €86 



Jifo'Xov^of, 213. 223 
dxd/ttorof, 335 
aJcratW, 447 
ciAftya), 213 
dXi;0u>d r , _ 
dAArJXo)*, 1G7, 173 
dXXor, 188 .268 

dWurpioty dXXurtpc\ 
aXo\ot, 181 
\\\4>t<i<x^oiay, 220 
dXawrr^, 1 
dpi, 1M 
dpaXos. 

-<ra), 213 
d/iavpof, 218 
aftam f 218 

-18, 460 

dpilvtaPf 262 
d/iAya,, 212 
u/i«>ya), 213 

u^c/n, 17 2 
aV, 1S4, 186 
a*a, 184 
a»a£, 

dvtpcxfr&jpos, Sfl 
dwicdr. 

d»*7/>, I 



dyijp, 333 
a^^os, 334 
dm', 171 
arrpov, 

ao(of, 262, 286 
d<xr<rc'a), doatrrjrrip, 1 
888 

trrrdXa^oc, 

dira^Xvvo/xax, I 

dVa£, 184. 

dytJ, 138, 177 

dVo, 1 

IvMMfc 

cnrocaX<a), 184 

ottoXovm, 4 

'ArdXAur irarpyor , 458 

irrf^M*, 184 

awporxx, ; 

djrr», 318 

d,xi. 

d,X<7K0», 285 

a/wnj, 174, 285 

V?'> 285 
d>^. 

d^urAJ^furrof, 300 
apurrtp6s, 272, 285 

d^itrrot, apurr< 

<!>«'», 285 
J.-r,:^., 888 
^n«m 296, 414 
W. ^f» 285 
Wpra&ptot, 16<>. 

Sac and traXator . 1 1 



n. INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



685 



doyieparrara, dcrpevearara, 

aV/zeiwepoy, 166 
ao-p.es, 136 
daird^opat, 213 
aWdpayoy, 212, 213 
aamsy 213 
ao-Taxvs, 213 
(trap, 138 
are, 197 
arep, 204 
aTiTTjSy 254 
aria), 437 
jfVn-iKT;, 97 
aS, au&r, 138, 18.0 
avepvw, 189 
aw, 189 
avpa, 198 
avrdp, 138 
atfravror, 138 
avriKd, 196 
avTOKTOveco, 173 
avroparos, 472 
auros, 138, 303 
dcpaipovpai, 316 
d(poifiavTos, 218 
'AcppoSiTTj, 247 
A^aid?, 97, 322 
'AxcXcSoj, 270 
a^, 169 

0ayd?, 254 

^aBv\a1os, 475 

Ba*xos, HO 

0a\^, 479 

/3dXXa), 110, 436 

0ai/a, 133 

/3di/auo-os, 326 

/3ap/3apd(pa)i>oy, 88 

fiaaikcvs, 254 

/3eio/iai, 378 

/3e'Xrepo?, /3eXria)i/, 262, 

479 
/3Xa7rra>, 454 
/3Xa£, 218 
/3XeVa), 452 
/3X77YDO?, 218 



/3Xa)0"K&), 218 
/3ot7, 284 
/3oj70ea>, 284 
jSoXXi;, 466 
/3o<T7ropo?, 310 
/3ot)a, 466 
/3ovX»7, 466 
/3ouXouat, 462, 466 
^ovi/ds, 469 
(3ov7rais, 466 
flow, 284, 470 
/3oC? eVi ykaxro-T], 468 
/Soua-da, 466 
/3pd\|/-ai, 454 
Pptyos, 432, 473 
/3pva), 432, 473 
jSai/uoff, 469 

ya&dSay, 323 
yaia, 323, 470 
yaXa, 213, 459 
yaXijvrj, 459 
yau/3pdy, 217 
ya'i/oy, 323 
yap, 204 
yavpos, 323 
ySowro?, 209 
ye, 203 
ye 07, 203 
ye'Xa, 459 

yekaapa Kvparav, 459 
yeXaa), 459 
yeXeoi/rey, 459 
re'Xa)!/, 459 
yeverrjs, 254 
yei/j/aios', 323 
yevro, 272 
yepaipa), 297 
yepapov, 297 
yepapos, 297 
ye pas, 297 
yeprji/toy, 297 
yepoav, 297 
yecpvpa, 298 
y§, 121, 323, 470 
yfjpas, 297 



yXauKoy, 461 
yXauaa-a), 452 
ykrjvq, 452 
yvacrrrjp, 267 
yopcpoderos, 475 
yvpvos, 121, 410 
yvinj, 133 

SaKpv, 212 

SaKrvXoy, 162 

Saa-us, SauXds, 474 

8e, 155 

Sei'y, 156 

deUiwpi, 271 

8«w>r, 255, 268, 324 

8«ea, 161, 162 

deicopai, 161, 271 

Se>ar, 290 

8e£ios, Beglrepos, p. 271 

§292 
Sepxa), 152, 262, 269 
Secr/xdy, 253, 474 
SeWoii/a, 228 
Seo-7rd(no?, 475 
beaivoo-iovavTrjs, 475 
deaTroTTjs, 228, 474 
8evpo, 155 
Sea>, 155 
deopai, 155 
817, 201 
Sqtfei/, 202 
S^Xos, 265 
8rjpos, Srjpos, 253 
drjpocrios, 298 
87V, 202 
8777-1?, 156 
Sid, 180 
SiWa, 180 
8iap-do), 218 
8icnrpvo-ios, 150 
SiareXcS, 445 
§iarpoxd£a), 174 
diacpepopai,, 180 
SiSdo-KO), 219 
didvpos, 180 
8i£a), 180 



686 



II. INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



didvpapftos, 317 
diKcuos, 290 
diicrj, 289 
diKaionoXts, 291 
Aia-corqpiov, 318 
bioTV(vu), 433 
b Lottos, 433 

dlO7TTfV0i, 433 

&VXa£, 280 
Mt, 165 

fi»Wof, 219 
SoXi^'r, 209, 344 

8oV7T(<0, 47" 

fyua), 1G4, tt9 
dpantTTjs, 1G4, ; 

tydpor, 

duvu/iai, 862 

Sue, 180 

bv(rp.(VTjs, \ 
bl'Cii, i 

5u)fif/ca, 159 

I, i 10 

typjyo,><i, U 1 

rVXdopuu, 4G3 

etptrrj, 1 1(5 
(£a>, ef(ra. Tcrci). 

ft, 1. 

ife, pp. 810, i 
MM 
16S 

E.'Xf.r 

t&S 189 

tiff, 17" 
fir, 154 

17." 
. "J79 



ftra, 202 

'E/ca^r/, 276 

'EkuXtj, 276 

'EKapTJSr), 276 

eW, 273 

cKaroi', 162 

(kotos, (tcarr), (Karcpos,273 

(Kan, tKT)Ti, 273 

e'/cflj/or. 

f'r^jo'Xof, 273 

oojXor, II- 

fK0Vq<rKb>, 
(KVp6i, 110 
tK<p('p<D. 
(K f })Op<OT(pO\ 
(K(0V, 

iXtiOtpos, 

«"X*a>, 404 

tUpnros, I 
«/ioXo». 

tv&aroipai. 
t¥tpy*ia, 340 

fwt, 161 

«Vor rf icai woi, 
crreX«\fia, 340 
error, 

(gai<pvT)s, tgarrr. 
cgiorapAL, . 

ro-us 174 
circiXXqXof, 1 74 

<Vii/i<t3u>, 174 



'ETra/ifiwovo'ar, 202 

€77ap.(pOTCpi£<0 y 174 

iirapKa, 284 
fWa 7rrfpo'fJTa. 
iirtpycuTicL, 174 
inHTfkOelv, \~o 

fV^rij, l!54 

r myopia, 1 74 
(wirjpot, 285 
imBoafa, ; 
(mpLa\ia, 174 

-a), 174 
emropia, 174 
Jnipa$do<pop*j, 174 
(Tri<P<p<iP opyas, 480 
*'irlxapros, 207 

Npc, 174 
rrix/*»/«u, 174 
fWoixopaL, 174 

160 
«nt*rvpot, 313 

fri l m , 16". 
M* 317 

CjOTpfc, 

II.- 

'Epwr, 114 
tpxopai, 4 ) 

«<7Tf, 198 

«r», 

rrtpot, 144 
fa, l 

fiVtrru. 

fiq/COOf, 469 

cr^Xos. 
rifiapjs, 450 

urn, 199 



II. INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



687 



icpi&Wco, 110 
e(pid\Ti]s, 317 
eft a re, 197 
eX*y, 146 
eW, ecos, 257 

£d\r), 110 
frfxevrjs, 180 

£aa>, 110, 216 
£ea, 216 

Cevyov, 180, 216 
Zeuy, 202, 216 
byyifcpi, 216 
W» 180 

?, ?, ft 4, &c. 199, 200 
"H/3 7 , 329, 336 
fjorj, 201 
9 Mr, 199 
W/>. 199 

■qkaKarq, 116 

JjXfKTpov, 116 

T^arios-, 298 

»7/xeIy, 136 

J7/iei/ — 77'de, 201 

rjpepa, 150 

rjpeprjaios, 298 

ijpepos, 150 

17/xt, 199, 436 

rjpicrv, 150 

?*, Tjj/idf, 193 

771/t/ca, 196 

fjvox//-, 95 

i77rap, 150 

V7retpoy, 150 

fjTrepoirevs, 254 

q7rurr)s, 475 

*Hpa, 329 

"Hpaios, 'HpFaoToy, 329 

'HpaKXfjs, 329 

i7po)?, 329, 414 

tffc, 199 

fe 199 

^aXao-o-a, 110, 473 



0a>/3oy, 0a{5/ua, 318, 478 

6e, 202 

Qeaiva, 228 

0erda>, 478 

tfeX-yo), 464 

OeXepos, 465 

tfe'Xa), 463 

Oevap, 450 

0«fe, 473 

tfeoo-Soro?, &C. 310 

%>/£©, 450 

0€<rp.6s, 253, 474 

Oto-nis, deanpoiTos, 6ea- 

(paros, &c. 310 
6e<o, 473 
Orjyetv, 473 
%>, 110 
%er, 473 
Oiao-os, 318 
0od£a>, 472 
#00/77, 474 
tfoo'y, 473 
<9o>/3oy, 272, 318 
epa£ 92 
Bpda-o-co, 272 
dptapftos, 317 
0pti/a£, 318 
0piW, 318 
fyToi/, 318 
OveXXa, 477 
^/xe'XT?, 476 

OvpovaOai ets icepas, 170 
#17x09, 471 
Bvpos, 476 
6vp<r6s, 318 
&OKOS, 472 
Ocoa-acrOai, 474 

1, 7, 139 
ia, lia, 154 
"laK^os, 110 
taXXo>, 110, 318 
"apftos, 317 
ia7rra>, 

"lyvqres, 139 
i&oy, 139, 166 



iSov, 193 
iopas, 110, 167 
iKai/o'y, 116 

l<€Tr]S, 318 

"crap, 475 

w, 139 

'imrobappov, 220 

LTTiroKprjpvos, &c. 468 

'l7T7roppedovTOs, 220 

i7nros, 110 

Tpty, 464 

Icraios, lo-airepos, 167 

W, 219, 434 

lo-oy, 152 

ia-**), 219 

tvyfe 464 

io)i/, 133 

-iW, 165 

ko", 186 

*a6>oy, 267, 473 

KaOapos, 267 

cat, 186, 195 

*cal ravra, /cat rot, 198 

KaKoyeircov, 322 

KaXea), 209 

AcaXXos", /caXXotrww7, 258 

KaXoKayaOos, 321 

AcaXoy, 324 

«aXv£, 254 

KaXxas, 296 

Ka/xa£, 286 

Kapnos, 162 

Kara, 182 

KaTai6vo-ara>, 458 

Karaprvco, 218 

Kardqbijpt, 184 

KarriyopLa, 125 

KarqpTVKcbs, 218 

KavXos, 163 

KeWev, KeWi, 186 

Ke«/o?, 135, 138 

*«/, 186, 195 

Keiro, p. 269 

*epas, 209 

Ke<poXr), 216 



688 



II. INDEX OF GREEK WOT 



K( X Xa8eiv, 336 
Ki(T(ro8eTr)s, 254 
kXvtos, 212, 478 
k\vo>, 200 
KfxeXedpa, 121 
KoOev, 182 
Koipavos, 336 
koXttos, 458 
koXcovt], 410 

KOppW, 21.", 

Kopnos, 317 

K07rrG>, 317 

ftdpor, 

*opvr, 210, 202 
Kopvfyrj, 216 

nfer/uw, 216, 267, #71 
tt$TTq0Of, 216 
wovpidiot, 330 

K/KiM'o 
Kpfliorfl, I 
Kpi)b(pVOV, 410 

Kpl'p'TJ, K t > 

. 206 

iu>, 216 

. 216 

ir, 331 

KVfMOf, 

■ 

XSor, 468 

Xay\ 

Aa&, 466 
Xapf&mi 468 

Xa/irr^)us\ 462 

X(i(TK 

Xaa), 4." I 

45;;. 4;.;. 
. 8 1 4 
228 



Xe£t f , 125 
XeV^, 219, 453 

Xfv<oj-, 269, 
Xcvr, 452 

Xf^tro-a), 452 
Xe'^oj, 453 
Xt'cuv, 4. 16 
Xewpyus, 313 
Xrjf/r, XaTf, 

X/0Of, 

X<Va, 
Xinra/jifr, 456 

X<7TfJ, 

Xoydd^v, I 
Xoynt, 124 

- 

At'*,:,: 

\lK7J, 

Xvp 

Xvnjptor, subet 

189 
185 

paXXoK 165 

_'00 
papaitw, 8 1 B 

/ida>, 191 

p.eyt$oi, piyurris 

pi&f.i 

pef,- 

p(U. 154 



' p.e'Xas, 121 

pcXsW . 
fie'XXco. 
M^of, 178 

^cr, 134 

ptpip.va, 410 
pfpprjplfa, 41" 
I 

pt'poy^. 

pKTlTTJS, i 

fittraot. 

ptnmpo*, 

181 

M7» 189 

/i7*wt 269 
fiTjrpoKTopof. 
Wrptwa, 414 

185 

fiipioi, >n'/>*>, 163 

Mil', I 
V*p.H9 TO 

vi^df, 199 



urar, ra «ro. 



II. INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



689 



voo-tos, 136, 164 
v6o-<pi, 136 
w, vvv, 192 
wos, 199 
van, 136 
vapoyjf, 95 

gevvos, 215 
£evos, 176 
Se'p&y, 160, 479 
&<pos, 221, 432, 436 
£eo>, 221, 432, 436 
£vr, 181 
£vj/dy, 181 
£va>, 433 

6, 137 

v Oa£oy, "Oacriy, otarpos, 

&C. 110 
oy8ooy, 164 
oSe, 156 

ode, ovroy and kcIvos, 135 
obeiva, 156 
dSovv, 132 
'OSuo-o-fvy, 115, 167 
6^oW/ca, 277 
otSa, 110 

oIkj]TT]S, OLKTjTUip, 267 

011/9, oIvi£<d, 154 
ou>oy, 110 
ofo?, 152 
oids Tf, 197 
olada, 110, 353 

OKTCO, 159 

oX/Sa^i/Voi/, 116 

oXjSos, 116 

dXiyioroy, oXiyicrrdy, 164, 

167 
oXXu/it, 215 
oXoy, 116 
op8pos, 217 
opocrnopos, 313 
o/iojy, 247 
oj/eidoy, 212 
ovopa, 124, 132 
'O^dtfprjy, 160 



onXiTTjs, 259 

o7rXoi/, 259 

o7TTopai, oaa-opai, 216 

O7TG0?, 196 

6pda>, 209 

opyT;, dpyaa), 479 

opyvia, 296, 414 

dpe'ya>, 477 

6p3o7rovs, 315 

6ppa66s, 383 

opi>iy, 262 

opoy, 174 

opxapos, 479 

opxqo-is, 6pxwH-° s > "pxy- 

(ttvs, 254 
o^ 148, 243, 300 
ocroy, 152 
ocrou re, 197 
ore, &c, 197 
ov, ouk, 96, 176, 189 
ovdeis, 156 
ovOets, 156 
ouk — aXXd, 201 
Ou/caXcya)!/, 189 
ov p.77, 394 
ovv, 189 
otWjca, 277 
ovpavos, 259 
ouy, 189 
OvYiy, 189 
OvroTTta, 189 
oSYoy, 135, 138 
o(ppa, 196 
6<ppvs, 132 
oxXoy, 221 

Traly, 262 
7raXaids, 298 
7raXat'<paroy, 315 
7raXi'yyXci>a p a"oy, 88. 
naklpfiapos, 174 
7raXat6y and a'p^atoy, 12 
naXiv, 264 
7raj/dy, 199 
Travovpyos, 313 
Traot, 262 



7rapd, 177 

HapQevvonaios, 220 

napdevav, 260 

7rapt7r7reuto, 178 

?ray, 265 

TroV^o), 114, 219, 434 

narputos, narpipos, &C. 41 4 

TreSa, 158 

7retpa), 178 

7re'Xayoy, TreXdyioy, 280 

7reXapydy, 195 

IleXao-ydy, 95 

IleXo^, 95 

7re/x7ra£o, 161 

irevrc, 161, 162 

nevdosy 114 

Trenapelv, 178 

irenovOa, 441 

irepdco, 178 

Tj-ep&u, 382 

Trepi, 177 

7re purenjs, 178 

7repi7rerrcu, 289 

7rept'xptp.7rra, 475 

7rep7repoy, 178 

7rep<pepe'ey, 178 

Treo-o-co, 216 

7reVopey, 158 

7re'rpa, irerpos, 15, 229 

TnjXtKoy, 152 

TriKpdV, 218, 266 

7nV at > 383, 467 

nlnno, 431 

TrXay/crdy, 280 

7rXd|, 280 

7rXea), 270 

Trkrjyrj, 199 

ttX^i/, 200 

7rotT]pa, 410 

7tolkIXos, 266 

7rotKtXdaTiKroy, 266 

n-ot/^F, 133, 256, 410, 436 

TTOlVTj, 410 

iroKirqSy TroXnjrrjs, 259 
7roXXoo-rdy, 164 
rroXvy, 479 

Yy 



II. INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



nSKx os > 221 
7ropevfiara, 218 
nopBpos, 254 
norpos, 253 
noTvia, 228, 474 
7rvp<r6s, 318 

npayos, npaypa, 224, 256 
npo, npos, npoTi, norl, 
171, 177 

TTpOOTpfTTOpaiy 218 

•npovafXflv, 4<>l 
7rpvXffr, 154 
7rpan£dr, 216 

TTTOXTIS, 2-7 

P«, 201 

pa(38os t 171 
/JtVo), 177 
p«'o>, 270, -177 
prjpa, 1 1 1 
ptfx(}>a, 177 
piVra>, 1 •'.<», 477 
pi<fy 

pl-pof. 

pvaput, 474 

<rm'ru>. 

:<xa, 461 
frnXncrcrojit'fiouru, 4<il 

vap&t 17(1 

(ra^fjy, 181 
<7f, 181 

473 

crcAof, 1<>1 
creXqn;, 4(il 
crft'a), 473 
<n;patVa>, I 
<WaXor, 222 
(nor, 473 
o-wiXXa), 387 

2«carrn7(n'X^, 114 
cncrjvT), 410 
crp*«cpov\ 1 °t> 



covfiai, 473 
(rrrcLKa, 1 1 1 1 
OTrXax»'oi>, 0^X171/. 
o-rrovfi^', 223 
aradiodpopfb), 437 
(rrevoxwpia, 280 
or/ptrv// 
(rropwpi, 223 
<rv, 133 

(TVI/, 181 
trvpiTyfi^r, 47.X 
avptov appa. 
<r<Pa\\o, 209 

<r<f>€T€pOS, 1 1 1 

<rtp>j£, 11_'. HI 
otpo'r, 14 1 
<r<p<il, 

aa>«c'cD. 44 7 

rapine, MS, 
rd*. I 

rr. 14.». 186, 195 

■ 

TtWfiTavTos, 220 

T*\os, 178. 

v, r*Xf»oa>. 

F 
rtptipios, 318 
rtppa, 1 " 1 
-Tfpot, affix. 

F 
r^Xt^, r^Xucor, 

T^pOS, 

rqriKCL, 196 

149. 156 
rex, rotyapt toikw, 198 



to»/, 132 

; rdpoy , roppos , 1 78 
1 Tooror , 

tovv, 133 

rpaipa, 1 78 

rp«Zf, 

rpiTroXtcrros. 

Tpim.fr, I 

rp^of. 

rpvw, 178 

i-vy^a***, 445 

i^f|«tlW, .".<»:• 

rupfrnrta, 318 . 

rvpfy, 318 

Cdo>p, 167, 228 

114, 340 

t-nVp, wro, 
vwtpcucraim. 
vwwot, 1 1 • » 
wnxpn-. 
tirrp<p«aXof. 
'Yppd&or, 282 

<pau«opi7p«f, 314 
<pau*», 460 
</ww, 199 

<Paprr t xi, • 
(paptrof, 199 
<pd<ryaiw, I 

<pi 199 
<P»7mA 209, 460 
<p&b*>, 447» 
<p«iXXa,, llo 
<poC<ra. p. 224, note 
4>pio $8 

<f>polfuoy, 1 
tppoifof, </>poiy 

<pl'(A), 



H. INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 



691 



tpvXao-crco, 176 
cpuXXov, 165 
(pvo, 133, 167 
<pavrj, 88, 110, 199 
<pcoy, 257 

XaLvco, 280 
Xaipco, 288, 445 
Xai/Sai/w, 280 
X aos, 280 
Xao'y, 322 
Xapa.KTT)p, 286 
X apa£, 286 
Xapao-crco, 286 
X^P lv f 278 
x dptr, 291 
Xapires, 291 
X<xpfir), 288 
Xaponos, x^P ^ 282 
XapvjSSty, 282 



Xapco^, 282 

XetXoff, 163, 280 

X«p, 162, 281 

X^poavy 262 

Xepas, 281 

X^ppas, 281 

X^pcroi, 281 

X«o, 163 

Xfco cpBoyyov, avddu, 469 

XW>oy, 287 

X&'s, 150 

X&Co'ff, 216 

XiXtot, x^os, 163 

x XaCo), 336 

xX^Soy, 336 

xXt^, 336 

XOipas, 281 

Xotpoy, 281 

X^pos, 280 

Xpat(r/icco, 284 



Xpao'/xat, 287 
Xpavco, 281 
Xp*"*, 284 
XPWipos, 284 
Xpip>7TTa>, 281 
XPoi'w-kXutos, 310 
X^pa* x^P os> > X°P° S » 229, 
280 

^aXtoi/, 221 
\jWXXco, 432, 436 
^e, 144 
^«/, 221 

coW, 473 
coXa£, 116 
J/^ioy, 116 
coy, 170 
coo-re, 197 
co tgj/, 133 



III. INDEX. 



MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS. 



Abstraction, 56 

ac and attjue, 104 

Acts of the Apostles, xvii. 

96; II 
Adelung(J. C), 3*i 
adoro, 47'.' 
<r^rer, arumna, -1 1 < ► 
Algebra 
•Jm*, Lift, 
aliquis,fjut /warn, 

199 

almus, alumnus, 969, 410 

Annakus, K6 

Anquetil du I 

Antecedent, indefinite, 300 

Arabic Alphabet, IM 

arcesso, &c, 882 

Architectural writing. 

Arnien 

Ariarnlfh I, 

Arnold, ( I>r T. ), 19, 806, 

nt, 

Art/a-. ir<ir' 

Ask en 

Association of ideas, 63 

auctuninn.y, AM 

Mf . 

Basque or Euskarian lan- 

Bchistun Inscription. 13,37, 
107, HO, 188, 140, IK 

844, 47;» 
Belooch, 61 

Benfwr(Di Thcodor). p. >•,;,;{ 
Bentley ( Dr K.). M, 11", 

p. 101 aq* 
Berkeley (BfashOf 
bes % 188 

Blacken (Dr), p. 402 

Blomheld (Bishop), his in- 
genious emendation of 

Ma- 



Boh en: 

Bopp(F.),89 

brutna, 150 

Buda?us(\V.), 24 

Buddhists, 84 

Burden (Cher. C. C. J.), 

l"'. 13 

Burnouf, E (96), J. I. 
Buttmann (P.), 40 

Carians and Cretan*, 98 
carmen, 410 
carnifer, 898 

; 

Chalybes, 98 
Cheke | - 
Chinese langua. 

Cicero, 194, 344 
clarus, gloria, 966, 987 

Colebrooke(H. T.), 86 
Coleridge (S.T.), 5,51,986 

M of tongues, 48 

consul. M6 

EMI (association by), 
53 

315 



Cratylus, Plato's, 60 
erepusculum, 160 

Curtius (M. George), p. 86 
pian walls, 488 

I intu, 99 
Deccan, 81 

Deduction and induction, 5 
Demonstrative used for rela- 
tive. 



Desdemona, 180 
Differential Calculus, 55 
Digamma, 110 
dodram, 1*1 
Dorse: 

dum-iarat, 999 
Dyer (Mr T.), p. 90 

Education, information, and 

knowledge, 2 
Egyptian letters, 188 
Egyptology, 37 
eja, p. 810, p. 996 

, 189 
Ellesrnere (Earl of), p. 89 
England, 76, p. Ill not* 
English language 
English scholarship, IB 
Escalus in Shakspere, 213 
Ufj, ]•• 

Ewald(H.). 100 



farrow and furrow, 

/■>... 898 



I I 



Galifle (Mr), p. 130 note 
Gamett (Rev. R), 17, 1H». 

129, 133, 148, 996 
pa s and ghost, 298 
Gelo and (tela, origin of 

their names, 489 
Genesis (Book of), 44-46, 

genteel and gnUU, 278 

wmmmm, H 
German Literature, 30 
Grt*. 

" and good, 4J3 
(. ;-.njf •-. 72 

Grammar-schools, 1, 83 
Greeks and German*, 99 



III. INDEX OF MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS. 



693 



Grimm (J.), 36, 118 
Guest (Mr E.), 118 
yuna, 106 
gypsy, 225 

Halhed (31r), 35 

Hamaker (Professor), 40 

Ha-milcar, &c, 479 

Hamilton (Sir W. R.), 55 

Hamites, 70 

Hebrew language, illustra- 
tions of, 100, 102, 116, 133, 
137, 148, 157, 184, 186, 
189, 193, 199, 208, 209, 
234, 296, 479 

Hengist and Horsa, 222 

Herminones, Hermunduri, 
&c, 76, 92 

Hercules, 'Hpa/cXrj?, 222 

Heyne(Prof), 29 

hie, 139 

Historical criticism, 13 

Homeric deities, 463 

humanitas, 4 

Humboldt (W. von), 42 

humerus, 116 

Hunter (Prof.), p. 256 note 

Hyacinthus, legend of, p. 
653 note 

I termination, 139 

Iconium, 66 

Ideas, (doctrine of), 58, 59 

idoneus, 116 

"if," 205 

igitur, 362 

tile, 166 

Imagination, p. 77 note 

immo, 191 

Ingcevones, 76 

iniquus, ingens, 185 

Indo- Germanic, 71 

indulgeo, 344 

inter, 204 

interficio, intereo, 382 

Iran, 80 

iri, 447 

Isc&vones, 76, p. 114 note 

Jackson (Dr Cyril), 192 
Jones (Sir W.), 35 

Kant (J.), 54 



Kemble (Mr J. M.), 37 
Kenrick(Rev. J.), 32 
King, and kingly titles, 337, 

479 
Klaproth, p. 360 note 

Language ( its regular 
changes), 50 

Latin participles, 295 

Layard (Mr), 37 

Leibnitz, 34, 56 

Lepsius (Dr R.), 13, 37, 
100, 153, 162 

Light and sound, 460 

Lithuanians, 77 

Lobeck (Professor), 38 

lobster, 212 

London University College, 
first nursery of compara- 
tive philology in England, 
37 ; merits of Dr Rosen, 
p. 45 note ; erroneous ety- 
mologies proposed b / 
other Professors, p. 210 
note ; p. 222 note ; p. 333 
note; p. 406 note ; p. 432 
note; p. 441 note 

longus, 344 

lord, lady, 338 

loup-yarou, 110, 315 

lubrican, 221 

Lucretius, 54 

Luna, 461 

Luther, 20, 21, 47 

Magog, 72 

malus, 185 

manifestus, 450 

Mannus, 76 

Marcomanni, 76 

•/ioT- = -fievT, 114, 133, 256 

Matthew (St) xvi. 18; 15 

Melicarthus, 479 

Mexico, 67 

Meyer (Dr K.), p. 139 note 

miles, 163 

MUller, K. O., 29 

murus, 178 

Names of objects, 44, 454 
Nero, 332 

Niebuhr (B. G.), 29 
Nod (land of), p. 101 note 



Nominalism, 18, 20, 56 
non, 188 

Norris(MrE.), 37, 104 
novem, 161 
numerus, 116 

ob, 172 

obambulo, 174 
obedio, 128, 222 
Occham (William), 19 
octavus, 164 
olim, 166 
opulentus, 152 
Ovid Fast. V. 21 ; 99 

page, 225 

pal&tiology, 12 

Pali, 84 

paries, pars, 178 

Paris and Priamus, 92 

Pelasgians, 95 

peregrinus, 178 

pereo, 382, 479 

Perception and Conception, 

51 
Personification of the powers 

of nature, p. 207 note 
Philology, 3 
Philistines, 95 
Phoenicians, 94 
Plato, 57, seqq. 
pons, 295 
pontifex, 295 
porca, porcus, 281 
Porson(R.),24, 31 
posco, 209 
posthac, quapropter, &c. 

240 
prehendo, 281 
Prichard(Dr J. C), 37 
Printing, invention of, 22, 

47 
Prolepsis, 300 
propitius, 284 
Prose, introduction of, 48 
pugna, 410 
Pygmies, 81 

quarrel, 225 
quick, 112 

quintus, not quinctus, 161 
quispiam, quivis, quisquam, 
199 



694 



III. INDEX OF MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS. 



Rabelais, 395 
Ramayana, p. 1 19 note 
Rawlinson (Major H. C.)» 

37 
Realism and Nominalism, 5, 

18 
Reason and Understanding, 

ft, ft] 
refert = reifert, 240 
re go, rex, &n 
Relative Sentence, 148, 300 

.. 4ftfl 
Roads, l •"»<•, 479 
Hmh i Dr),9ft 

rtii/o, 289 

Romanic- bogMgtti ]> ■ 7 I 

Rosen (Drl 

Russiai 

Saca . 

77 

i, 108, 399, 
199, I.V.. 
mate, 83 
Saxons, 7 I 

Behkgd A. \\\ von), 36 

Si-hleicrmarlur Dr F.), 29 

Bctam 

B 

. l. r )5 
. Ill 
ifaw, I 
toniu, lli>. 

b),81 



Space and Time, 54 
Spanish h, 111 
spinster 
sr/uire, 213 
Steinthal(Dr), p. 243 
sujjplei, HI 
tardus, 489 
Suwarrow, 225 

,84 

Syntax, 48 

Tacitus, German.. 

/ ,#,95 

templum, 287 

Testament (Old), f.l, 128 
Tcutamut t 92 

1"1 

Thirlwall. I * His- 

tory of Oreece, 81 

Thurin K Mans, 7«J. 92 

Tooke (MrJ. Home 

198 
Tower-builders, 45 

clcnbnr K '.(l>'.\ 
Triopian rites, 449 
Trouba< 

Tubalqain | 
Turanian, 89 

Ulphilas, 82 



Understanding, 51 
Unity of man, 43 

valeo, 
vapor, 458 
rW, 189 
Venus, 28ft 
vestibulum, 180 

Virgil, toorp. III. 1 1*: 174 

288 | 17" 

188 

- 
Vriddhi and Guna, 105 

Walls of picked stones, 455 
WansUck -tenter, 11 
t of vowels, IM 

457 

n (J.), (.-.«-. P. Paul. 
aS. Barthol.), 35 
Winning (Rev. J), 37 
\v*hewell(l> 

r. a. . -i 

■fc origin of, 48 

effects on language, 

48 

Xerxtt, 479 
)-. vi, 9J 
tai.89 



1111. I'M' 



ERRATA. 



PAGE 


MM 


226 


1 


291 


13 


301 


1 


... 


5 


485 


9 


498 


26 


514 


3 



for n read n 
13 for '</>e^€o-0ai read ecpe£e<r6ai 
for ireXoi read 7re\ots 
for encpopova-i read encpepovo-t 
for to) read tiZ 
after -7ra\aios add "and apeio^ 
for 'HpaKXns read 'RpaxXfis. 



WORKS 



BY 



THE REV. DR DONALDSON 



1. The Theatre of the Qinu Sixth Edition, revised 
and improved. 

2. FIinaai'ov iv 1.7.ii\ir.\\: Pindar's Epinician or Triumphal 
Odflt] t <>sitionfl. 

3. Vabeomiai ind Bktoriod Introduction to 

Um riiilolo^iral Study of the Latin Language. 

4. CoKtTEUOTIONU ( i 'i; v< f.pta : editio fl 

mi declinandi conjugandiyut ratio. 

5. The AnnooNi of Sopho< i i>. in Greek and English, with 

an Introduction IB 

ti. .Ksiimi Kt mi.mim ■ ad m&iHmm Dhidorfiamam pauim 



A Complete Greek Grammar for the Use of Learners. 



B, Maskil i.k-Sopher : the Principles and Processes of clas- 
sical Philology applied to the Analysis of the Hebrew Language. 

9. Pr^lbctio PtaLoi.oc.iCA, in 

Vftorw Cantiann Triumphal* 



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